Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Waste disposal in the ground Environmental aspects Victoria"

Anthropogenic geoecology was developed at the end of the 20th century, but continues to face challenges in an integrated methodological approach to assessing the pollution of territories with long-term consequences of natural resource extraction. The consequences of extraction and primary processing of natural raw materials are the lack of effective control over the territories once the ore mining is completed. In order to develop effective methods to control the development of hazardous natural and man-made processes in the areas of inactive waste disposal facilities, it is necessary to analyze a sufficiently large set of data, including the condition of ground and surface waters, soils, flora, the efficiency of waste disposal facilities protection from direct or indirect impact on the natural environment. Research on modeling the processes of transfer and accumulation of pollutants includes a general assessment of the direction of man-made flows and selection of vegetation for phytoremediation of territories along the boundaries of the facilities as well as the direction of pollutant migration. The impact of mining facilities (dumps, tailings reservoirs) is directly correlated with the time of their existence, the toxicity and the rate of transformation of the components contained, the economic efficiency of their further utilization or conservation. Thus, the methodological approach to the rehabilitation of environmentally disadvantageous areas in places where mining and primary processing of resources is completed requires integration of several techniques and methods to assess the existing environmental situation. It also includes the speed and direction of its evolvement, and the economic assessment of damage to the natural environment. The introduction of tested recovery techniques will prevent the expansion of territories with irreversible destruction of geosystems, which led to a complete loss of productivity of the reproducing resources.

Tailings are ground rock particles from which the valuable minerals or metals have been extracted. An historical overview on hard rock mines shows that since the 1930s, it has become current practice to pump the tailings into storage areas circumscribed by dykes made of the tailings themselves. However, numerous physical and chemical stability problems were observed mainly owing to the particular hydrogeotechnical and mineralogical properties of the tailings. Therefore, modifications to the conventional methods were proposed, but these were relatively costly, not always efficient, and sometimes difficult to implement. New management methods that improve the physical and (or) chemical stability have hence been developed to reduce environmental risks associated with tailings storage, namely, densified tailings, environmental desulphurization, covers built with tailings, and co-disposal of tailings and waste rock. Even if many aspects need to be optimized, these approaches can be considered today as interesting alternatives to conventional tailings management approaches.

Transportation sector due to increased pavement lengths is one of main sources of greenhouse gas emissions and energy consumption. With increased environmental awareness and focus on recycling, many studies used recycled material in pavement systems to implement the sustainability. The recycling of waste glass in pavement systems has attracted much interest worldwide due to increased disposal costs. As a pavement material, waste glass could be used as an aggregate substitute in Portland cement concrete, asphalt mixtures and base/sub-base courses. When finely ground, glass can also be used as supplementary cementitious material for substituting partial cement. This paper reviews the different uses of waste glass in pavement systems and the effect of the glass properties on the performance of pavement materials. This review compared the test results reported by different researchers and discusses limitations of using recycled glass in pavement systems along with potential applications. Further, many aspects of the local markets were found to be supportive of diverting recycled glass to concrete products, however, the cost of glass milling and the limited use of concrete products containing glass locally make such diversion uneconomical at the present time. The findings from this review study are expected to advance knowledge in recycling waste glass in pavement systems and offer an effective technique for diverting a large amount of waste glass from landfills.

Wildland fire can cause significant damage but is also a natural process that is key to the healthy functioning of many ecosystems worldwide. Primary fuels for a wildland fire are the dead foliage and small branches which accumulate as litter on the ground. A cone calorimeter was used to measure the various aspects of these fuels. A single sample of preignition gases from the live leaves of seven plant species were vacuum collected on quality filters and within super-chilled solvent mixtures. GC-TOFMS (1D) and GCxGC-TOFMS (2D) were used to characterize the “white” smoke emissions. The vegetation chemicals were separated into 4 categories: hydrocarbons (CH), oxygenated organics (CHO), unknown peaks (UNK), and organic non-metals (ONM). The multivariate paired Hotelling T2 test determined that the composition of the white smoke as described by the relative number of peaks in the four chemical groups differed significantly between 1D and 2D (Prob > F3,4 = 0.00004). In contrast, the relative peak area percentages in the four chemical groups did not differ between 1D and 2D (Prob > F3,4 = 0.1258). The Molecular Chemical Maps (MCMs) were used to identify chemical trends between the known and unknown chemicals in live oak and longleaf pine. Application of the 2D technique may provide more detailed information necessary to improve the numerical modeling of wildland fire behavior and emissions production.

Governments, organisations and individuals have recognised the need to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. To identify where savings can be made, and to monitor progress in reducing emissions, we need methodologies to quantify GHG emissions and sequestration. Through the Australian Government’s Carbon Farming Initiative (CFI) landholders may generate credits for reducing emissions and/or sequestering carbon (C). National GHG inventories for the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, and accounting under the Kyoto Protocol use a sectoral approach. For example, fuel use in agriculture is reported in the transport component of the energy sector; energy use in producing herbicide and fertiliser is included in the manufacturing section of the energy sector; sequestration in farm forestry is reported in the land use, land-use change and forestry sector, while emissions reported in the agriculture sector include methane (CH4) from ruminant livestock, nitrous oxide (N2O) from soils, and non-carbon dioxide (CO2) GHG from stubble and savannah burning. In contrast, project-level accounting for CFI includes land-use change, forestry and agricultural sector emissions, and significant direct inputs such as diesel and electricity. A C footprint calculation uses a life cycle approach, including all the emissions associated with an organisation, activity or product. The C footprint of a food product includes the upstream emissions from manufacturing fertiliser and other inputs, fuel use in farming operations, transport, processing and packaging, distribution to consumers, electricity use in refrigeration and food preparation, and waste disposal. Methods used to estimate emissions range from simple empirical emissions factors, to complex process-based models. Methods developed for inventory and emissions trading must balance the need for sufficient accuracy to give confidence to the market, with practical aspects such as ease and expense of data collection. Requirements for frequent on-ground monitoring and third party verification of soil C or livestock CH4 estimates, for example, may incur costs that would negate the financial benefit of credits earned, and could also generate additional GHG emissions. Research is required to develop practical on-farm measures of CH4 and N2O, and methods to quantify C in environmental plantings, agricultural soils and rangeland ecosystems, to improve models for estimation and prediction of GHG emissions, and enable baseline assessment. There is a need for whole-farm level estimation tools that accommodate regional and management differences in emissions and sequestration to support landholders in managing net emissions from their farming enterprises. These on-farm ‘bottom-up’ accounting tools must align with the ‘top-down’ national account. To facilitate assessment of C footprints for food and fibre products, Australia also needs a comprehensive life cycle inventory database. This paper reviews current methods and approaches used for quantifying GHG emissions for the land-based sectors in the context of emissions reporting, emissions trading and C footprinting, and proposes possible improvements. We emphasise that cost-effective yet credible GHG estimation methods are needed to encourage participation in voluntary offset schemes such as the CFI, and thereby achieve maximum mitigation in the land-based sector.

Thesis (MTech (Agriculture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2014.
In this study, laboratory and greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate the effects of utilization of land fill leachate for irrigation purposes on potted soil and Swiss chard, to provide more insight into effects of landfill leachates on the environment. Swiss chard was grown and irrigated with different concentrations of leachates in pot experiments. For several weeks, the experimental soil and Swiss chard leaves was analyzed to assess extent of change in different chemical compositions, post-irrigation. The leachate samples had a high electrical conductivity (mean = 383 mS cm-1) and high soluble salts content (mean values, Na = 714.5 mg/L, K= 56.8 mg/L, Ca = 133.7 mg/L, Mg = 68.8 mg/L, Cl = 983 mg/L); while the composition of heavy metals in these wastewater leachates were of low concentrations. The application of leachates in irrigation resulted in increased soil cation concentrations, particularly those of Na ions (increased sodicity). Similarly, an increase in electrical conductivity and pH were recorded in the soils after irrigation with leachates. The soil metal concentrations were low and there was no significant difference in soil heavy metal concentrations between the soils irrigated with leachate and those of the controls. The results also show significant (p <0.05) reduction (up to 50%) in Swiss chard growth with application of (100%, 50% and 25%) of leachate as source of irrigation water compared to the growth observed in leachate-free (control) irrigation systems. This reduction in growth was best attributed to the high cation content in plant tissue picked up from the soil which was high in cations as a result of leachate irrigation.

Porous plates delivered calcium chloride at a negative potential to the top of blocks of partially welded (20.1 x 20.1 x 66.6 cm) and densely welded (30.1 x 20.1 x 48.1 cm) tuff with discrete fractures. During infiltration, flux increased through the partially welded block's fracture as the applied suction was lowered to 2.3 cm. The wetting front advanced 66.6 cm in 239 days. Chloride concentration and temporal moments from five tracer tests with 0 to 5 cm of applied suction indicated that preferential fracture flow occurred. Displacement transducer data reflect a decrease in fracture aperture at several months prior to but not during tracer tests. Fracture transmissivities decreased an order of magnitude (6.4 x 10⁻⁹ to 4.2 x 10⁻¹⁰ M²/s) as the applied suction increased from 0 to 5 cm while the tensiometer data indicated a suction of about 20 cm of water within the fracture and matrix. Highest during infiltration to an initially dry block, inflow losses of 3 to 44 percent due to evaporation are the greatest source of error for the constant potential method used.

С точки зрения экологизации производственных процессов перед исследователями и промышленниками, перед муниципальными властями выдвигается необходимость обеспечить максимально возможную безвредность технологических процессов и полное использование всех отходов производства, а с точки зрения экономики возникает необходимость минимизации затрат предприятия, путем ведения его эффективной налоговой политики в области землепользования, а также разработки методов стимулирования к рациональному использованию земли. Целью магистерской диссертации является разработка модели налогового поведения промышленного предприятия при размещении отходов производства на земле. Анализ основывался на рассмотрении техногенной нагрузки на земли и почвы Свердловской области, а также изучении существующих методов и инструментов управления налоговой нагрузкой промышленного предприятия в части использования земель. В качестве источников информации использовались нормативно-правовые акты РФ, база публикаций Российского индекса научного цитирования, представленная на ресурсе Elibrary, статистические данные по исследуемой тематике, данные отчетности ФНС. В ходе написания магистерской диссертации была разработана и апробирована модель налогового поведения отходопроизводителя. Использование данной модели нацелено на снижение налоговой нагрузки отходообразующего предприятия в части использования земель путем оптимизации налоговых платежей, учитывая интересы налогоплательщика и экологическую обстановку в регионе. Предложен авторский подход к совершенствованию размера платы за пользование земельным ресурсом (налог на землю, арендная плата, нормативная цена земли), в основу которого положен принцип дифференциации ставок, что обусловит внедрение технологий утилизации в целях сокращения площади занимаемых земель. В результате апробации разработанной модели был выявлен вариант эффективного налогового поведения с максимально возможной экономической выгодой.
From the point of view of greening production processes, researchers and industrialists, municipal authorities are required to ensure the maximum possible harmlessness of technological processes and the full use of all production waste, and from an economic point of view, there is a need to minimize the costs of an enterprise by maintaining its effective land use tax policy, and the development of incentive methods for the rational use of land. The purpose of the master's thesis is to develop a model of the tax behavior of an industrial enterprise when disposing of production waste on the ground. The analysis was based on the consideration of the technogenic load on the land and soil of the Sverdlovsk region, as well as the study of the existing methods and tools for managing the tax burden of an industrial enterprise in terms of land use. The sources of information were the regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation, the database of publications of the Russian Science Citation Index, presented on the Elibrary resource, statistical data on the subject under study, and data from the FTS reporting.. In the course of writing the master's thesis, a model of tax evacuation behavior was developed and tested. The use of this model is aimed at reducing the tax burden of the waste- forming enterprise in terms of land use by optimizing tax payments, taking into account the interests of the taxpayer and the environmental situation in the region. An author's approach is proposed to improve the size of payment for the use of land (land tax, rent, normative price of land), which is based on the principle of differentiation of rates, which will lead to the introduction of recycling technologies in order to reduce the area of land occupied. As a result of testing the developed model, a variant of effective tax behavior with the greatest possible economic benefit was identified.

A high level of plant mortality on the Bisasar Road landfill, Durban, South Africa initiated an investigation into the primary causes of the mortalities and a search for potentially tolerant plant species. Field studies revealed that volunteer grass growth on cover soils was primarily limited by elevated soil C02, with high soil conductivity and low soil moisture possibly compounding the effect. Cynodon dactylon, the most abundant coloniser of the site appeared to be relatively sensitive to high soil CO2, whilst less common species such as Sporobolis cifricanus and Paspalum Paspoloides appeared to be less sensitive. Further research focused on the high mortality of trees planted on the landfill providing insight into the important variables limiting survival· and the relative differences in performance of 20 tree species. A more rigorous 14-month field experiment was designed and constructed, to assess the performance of 10 of the more promising tree species, the environmental conditions limiting tree growth and the benefit of a deeper layer of better quality topsoil. Some species, such as Barringtonia racemosa, performed relatively well in the field experiment, whilst other species such as Syzygium cordatum, and Harpephyllum caffrom experienced high mortalities and poor growth. The better quality topsoil layer provided little improvement in the performance of the stronger or the weaker species, however significant improvements were recorded for species with relatively intermediate performance. The composition of the soil atmosphere was shown to determine rooting depth. Species that performed better had deeper roots, possibly assisting them in utilising deeper soil moisture reserves. It was concluded that high soil CO2 and low soil O2 levels were the key variables responsible for poor tree survival and growth in this field experiment. A soil fumigation system was designed to provide more control of soil gas concentrations and to experimentally investigate differential species responses and the relative effects of soil CO2 and O2 on tree survival and growth. The apparatus fumigated, for a period of 140 days, the rhizosphere of 80 potted 'tolerant' (Barringtonia racemosa) and 'non tolerant' (Harpephyllum caffrum) trees with 4 treatments consisting of varying combinations of CO2 and 02. The difference in performance of Barringtonia racemosa and Harpephyllum caffrum in the experiment on the landfill was similar to that of the elevated CO2 low O2 fumigation treatment, supporting the premise that landfill gas was the key cause for poor performance of plants. Reduced stomatal conductance and resultant limitations on photosynthesis were found to be indicative of species sensitivity. Low O2 had an additive effect on the impact of elevated CO2 in Harpephyllum caffrum however, even with normal soil O2 levels, 25% soil CO2 had negative growth effects on this sensitive species. Maintenance of plant health and better performance of Barringtonia was attributed to a high inherent level of tissue porosity and aerenchyma. The research provided a greater understanding of the causes of poor vegetation growth and the possible mechanisms of species tolerance to landfill conditions.
Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

The deep row trenching of ventilated improved pit-latrine (VIP) and waste water treatment works (WWTW) sludge is a unique alternative cost effective land application method that will prevent odour and health problems and may permit higher application rates than surface application. The goal of this research is to assess the environmental consequences of employing deep row incorporation of VIP and WWTW sludge to forest plantation lands for the production of Eucalyptus dunnii. The objectives are to monitor, define and quantify the fluxes of nutrients (nitrate and phosphorus) from the buried sludge to the surrounding soils, groundwater and surface water. The WWTW study was conducted on a forestry plantation located near the Shafton Karkloof Falls, about 10 km from Howick in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The land for the research is owned by SAPPI, a timber plantation company. The trenching was done with stockpiled secondary sludge from Umgeni WWTW in Howick. VIP sludge trenching was done at the Umlazi E-ponds site in Durban owned by EThekwini Municipality. This site was formally used as a wastewater treatment plant sludge drying bed. The treatment works comprised three oxidation ponds and was operated until 1999, when it was decommissioned after a heavy flood, resulting in damage to the oxidation ponds. The sites were instrumented with wetting front detectors, piezometers and boreholes for collection and analysis of leachate from which were determined subsurface loss of nitrogen and phosphorus. Soil water status and groundwater levels were also monitored. Simulation of the process of water, nitrate and phosphorus transport was performed in order to aid the development of the sustainable management methodologies for land application and the trenching of VIP/WWTW sludge. The study focuses on the entrenched sludge to determine the concentration of pollutants, monitorchanges in concentration over time and to monitor the movement of solutes and any change taking place in the surrounding soil water and groundwater. The results contribute to the development of guidelines and protocols for VIP/WWTW sludge handling and trenching in South Africa. It was demonstrated that the nutrient migration processes can be approximated with the conceptual simplifications of the inputs to the model based on field evidence, soil survey data and applicable literature. In the study, it was found that high concentrations of nutrients were evident in the water infiltrating into and through the sludge in all trench types. The nitrate concentration median values in the trenches were 234mg/l and 36mg/l for SAPPI and Umlazi respectively, while the recorded median value for phosphorus was 1.0mg/l and 3.5mg/l for SAPPI and Umlazi respectively. However the effect of vertical seepage of nutrients, into the deep aquifer in fractured rock has not been observed in the deep borehole with the nitrate concentration median values at 5mg/l and 0.6mg/l for SAPPI and Umlazi respectively, while the phosphorus concentration median values were 0.03mg/l and 0.15mg/l for SAPPI and Umlazi sites respectively. The study revealed significant differences between the sandy alluvial site at Umlazi and the shale dolorite site at the SAPPI forests. Where an unsaturated zone below the entrenched sludge existed at the Umlazi site, nutrient transport was retarded, whereas in the shales of the SAPPI site, preferential delivery flowpaths transported high concentrations of nutrients rapidly from the entrenched sludge to the base of the hillslope. These mechanisms needed to be treated differently in the simulation exercise.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Rehabilitation of landfill sites is important for successful land utilization. Revegetation is one key element of the process since it can overcome aesthetic problems. The inimical challenges of landfill leachate and gas are largely responsible for the difficulties associated with the revegetation of completed sites. Many components of landfill leachate can be catabolized by microbial associations thereby reducing their impacts on the environment. The importance of research on interactions between pollutants, microorganisms and soil is its applicability in environmental risk assessment and impact studies of organic pollutants which enter the soil either accidentally or intentionally. The application of image analysis with microscopy techniques to landfill soil-pollution interactions provides a means to study surface microbiology directly and to investigate microbial cells under highly controlled conditions. This research focused on the development of a method to study the real time processes of attachment, establishment, growth and division of microbial cells/associations in site covering soils. Image analysis provides a powerful tool for differential quantification of microbial number, identification of morphotypes and their respective responses to microenvironment changes. This minimal disturbance technique of examining visually complex images utilizes the spatial distributions and metabolic sensitivities of microbial species. It was, therefore, used to examine hexanoic acid catabolizing species, both free-living and in a biofilm, with respect to obviating the threat of hexanoic acid to reclamation strategies. The three sources of inoculum (soil cover, soil from the landfill base liner and municipal refuse) were compared for their ability to provide associations which catabolized the substrate rapidly. During the enrichment programme the inocula were challenged with different concentrations of hexanoic acid, a common landfill intermediate. From the rates at which the substrate was catabolized conclusions were drawn on which concentration of hexanoate facilitated the fastest enrichment. The results of initial batch culture enrichments confirmed that the soil used contained microbial associations capable of catabolizing hexanoic acid at concentrations < 50mM, a key leachate component. Exposing the landfill top soil microorganisms to a progressive increase in hexanoic acid concentration ensured that catabolic populations developed which, in situ, should reduce the phytotoxic threat to plants subsequently grown on the landfill cover. The analysis of surface colonization was simplified by examining the initial growth on newly-exposed surfaces. The microbial associations generated complex images which were visually difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, the dimensional and morphological exclusions which were incorporated in the image analysis software permitted the quantification of selected components of the associations although morphology alone was inadequate to confirm identification. The effects of increasing the dilution rate and substrate concentration on the growth of surface-attached associations in Continuous Culture Microscopy Units (CCMUs) were examined. Of the five dilution rates examined the most extensive biofilm development (9.88 jum2) during the selected time period (72h) resulted at a dilution rate of 0.5h' (at 10mM hexanoic acid). The highest growth (608 microorganisms.field"1) was recorded in the presence of 50mM hexanoic acid (D = 0.5h"1). To ensure that the different morphotypes of the associations were able to multiply under the defined conditions a detailed investigation of the component morphotypes was made. Numerically, after 60h of open culture cultivation in the presence of 50mM hexanoic acid, rods were the predominant bacterial morphotypes (43.74 field'1) in the biofilms. Both rods and cocci were distributed throughout the CCMUs whereas the less numerous fungal hyphae (0.25 field'1) were concentrated near the effluent port. The specific growth rates of the surface-attached associations and the component morphotypes were determined by area (//m2) colonized and number of microorganisms.field"' and compared to aerobic planktonic landfill associations. From area determinations ( > 0.16 h'1) and the number of microorganisms.field"1 10mM hexanoic acid was found to support the highest specific growth rate ( > 0.05 h"1) of the surfaceattached association isolated from municipal refuse. With optical density determinations, the highest specific growth rate (0.01 h'1) was recorded with 25mM hexanoic acid. The surface-attached microbial associations component species determinations by area and number showed that the hyphae had the highest specific growth rate ( > 0.11 h"1). The surface-attached microbial association specific growth rate determinations from the discriminated phase (0.023 h'1), area colonized (0.023 h"1) and number of microorganisms (0.027 h"1) calculated from the results of the component species rather than the association should give more accurate results. The specific growth rate obtained differed depending on the method of determination. Any one of these may be the "correct" answer under the cultivation conditions. Depending on the state (thickness) of the association (free-living, monolayer or thick biofilm) the different monitoring methods may be employed to determine the growth. As a consequence of the results of this study, the kinetics of microbial colonization of surfaces in situ may be subjected to the same degree of mathematical analysis as the kinetics of homogeneous cultures. This type of analysis is needed if quantitative studies of microbial growth are to be extended to surfaces in various natural and artificial environments.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1998.

Municipal Solid Waste generation has become an inevitable consequence of lifestyles and daily living. However, the nature (quantity and quality) of this waste stream can vary and is largely dependent upon the manner in which waste production is managed, by both government and the public. The increasing practices of littering, dumping and burning of solid waste by households (and industries though not extensively dealt with in this study) in South Africa has led to the finding that municipal solid waste is being irresponsibly managed. In this regard, it becomes necessary to investigate the attitudes and behaviour of individuals and households toward solid waste practices, which further include mitigating measures such as reduction, reuse and recycling for the generation of solid waste. The role of the South African government in providing a refuse removal and safe disposal service to all citizens is suggestive of the responsible role of government to ensure that solid waste is being effectively managed by all sectors of society. The aims of this study in light of the above were to review the municipal solid waste policies and strategies of local government authorities in South Africa, highlighting the shortcomings and discrepancies that exist between legislative policies and actual management practices; which is also reflective of the attitudes and approaches to solid waste management by households. This was achieved by focusing on the case study of the Msunduzi Municipality and included investigations into socio-economic and cultural influences on solid waste disposal practices. The objectives of the study were achieved by means of a questionnaire survey that elicited specific responses from 650 sampled households in five suburbs of differing socio-economic status. A further analysis to identify the nature of household municipal solid waste for landfilling from three suburbs of differing socio-economic status was conducted by categorizing 25 tons of garbage at the New England Road Landfill Site, leading to inferences about consumer purchasing power and disposal practices. Further, key personnel in the Msunduzi Municipality’s waste management division were interviewed to ascertain the solid waste challenges faced at local municipal and national levels of government. The study revealed several significant findings of which the most important is that the implementation of South Africa’s national municipal solid waste legislation policies and strategies are inconsistent with local government practices and procedures; thus compromising equity, efficiency, effectiveness and the sustainability of municipal solid waste disposal. Factors contributing to this are shown to be inadequate management and service delivery. The research has shown that monitoring and control systems which purported to ensure environmental sustainability are lacking and inadequately address issues where the implementation of municipal solid waste regulations are in contravention with national solid waste policies. The outcomes of the questionnaire survey and the assessment of household municipal solid waste for landfilling reveal that socio-economic status and culture do in fact influence the nature of solid waste and the disposal methods used by residents. The receptiveness of households towards adopting suggested municipal solid waste disposal practices was also investigated. The non-compliance of residents with municipal solid waste legislation and policies points towards a lack of monitoring and control measures, thereby not providing for a sustained and adequate service delivery which is environmentally sound. The research further suggests that all sectors of the South African public and the government are inadequately informed in terms of aspects of municipal solid waste. This has led the researcher to recommend that further education and awareness campaigns and its role in environmental sustainability are needed so that a sharing of responsibility between government and the public can be effected to aid municipal solid waste management in the country. It is argued that the insight into the roles of socio-economic status and cultural influences over solid waste practices provide a platform from which municipal authorities can work to specifically address the problems associated with municipal solid waste at a community level. It is the task of the national government to ensure that South Africa’s municipal solid waste is being responsibly managed at the local municipal levels so that the health and safety of the environment and its citizens are suitably addressed, hence the focusing on solid waste legislation and national policies (which have been recognized internationally as being environmentally sound and sustainable) must be translated in terms that local municipalities can adopt, assuming that they have been sufficiently empowered in terms of both knowledge and adequate budgeting.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

This study investigated the establishment of vegetation cover planted in plug and seedling form in the closure phases of the Umlazi Landfill. It also investigated the various facets of the closure process of the Umlazi Landfill and the effect these have on the establishment and choice of vegetative cover, and the grass technology used to make the establishment of vegetation a success. The setting up of trials and the gathering of basic data were undertaken to assess the alternative vegetation options available to researchers. The cover provided by the grasses was assessed in the investigation. The capping of landfill sites is a relatively new approach and it is soon to become a mandatory requirement by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal) (DWAF, 1998). This systematic investigation used in the closure of the Umlazi Landfill, will provide a model for the capping of landfills in South Africa. Seeing that this was the first hazardous (H:h) landfill site in the country to be closed according to the Minimum Requirements for Waste Disposal (DWAF, 1998), every attempt was made to ensure that all aspects in the closure of the site met with the Minimum Requirements. The Minimum Requirements document mentions only briefly that the landfill must be vegetated with some grass type. Prior to 1994, capped landfill sites were usually planted with traditional grass seed mixes and these were not widely successful, as seen on many older landfills that have been partially or completely capped, and where vegetation cover is sparse. There is much literature in the developed countries on the closure of landfills (e.g., Erickson, During the site inspections in June 2001 and February 2002, it was noted that many species of alien plants had established themselves in the poor soil conditions. This made it even more important to find indigenous vegetation to vigorously establish itself that would prevent the establishment of alien invaders. Samples of grass species established on some part of the site were also taken for identification. The dominant grass was identified as Cynodon dactylon. In view of establishing a balanced vegetative cover on top of the Umlazi Landfill, Acacia karoo trees (in seedling form) were also planted. Three bunch grass species, Melinis nerviglumis, Melinis minutiflora and Hyparrhenia hirta, were tested to see if thatching grass could be grown on the site to generate a cash crop for local residents of Umlazi township. Preparation and planting of the capped areas took place in the latter part of 2003 and were completed in early 2004. Measurements and field data were recorded and statistically analysed. The trials revealed three key findings: Firstly, both creeping grasses studied, namely Cynodon dactylon var. “Sea Green” and Panicum natalense var. ”Natal Buffalo Grass” grew well on the site. Initially P. natalense grew faster but after a month, C. dactylon overtook it. At the end of the trial (six months, P. natalense provided a higher level of soil cover. However, C. dactylon grew more consistently over this period. Hence both species provided good growth and cover on this site. Secondly the three bunch grasses, Melinis nerviglumis, Melinis minutiflora and Hyparrhenia hirta, all grew well and had similar survival rates. Hence the potential for growing these grasses as a cash crop has potential. Thirdly, all the Acacia karoo trees survived, i.e., they achieved 100% survival. The average height increase and stem width was similar in all trials and growth was consistent over the six month growing period. Hence the tree species would be a good choice for planting on landfills in its ecologically suitable zones. It is therefore feasible to envisage the planting of a mixture of grasses under the cover of A. karoo trees, to provide a balanced mixture of indigenous grasses to cover a freshly capped landfill. Such a system should provide for stable growth of vegetation for many years.
Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008

Abstract The new German Radiation Protection Ordinance contains for the first time a systematic framework of regulations protecting workers and the public against radiation exposures from residues of industrial and mining processes containing enhanced levels of naturally occurring radionuclides (TENORM). These regulations will satisfy the requirements of the European Council Directive 96/29/EURATOM and serve as a common basis for the radiation protection activities of the German states in this field. The consideration of exposures from materials containing naturally occurring radionuclides gains on this basis an increased level of significance within the German radiation protection efforts. The overall goal of the new regulations is to keep the additional effective dose for the population from the recycling and disposal of TENORM below 1 mSv/a. In order to achieve this objective, companies in which such residues arise have to carry out representative measurements of activity concentrations in these materials. If exemption levels defined in the new regulations are exceeded, restrictions on the recycling and disposal come into effect. These exemption levels are nuclide specific and distinguish between material types and different recycling and disposal options. This specific definition of exemption criteria serves the goal to minimise the number of companies and the amount of residues affected by the new regulations to the extent possible, focussing the efforts of operators and regulators to those materials having the potential to actually cause radiation exposure problems. The specific exemption criteria were derived on the basis of an analysis of typical amounts and activity concentrations of industrial and mining residues with enhanced radioactivity contents in Germany. In a second step, practically applied options for the recycling and disposal of these materials were investigated. On this basis, generic scenarios for the radiation exposure of the workforce and the public were defined and doses were estimated. All relevant pathways including possible long term effects (ground water) were considered in these analyses. Based on the 1 mSv/a criterion, a catalogue of relevant materials, potentially requiring radiation protection measures, was developed. For these materials the practically applied recycling or disposal options were grouped into categories, for which specific exemption levels were derived. The derivation of these criteria was based on realistic estimates of radiation exposure, for example taking into account the dilution of the residues with other materials in technological processes or during the disposal in landfills. The residues subject to the new regulations mostly arise in large quantities over extended periods of time. This leads to significant variations of radionuclide concentrations depending on feed materials and process parameters. To carry out representative measurements without the necessity of taking a too large number of samples, therefore, requires an adequate measurement strategy. Particular aspects to be considered are uncertainties of the measurements themselves and the heterogeneity of the residues. In addition, the measurement strategy has to be compatible with diverse situations in the different industries affected. The framework developed for designing individual strategies for the various industries and types of residues satisfies these requirements and can also provide guidance for measurement campaigns in other areas. The paper outlines the general situation with regard to TENORM in Germany. The main streams of residues and options for their recycling or disposal are described. On this basis, scenarios used for the radiological evaluation are defined and examples for resulting radiation exposures are given. The exemption levels derived from this analysis are discussed. Finally, the framework for the design and implementation of an adequate measurement strategy is outlined.