Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Territories defense"

AbstractWe experimentally reduced the number of flowers of two species of Heliconia (H. caribaea and H. bihai) by 50% on territories defended by male Purple-throated Caribs (Eulampis jugularis). Following reductions, males decreased the amount of time they spent feeding on their territories and lost a significant amount of weight, but increased their time feeding and regained weight to premanipulation levels following restoration of flower abundance. Territorial males also spent less time in defense following flower reductions, in part by reducing the durations of chases of female intruders. Significantly fewer females intruded onto male territories following reductions in only 1 of 3 years; in all 3 years, significantly more females intruded onto the more rewarding H. caribaea territories, which offered a greater number of flowers per inflorescence than H. bihai territories.Efectos de la Disminución de la Cantidad de Alimento sobre el Comportamiento Territorial de Eulampis jugularisResumen. Disminuimos experimentalmente en un 50% el número de flores de dos especies de Heliconia (H. caribaea y H. bihai) en territorios defendidos por machos de la especie Eulampis jugularis. Después de las disminuciones, los machos redujeron la cantidad de tiempo que pasaron alimentándose en sus territorios y perdieron una cantidad considerable de peso, pero aumentaron el tiempo de alimentación y recobraron su peso hasta los niveles de premanipulación una vez que se restauraron los niveles de abundancia de flores. Los machos territoriales también invirtieron menos tiempo en defensa luego de las reducciones en la cantidad de flores, en parte reduciendo la duración de las persecuciones a hembras intrusas. Significativamente menos hembras irrumpieron en los territorios de los machos tras las disminuciones en sólo uno de tres años; en los tres años, significativamente más hembras irrumpieron en los territorios con H. caribaea, los cuales ofrecieron un mayor número de flores por inflorescencia que los territorios con H. bihai.

Many temperate zone breeding birds spend their non-breeding period in the tropics where they defend individual territories. Unlike tropical birds that use song for breeding and non-breeding territorial defense, vocal defense differs strikingly between breeding and non-breeding territories in migrants. Song, restricted to males, is used during defense of breeding territories but callnotes are used to defend non-breeding territories. To explain why callnotes and not songs predominate in the non-breeding context, we present an empirical model based upon predictions from motivational/structural rules, ranging theory and latitudinal differences in extra-pair mating systems. Due to sex role divergence during breeding that favors singing in males, but not females, females may be unable to range male song. Ranging requires a signal to be in both the sender and receiver’s repertoire to allow the distance between them to be assessed (ranged). Non-breeding territories of migrants are defended by both males and females as exclusive individual (androgynous) territories. Ranging Theory predicts callnotes, being shared by both males and females can, in turn, be ranged by both so are effective in androgynous territoriality. Where songs are used for non-breeding territorial defense both sexes sing, supporting the evolutionary significance of shared vocalizations in androgynous territorial defense.

Experience of foreign countries demonstrates that approaches to the organization of territorial defense are based on theoretical foundations of state regulation. In the US, emphasis is placed on improving the Department of Defense’s contractual regulation of public good contentment with an actual product or service acquired by the government or the procurement process itself, with a prominent role for the private sector, to which the powers of the state (legal, economic, and public territorial defense state regulation mechanisms) are delegated. In the UK, emphasis is placed оn the territorial defense of overseas (remote) territories as important zones that require defense responsibility in terms of ensuring the security of the nation and its overseas territories, protecting their citizens and their way of life, which are the duties of the government (economic and social territorial defense state regulation mechanisms). The territorial defense of France depends on state jurisdiction and know-how, and the idea of «a spirit of protection» that is developed from school age (social, legal, information, public territorial defense state regulation mechanisms). The concept and system of territorial defense, based on military service and aimed at increasing the combat readiness of the mobilization forces, by which the government identifies potential candidates for professional armed forces in Finland (territorial defense state regulation mechanisms: political, organizational, legal, information, public, economic). For China, territorial defense is the protection of the homeland for which the frontier forces of public security (legal, social and organizational territorial defense state regulation mechanisms) have been created. Polish territorial defense is based on training, equipment, cooperation and interaction of territorial defense forces with third parties (legal, social, organizational, cultural, economic, informational, educational and propaganda territorial defense state regulation mechanisms). Implementation of the territorial defense state regulation mechanisms of foreign countries provides an opportunity to develop proposals for improvement of territorial defense state regulation mechanisms as a component of defense reform.

White-eared Hummingbird (Hylocharis leucotis) territorial behavior is affected by energy availability. – Territoriality is a costly-foraging strategy. As a result, territorial animals must ensure that the energy within their territories is sufficient to support the costs of its defense. Hummingbirds are territorial and depend on nectar-containing flowers as their main energy source. In this study, we hypothesized that White-eared hummingbirds (Hylocharis leucotis), depending on the amount of energy (nectar) available in the environment, modify four aspects of their behavior (i.e., time spent for perching, foraging, and actively and passively defending territory), as well as territory size and response to intrusions into their territory. We monitored 30 individual territories during the winter flowering season at El Chico National Park, Mexico, and did not detect a significant effect of the energy available on time spent for perching or foraging, respectively. However, White-eared hummingbirds invested significantly more time in active and passive defense when the intrusion pressure was higher, and successful intrusions increased when the territories were bigger. Moreover, although territory size increased or decreased, a similar amount of energy therein was maintained throughout the duration of the study. Our results indicate that in this hummingbird species energy availability determines the size of their territories and the time spent on its defense.

Awajun, Wampis, and other Amazonian indigenous peoples in Peru have acquired title to the collective property of their native communities as a legal strategy for the defense of their ancestral territory. This strategy, however, has failed to stop the expansion of extractive industries and the degradation of their livelihoods. In response, indigenous peoples in the northern Amazon are proposing the legal recognition of their “integral territory” under a politics of buen vivir. This new model for territorial governance is aimed at transforming indigenous peoples from ethnic communities with property entitlements to nations with territorial rights. Los awajun, wampis y otros pueblos indígenas amazónicos en Perú han adquirido el título de propiedad colectiva de sus comunidades nativas como estrategia legal para la defensa de su territorio ancestral. Esta estrategia, sin embargo, no ha logrado detener la expansión de las industrias extractivas y la degradación de sus medios de vida. En respuesta, los pueblos indígenas del norte de la Amazonía proponen el reconocimiento legal de su “territorio integral” bajo una política de buen vivir. Este nuevo modelo de gobierno territorial tiene por objeto transformar a los pueblos indígenas de comunidades étnicas con derechos de propiedad a naciones con derechos territoriales.

This study aims to analyze radicalism impact toward national defense. The method used is descriptive qualitative, data collection techniques such as observation, interviews, documentation, and literature. Processing of research data according Miles and Huberman. The results showed that implementation of the Territorial Development by District Military Command 0621 Bogor Regency through territorial management of Planning and Control Systems Development of Territories & Management of Territorial Development were able to map the potential and vulnerability of the area ie geography areas, demographic and social conditions so that development of radicalism could be prevented

AbstractThe green frog, Rana clamitans, exhibits a resource defense mating strategy whereby males advertise for mates and defend territories along the shoreline of breeding ponds for periods up to several weeks. Because male green frogs may be energy-limited during the breeding season, I tested the predictions that males provided with extra food would 1) have longer tenures on territories, 2) show reduced movement between territories (due to greater site specificity), and 3) expend more energy in calling and territory defense. I tested these predictions by supplementally feeding frogs and by conducting regular surveys of frog location and behavior over the course of the breeding season in a fenced-in pond. My results support the second prediction but do not support the first and third predictions. Supplementally-fed male green frogs moved less than half the distance of sham-fed males. Green frog males reduce foraging but do not increase activities associated with aggression and territorial defense when food resources are more abundant.

Indonesian territories were under Japanese occupation from 1943 until 1945, during that time, the Japanese forces were built numbers of defenses building and fort around strategic and important areas in Indonesia, one of them is in Pananjung Natural Reserve in Pangandaran, West Java. This paper will discuss the defense system and the design of these defenses buildings at the area through exploration and description of the buildings. Pananjung defense system has concentric design with the first line of defense located at the bottom of the hill and gradually going up to the top. Each of this defense system had clear view of one and another so they have an overlapping kill zone to work together. The design of the defense buildings also incorporated local resources to make an efficient defense.

The collective actions of indigenous women for territorial defense against extractivisms, have made the bodies-territories, knowledges and emotions visible, which implies a political position that responds to diverse ontologies and epistemologies around being and feeling with and in the territory. Bodies-territories that imply relationships embedded and embodied in collective processes among humans and non-humans and relationships of reciprocity and mutual spiritual affectation and networks. They are collectivities in «acuerpamiento» that arise from indigenous feminisms and act against environmental and territorial injustices, and against violence such as femicides, ecocides and epistemicides. Indigenous feminisms contribute to the conceptual and methodological rethinking in social sciences of the political, the spatial and the collective, based on their fluidity and relationality, which seek to transform capitalism based on the defense of life.

Abstract We studied the intraspecific territorial defense behavior of wintering Willow Flycatchers (Empidonax traillii) in Costa Rica using a randomized playback experiment that exposed male and female birds to recordings of Willow Flycatcher songs and calls, Lesser Ground Cuckoo (Morococcyx erythropygius) vocalizations, and random noise. Flycatchers of both sexes responded most strongly to simulated conspecific territory intrusion, and the agonistic behaviors that we observed were similar to those seen during natural intraspecific encounters in winter. Both males and females engaged in song and aggressive behaviors in defense of territories, and there was no significant difference between the sexes in scored agonistic responses. The similarity between the sexes in intraspecific territorial defense behaviors and aggressiveness may account for both sexes of flycatchers using the same habitats at our study sites in Costa Rica, and wintering females defending territories against males. The Willow Flycatcher, a sexually monomorphic species, differs in this way from a number of sexually dimorphic passerines, in which behaviorally dominant males occur in more optimal winter habitats.

Orientador: Woodruff Whitman Benson
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Biologia
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Resumo: Brigas territoriais entre machos de insetos voadores são resolvidas das mais variadas formas. Em borboletas, existem evidencias de que tamanho, idade e motivação são importantes determinantes das chances de vitória. No entanto, as regras utilizadas nas brigas, o contexto biológico que afeta a intensidade dos comportamentos agonisticos e o papel funcional das características dos machos na geração de custos durante os confrontos ainda são pouco conhecidos. Neste trabalho investiguei uma serie de características que podem influenciar os custos e benefícios dos confrontos territoriais utilizando as espécies de satirineos Hermeuptychia hermes (Fabricius, 1775), Moneuptychia soter (Buttler, 1877) e Paryphthimoides phronius (Buttler, 1867) como modelos de estudo. No capitulo 1 investiguei se as disputas intra-especificas pela posse de territórios em machos de H. hermes e de M. soter ocorrem com contato físico e quais podem ser as características funcionalmente relevantes para a distinção entre machos territoriais e não territoriais. Para tanto, documentei as brigas entre machos utilizando filmagens de alta velocidade e realizei comparações morfológicas e fisiológicas entre machos possuidores de territórios (residentes) e machos que ocuparam territórios nos quais os residentes originais foram removidos (intrusos). Machos residentes de H. hermes apresentaram massa corporal e muscular similares as dos seus pares intrusos, porem, possuíram menor desgaste alar e maior quantidade de lipídeos. Machos residentes de M. soter, por outro lado, foram mais pesados que os machos intrusos que ocuparam seus territórios. Machos de H. hermes podem dividir a interação em vôos circulares, espirais ascendentes e perseguições lineares, enquanto machos de M. soter usam vôos circulares mais lentos, os quais são seguidos por perseguições lineares e emissões de som (estalos). Contatos físicos não foram registrados para nenhuma espécie. No capitulo 2 investiguei o papel da residência previa na resolução de conflitos territoriais entre machos de H. hermes. Ao induzir disputas entre dois machos que se comportaram como residentes (um residente original e um residente induzido) e compara-las com disputas naturais entre machos residentes e intrusos, foi possível demonstrar que a residência previa aumenta as chances de vitória em um combate. Massa corporal afetou positivamente as chances de vitória nas brigas induzidas, mas não nas brigas naturais. Finalmente no capitulo 3, investiguei a influencia da presença de recursos alimentares no estabelecimento de territórios de acasalamento por machos de P. phronius. Machos desta espécie defendem sítios de acasalamento localizados em manchas de sol sem recursos evidentes. No entanto, manchas de sol previamente desocupadas passaram a ser defendidas depois de receberem frutas fermentadas. Apesar de machos que se estabeleceram nestes locais aparentemente se alimentarem das frutas, experimentos de escolha de territórios sugerem que eles preferem defender sítios sem recursos e utilizam a defesa de áreas com alimento como tática alternativa de acasalamento. Este estudo representa a primeira investigação deste tipo de variação nas táticas de acasalamento em borboletas. Alem de auxiliar a compreensão da evolução de determinados sistemas de localização de parceiros, esse sistema permite testar qual a implicação da existência de mais de uma tática reprodutiva na intensidade dos confrontos territoriais entre machos
Abstract: Territorial conflicts in flying insects may be resolved through many different ways. In male butterflies, size, age and motivation are often reported as important determinants of the winning chances. However, the rules used when fighting, the biological context that affects the intensity of agonistic behaviors, and the functional role of male traits in the contests costs generation are poorly known. In this study I investigated a series of characteristics that may influence the costs and benefits of territorial conflicts using the satyrine species Hermeuptychia hermes (Fabricius, 1775), Moneuptychia soter (Buttler, 1877), and Paryphthimoides phronius (Buttler, 1867) as study organisms. In chapter 1, I used high-speed video imagery to investigate whether intraspecific disputes between male H. hermes and male M. soter occur with physical contact. Additionally, I removed resident males from their defended sites and the subsequent intruders that established on those areas after the resident removal to assess if wing wear, body mass, fat content and flight muscle ratio are important determinants of male residency status. Resident males of H. hermes were similar in body weight and thoracic muscle mass to their intruder rivals, but had fewer wing wear and higher fat content. Resident males of M. soter, on the other hand, were heavier than intruder males. Male H. hermes divided their interaction in up to three phases consisting of circular flights, ascending spirals and back and forth persecutions, whereas male M. soter used much slower circular flights that were often followed by linear persecutions and clicking sound emissions. Physical contacts were not observed for both species. In chapter 2, I investigated the role of previous residence on contest resolution in the butterfly H. hermes. By inducing territorial interactions between males that behaved as residents (one original resident and another resident-induced one) and comparing them with natural contests between resident and intruder males, it was possible to show that previous residence increases the chances of victory. Body mass positively affected the winning chances in the induced fights, but was unimportant among the natural ones. Finally in chapter 3, I investigated the role of feeding resources in the territory establishment by males of the butterfly P. phronius. Male of this species typically defend sunny clearings on the forest edge which do not contain any evident resource. However, previously undefended sunny clearings were occupied by territorial males after receiving soft fermenting fruit. Although males which established on sites containing feeding resources seem to forage on the fermenting fruit, territory selection experiments shows that males prefer to defend sites without resources. This type of variation in the mate locating tactics has never been previously investigated for butterflies. In addition of helping the understanding of the evolutionary processes leading to different mate-locating strategies, this system allows the testing of the influence of different reproductive behaviors on the intensity of territorial conflicts between males
Doutorado
Doutor em Ecologia

Este artículo se propone la comprensión de los cambios en lac omunidad de Catac como resultado de la acción colectiva ante los desafíos del contexto que se configuran como oportunidades y restricciones, y frente a las exigencias internas que se expresan como demandas de los grupos de interés o facciones que conforman la comunidad. En una comunidad heterogénea como Catac, la acción colectiva no es algo que se da por supuesto sino una acción deliberada; sin embargo, tiende a ser frágil y generalmente se rompe ante las presiones externas y las relaciones de poder definidas en términos de facciones al interior de la comunidad.
This article proposes a comprehension of social changes in the peasant community of Catac as results of collective action in a context where challenges present themselves as political opportunities and social contentions as well as internal demands of interest groups or factions. In an heterogeneous community as Catac, collective action is not something that is taken for granted but it is deliberately created and constituted. However, it tends to be fragile and usually breaks because of outside pressures and the power relations defined as relations among factions that exist in community.

The oil-rich northern districts of Iraq were long considered a reflection of the country with a diversity of ethnic and religious groups; Arabs, Turkmen, Kurds, Assyrians, and Yezidi, living together and portraying Iraq’s demographic makeup. However, the Ba’ath party’s brutal policy of Arabisation in the twentieth century created a false demographic and instigated the escalation of identity politics. Consequently, the region is currently highly contested with the disputed territories consisting of 15 districts stretching across four northern governorates and curving from the Syrian to Iranian borders. The official contest over the regions administration has resulted in a tug-of-war between Baghdad and Erbil that has frequently stalled the Iraqi political system. Subsequently, across the region, minority groups have been pulled into a clash over demographic composition as each disputed districts faces ethnically defined claims. The ethnic basis to territorial claims has amplified the discourse over linguistic presence, cultural representation and minority rights; and the insecure environment, in which sectarian based attacks are frequent, has elevated debates over territorial representation to the height of ethnic survival issues. The existing literature and research on the region focuses heavily on the governance outcomes and little has been written about the impact of heightened identity politics on the everyday lives of citizens. It is in this respect that the thesis examines the evolution of the education system post 2003. Drawing on over 50 interviews with regional education officials and community representatives, the thesis presents the impact of amplified ethno-politics on the reconstruction of education in Iraq. The research provides the first academic exploration into education in the region, exploring the significance of cultural reproduction and the link between demands for ethnically specific education, societal security and the wider political contestation over the territory.

El espacio o zona personal es la distancia que separa a dos personas en un acto social, es aquello que se considera propio como el pensar, cosas materiales y el cuerpo; desde la teoría de la paz o equilibrio (Valdez Medina, 2009) se le conoce como territorio personal. Valdez Medina (2015), menciona que el territorio personal está contemplado por el cuerpo, lo que se considera me pertenece y los pensamientos. El estudio del territorio personal es muy importante en la psicología dado que el grado de distancia o alejamiento e incluso la reacción que genere cierta invasión al mismo; tiene relación con la edad, el sexo y la cultura de los individuos. Son pocos los estudios que se han hecho que intentan analizar las diferencias entre hombres y mujeres respecto al territorio personal, de ahí surge el objetivo de la presente investigación que fue describir y comparar las reacciones, que tienen hombres y mujeres con respecto a la percepción de la invasión a su territorio personal. Para lograr esto se aplicó un cuestionario que consta de cinco preguntas abiertas en las que se plantea una situación de invasión al territorio personal a 200 jóvenes de los cuales 100 fueron hombres y 100 mujeres, en un rango de edad de 18 a 25 años, siendo estudiantes de una universidad pública del estado de México. Para los resultados se realizó un análisis de contenido validado por juicio de análisis de expertos con un grado de acuerdo mayor a 85%, donde se obtuvieron surgieron cuatro categorías para la primera pregunta surgieron cuatro categorías: reacción emocional negativa, reacción asertiva, reacción no asertiva y reacción agresiva. “si alguien se atreve a tocar alguna parte de mi cuerpo y lo hace de una forma que no me parece ni me agrada yo regularmente me... Y ante ello yo...” Para la segunda pregunta “si alguien se atreve a tomar algo mío sin permiso, yo regularmente me...Y ante ello yo...” Las categorías conformadas fueron: no asertiva, asertividad, agresividad, pasividad y emociones negativas. En la tercera la pregunta “si alguien se atreve a robarme algo que me pertenece yo regularmente me... y ante ello yo...” se obtuvieron tres categorías: acciones y/o emociones negativas, agresiones y acciones y/o emociones positivas. En la cuarta la pregunta “si alguien va en contra de mis creencias, convicciones, opiniones o expectativas yo regularmente... y ante ello yo...” surgen tres categorías: actitud positiva, actitud negativa y actitud pasiva. Y en la quinta pregunta “si alguien intenta o quiere quitarme algo que considero me pertenece yo regularmente me… y ante ello yo…” las categorías adquiridas fueron: enfrentar la situación, reacción emocional, acción positiva y acción negativa. Las distintas categorías para cada pregunta permitieron la clasificación de las reacciones de cada participante. Respecto de las diferencias por sexo, se encontró que las mujeres suelen reaccionar sintiéndose incómodas, se preocupan por las relaciones sociales, muestran más agresión verbal y se observó que tienen reacciones más emocionales; en comparación con los hombres quien suelen reaccionar con agresión física, no sabiendo qué hacer ante una invasión de su territorio y huyendo de las situaciones para evitar ser invadidos. Una limitación de la presente investigación es el tipo de estudio, ya que se requiere considerar la posible relación con otras variables como la asertividad al igual que la ansiedad para verificar si la forma de expresar las opiniones personales se asocian con la defensa del territorio personal.

Depuis leur création en 1888, les Alpins constituent une subdivision d’arme à part au sein de l’armée de terre française. Territorialement très marquées, ces unités ont pour mission originelle et spécifique de défendre la frontière alpine. En 1962, après deux guerres mondiales et deux guerres de décolonisation, la France entre dans une nouvelle ère. Face à l’évolution de la menace, le pays opte pour la nucléarisation de son armée. Dans ce contexte de guerre froide, les troupes alpines ne sont plus que des « troupes du territoire ». Elles se marginalisent et peinent à trouver leur place aussi bien dans le nouveau dispositif de sécurité et de défense nationale qu’au sein des territoires alpins en pleine mutation. Pourtant, en 1983, à la surprise générale, la 27e Division Alpine s’intègre dans la Force d’Action Rapide et participe à sa première opération extérieure. Cette OPEX au Liban marque le début d’une renaissance pour les Alpins. Le déploiement des soldats de montagne en Yougoslavie au cours des années 1990 puis en Afghanistan au cours des années 2000 assoit la légitimité opérationnelle des Alpins. Au XXIe siècle, l’armée des Alpes désormais professionnelle, occupe une nouvelle place dans les territoires de montagne et joue un rôle nouveau auprès des sociétés alpines. En effet, le combat de légitimation, de reconnaissance et de rayonnement de la « spécificité montagne » des troupes alpines ne se gagne pas seulement sur les champs de batailles. La quête de traditions nouvelles pour refonder une identité militaire et montagnarde, l’organisation de diverses cérémonies dans l’espace public, la construction d’un patrimoine commun sont autant d’armes aux mains du commandement de la 27e Brigade d’Infanterie de Montagne pour continuer d’exister malgré la « réforme perpétuelle » de la Défense française. La 27e Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne reste aujourd’hui dépositaire des traditions des Alpins d’autrefois. La 27e BIM reste la brigade d’urgence de montagne de l’armée de Terre. De par ses capacités opérationnelles reconnues, la « 27 » met en œuvre des savoir-faire spécifiques sur les théâtres les plus divers, à l’intérieur ou à l’extérieur du territoire national
Since their creation in 1888, the Alpins form a separate subdivision within the French Army. The primary and specific mission of these territorially very marked units is to defend the Alpine border. In 1962, after two world wars and two decolonization wars, France enters a new era. In response to the threat, the nuclearization of the army is decided by the country. In this context of cold war, the Alpines units are merely territory troops. They become marginalized and hardly find a place as well in the new safety and national defence features as within the Alpins territories which are undergoing profoundchange. However, in 1983, to widespread surprise, the 27e Division Alpine joins the Force d’Action Rapide and takes part in its first external operation. This OPEX (EXternal OPeration) in Lebanon marks a beginning of rebirth for the Alpins. Their operational legitimacy was established by the deployment of mountain soldiers in Yugoslavia in the 1990s and then in Afghanistan in the 2000s. In the XXIth century, the henceforth professional army of the Alps occupies a novel place in the mountain territories and plays a new role to the Alpin societies. Indeed, the struggle for legitimation, appreciation and influence of the “mountain specificity” of the Alpin troops is not to be won on the battlefields only. The search for new traditions in an attempt to rebuild a mountain military identity,the organisation of various ceremonies in the public space, the reconstruction of a common heritage are all weapons in the hands of the 27e Brigade d’Infanterie de Montagne command for the purpose of continuing to exist in spite of the “perpetual reform” of the “Défense française”. The 27e Brigade d'Infanterie de Montagne remains guardian of the traditions of the former Alpins. The 27e BIM stays the emergency brigade of the French land army. Due to its acknowledged operational capabilities, it implements its specific expertise in various theatres, within the national territory or outside

This thesis examines how scent marking in Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) functions in territorial defence. Beavers usually deposit scent (castoreum and/or anal gland secretion (AGS)) onto small piles of mud and debris, and all age classes and both sexes participate in marking. I hypothesized that scent marking plays an important role in territory defence of free-ranging Eurasian beavers and investigated the following issues. (1) Which factors affect scent-marking behaviour? (2) How are scent marks distributed temporally and spatially during an annual cycle? (3) Is castoreum and/or AGS used in territorial defence? (4) How does this species respond to simulated territorial intruders? (5) Can the Eurasian beaver discriminate between scent from neighbours and strangers, and between scent from its own species and that of the North American beaver (C. canadensis)?

I show that scent marking plays a significant indirect role in territorial defence by the Eurasian beaver. The number of scent marks was density dependent. Beavers with many close neighbours (highly challenged) may need to scent mark more often to be unambiguously recognised as territory owners. However, high-density sites may also be of better quality, providing territory holders with more energy to spend in defence and more reasons to defend. There was a significant positive correlation between the number of scent marks and both the duration of territory occupancy and length of wooded banks. Therefore, residents appear to invest more in scent marking in good quality territories, and when a territory has been occupied for a relatively long time. Theoretically, the greater potential value of the territory for residents, in contrast to intruders, makes it worth fighting harder for.

Territories were scent marked significantly more often in spring when dispersal of 2- years-olds normally occurs and scent marks were concentrated near territorial borders, apparently to maximize the signal effect to potential trespassers on or before entering the territory. Significantly more scent marks were constructed upstream than downstream of the lodge, probably because the movement of dispersing individuals is predominantly downstream. These results support the border maintenance hypothesis.

From January through March castoreum was almost exclusively deposited on scent marks and appears therefore to be the main scent signal used in the defence of Eurasian beaver territories. AGS was rarely deposited and appears to have another function.

Eurasian beaver showed territorial behaviour when an "intruder", in the form of artificially-constructed experimental scent mounds (ESMs containing castoreum from alien adult males, was placed inside the territory. They destroyed the ESMs and overmarked with their own scent in 80% of the trials. Countermarking appears to have been an attempt to mask the odour of alien adult male conspecifics with their own odours. This result therefore gives some support to the scent-masking hypothesis. Scent marks could thus provide a reliable advertisement of an individual’s ability to dominate or defend the area, since only those successfully dominating the area can ensure that their marks both predominate and are more recently deposited than those of any challenging competitors. The countermarking may therefore advertise that the territory is occupied and signal the costs of competition if the threat is ignored. I frequently observed that beavers, after visiting the ESMs, started to patrol the territory. A lack of response to ESMs without castoreum indicated that beavers were responding to the smell of castoreum and not to the sight of the scent mound itself.

Eurasian beavers sniffed both castoreum and AGS from a stranger significantly longer than those from a neighbour. They responded aggressively significantly longer to castoreum, but not to AGS, from a stranger than from a neighbour. When ESMs were allowed to remain overnight and the response measured the following morning, beavers responded significantly stronger to both castoreum and AGS from a stranger than from a neighbour. These findings indicate that Eurasian beavers can use scent to discriminate between neighbours and strangers, thereby supporting existence of the “dear enemy” phenomenon (reduced aggression towards familiar occupants of neighbouring territories).

Eurasian beavers spent significantly longer time responding aggressively to conspecific than to heterospecific (North American beavers) ESMs. They also responded significantly more aggressively to conspecific than to heterospecific ESMs overnight. Gas chromatographic comparisons of castoreum showed that differences between species accounted for 34% of the total variation in compounds detected, while differences between sexes accounted for 13%. For AGS, 49% and 46% of this variation was explained by differences between species and sex, respectively. The results confirm the hypothesis that the Eurasian beaver discriminates between scent marks of the two species, i.e. exhibits species discrimination abilities. This indicates that the Eurasian beaver would regard intrusive scent marks from the North American beaver as a lesser territorial threat than from a conspecific, and would therefore be less likely to spend time and energy countermarking these scent marks.

In conclusion, my study has contributed to a better understanding of the function of territorial scent marking in the Eurasian beaver by demonstrating their capability of transmitting odorous messages efficiently, both temporally and spatially, and their ability to countermark and discriminate ESMs from intruders of different degrees of threat. My results lend support to the idea that the function of territorial scent marking in the Eurasian beaver is to advertise related dominance status, thereby providing opportunities for intruders to assess the presence of the owner, and thus reducing the costs of agonistic conflicts for both the owner and intruder (the status advertisement hypothesis). My results also support the general scent-matching hypothesis, i.e. its predictions 1 (mark where intruders are most likely to encounter marks), 3 (make themselves available for scent matching by intruders) and 4 (remove or replace marks of others) were all supported. However, prediction 2 (mark themselves with the substances used to mark the territory) needs to be clarified. It’s still unclear whether beavers smear castoreum on their pelage, and/or mark themselves with AGS in order to waterproof the fur, and thereby simultaneously function as a “living-scent mark”. The next step should be to clarify these issues. However, the function of scent marking suggested here is not necessarily the only functional mechanism, as one function need not necessarily exclude others. Two other main functions for scent marking in Eurasian beavers that cannot be entirely ruled out are that scent marks may be used to label and thereby defend resources within the territory (the labelling resources hypothesis), and that marking is related to reproduction (e.g. by advertising reproductive status and guarding the mate during the breeding period). My work has emphasized intergroup communication. However, more work is needed to clarify the role of scent marks in intragroup communication.

Denne avhandlingen eksaminerer hvordan duftmarkeringer fungerer i territorieforsvaret hos eurasiatisk bever (Castor fiber). Beveren avsetter vanligvis duft (castoreum fra bevergjelpungene og/eller sekret fra analkjertlene (AKS)) på små hauger av leire og planterester, og alle aldersgrupper og begge kjønn deltar i markeringen. Jeg satte fram hypotesen at duftmarkeringer spiller en viktig rolle i territorieforsvaret til fritt levende eurasiatisk bever, og undersøkte følgende spørsmål. (1) Hvilke faktorer virker inn på duftmarkeringsatferden? (2) Hvordan er duftmarkeringer fordelt i tid og rom i løpet av et helt år? (3) Er castoreum og/eller AKS brukt i forsvaret av territoriet? (4) Hvordan reagerer denne arten på simulerte inntrengere i territoriet? (5) Kan den eurasiatiske beveren diskriminere mellom duft fra naboer og fremmede, og mellom duft fra sin egen art og den nordamerikanske beveren (C. canadensis)?

Jeg viste at duftmarkeringer spiller en signifikant, indirekte rolle i forsvaret av territoriet hos den eurasiatiske beveren. Antall duftmarkeringer var tetthetsavhengig. Bever med mange nære naboer (høyt utfordret) trenger sannsynligvis å duftmarkere oftere for å bli utvetydig gjenkjent som eier av territoriet. Plasser med høy tetthet er imidlertid kanskje også av bedre kvalitet, noe som gir eierne av territoriet mer energi å bruke på forsvaret, og flere grunner for å forsvare. Det var en signifikant positiv korrelasjon mellom antall duftmarkeringer og varigheten av okkupasjonen av territoriet samt lengden av banker med trær. Bofaste ser derfor ut til å investere mer i duftmarkeringer i territorier med god kvalitet og når et territorium har vært okkupert for relativ lang tid. Teoretisk, jo store potensiell verdi territoriet har for de bofaste, i kontrast til inntrengere, desto hardere bør eieren slåss for å beholde det territoriet.

Territoriet ble duftmarkert signifikant oftere om våren når spredningen av 2-åringer normalt skjer, og duftmarkeringene ble konsentrert nær grensene til territoriet, tilsynelatende for å maksimere signaleffektiviteten til potensielle inntrengere før de entrer territoriet. Signifikant flere duftmarkeringer ble konstruert oppstrøms i forhold til nedstrøms av hytta, sannsynligvis fordi bevegelsen av individer på vandring hovedsakelig er nedstrøms. Disse resultatene støtter hypotesen om grenseopprettholdelse.

Castoreum ble nesten utelukkende avsatt på duftmarkeringer fra januar til ut mars og ser ut til å være hovedlukten brukt i forsvar av eurasiatiske beverterritorier. AKS ble sjelden avsatt og har muligens en annen funksjon.

Den eurasiatiske beveren viste territorial atferd når en ”inntrenger”, i form av kunstig konstruerte eksperimentelle duftmarkeringshauger (EDH’er) med castoreum fra fremmede voksne hanner, ble plassert inne i territoriet. De ødela EDH’ene og overmarkerte med sin egen lukt i 80% av forsøkene. Overmarkeringen ser ut til å ha vært et forsøk på å maskere duften fra de fremmede voksne hannene med sin egen duft. Disse resultatene gir dermed noe støtte til duftmaskeringhypotesen. Duftmarkeringer kan derfor sørge for en troverdig annonsering av et individs evne til å dominere eller forsvare et område, siden bare de som suksessfullt dominerer et område kan sikre at deres markeringer både dominerer og er nyligere avsatt enn de fra en utfordrende konkurrent. Overmarkeringen annonserer derfor muligens at territoriet er opptatt og signaliserer kostnaden av konkurransen hvis trusselen ignoreres. Jeg observerte at beverne ofte startet å patruljere territoriet etter å ha besøkt EDH’ene. En mangel på respons på EDH’er uten castoreum indikerer at beveren reagerte på duften av castoreum og ikke på synet av duftmarkeringshaugen.

De eurasiatiske beverne snuste på castoreum og AKS fra en fremmed, signifikant lenger enn fra en nabo. De reagerte aggressivt, signifikant lenger på castoreum, men ikke på AKS, fra en fremmed enn fra en nabo. Når EDH’ene forble ute over natta og responsen ble målt den påfølgende morgenen, reagerte beverne signifikant sterkere på både castoreum og AKS fra en fremmed enn fra en nabo. Disse resultatene indikerer at den eurasiatiske beveren kan bruke duft for å diskriminere mellom naboer og fremmede, og gir dermed støtte til tilstedeværelsen av ”kjære fiende” fenomenet (redusert aggresjon mot kjente okkupanter på naboterritoriene).

De eurasiatiske beverne tilbrakte signifikant lenger tid på å reagere aggressivt på artsfrenders enn ikke-artsfrenders (nordamerikanske bevere) EDH’er. De reagerte også signifikant mer aggressivt på artsfrenders enn ikke-artsfrenders EDH’er over natt. Sammenligninger av castoreum gasskromatogram viste at forskjeller mellom artene forklarte 34% av den totale variasjonen i forbindelsene oppdaget, mens forskjeller mellom kjønnene forklarte 13%. For AKS, var henholdsvis 49% og 46% av denne variasjonen forklart av forskjeller mellom arter og kjønn. Disse resultatene bekrefter hypotesen at den eurasiatiske beveren diskriminerer mellom duftmarkeringer fra de to artene, med andre ord utøver arts diskrimineringsevner. Dette indikerer at den eurasiatiske beveren vil anse påtrengende duftmarkeringer fra den nordamerikanske beveren å utgjøre en mindre territoriell trussel enn fra en artsfrende, og vil derfor mindre sannsynlig bruke tid og energi på å overmarkere disse duftmarkeringene.

Jeg konkluderer med at mitt studium har bidratt til en bedre forståelse av funksjonen av duftmarkering i territoriet til den eurasiatiske beveren ved å demonstrere deres evne til å overføre duftbeskjeder effektivt, både i tid og rom, og deres evne til å overmarkere og diskriminere EDH’er fra inntrengere som utgjør ulik grad av trussel. Mine resultater gav støtte til ideen at funksjonen for duftmarkering av territoriet hos eurasiatisk bever er å annonsere dominans status, og dermed sørge for muligheter for inntrengere til å vurdere tilstedeværelsen av eieren som vil redusere kostnadene av de agonistiske konfliktene for både eier og inntrenger (statusannonseringshypotesen). Mine resultater støtter også den generelle duftssammenligningshypotesen, med andre ord dens prediksjoner 1 (duftmarker hvor inntrengere er mest sannsynlig å møte disse), 3 (gjør seg tilgjengelig for duftsammenligning av inntrenger) og 4 (fjern eller erstatt duftmarkeringer av andre) ble alle støttet. Prediksjon 2 (duftmarker seg selv med duften brukt til å markere territoriet) trenger imidlertid å klargjøres. Det er fortsatt uklart om beveren smører castoreum på pelsen, og/eller markerer seg selv med AKS for å gjøre pelsen vanntett og dermed fungere samtidig som en ”levende duftmarkering”. Det neste steget bør være å redegjøre for disse spørsmålene. Funksjonen til duftmarkering som er foreslått her er imidlertid nødvendigvis ikke den eneste funksjonelle mekanismen, siden en funksjon ikke trenger å utelukke andre. To andre hovedfunksjoner for duftmarkering hos eurasiatisk bever som ikke helt kan utelukkes er at duftmarkeringer kan bli brukt til å merke og dermed forsvare ressurser innen territoriet (hypotesen om ressurs merking), og at duftmarkeringen er relatert til reproduksjonen (for eksempel ved å annonsere reproduktiv status og bevoktning av maken i løpet av paringstiden). Mitt arbeid har lagt vekt på kommunikasjonen mellom familiegrupper. Mer arbeid trengs imidlertid for å klargjøre duftmarkeringens rolle i kommunikasjonen innen familiegrupper.

Paper V reprinted with kind permission of Elsevier, sciencedirect.com

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Os estudos da territorialidade e de comportamentos associados a ela favorecem o entendimento da maneira como as intera??es ecol?gicas afetam a composi??o de esp?cies e a din?mica de uma comunidade. No presente estudo tivemos como objetivo geral investigar o comportamento de Stegastes fuscus, um peixe-donzela territorialista, em ambiente natural e em cativeiro, com foco na capacidade de localiza??o territorial, reconhecimento e defesa de uma ?rea estabelecida. Para tanto subdividimos o trabalho em 3 cap?tulos. O primeiro teve como foco o estudo da esp?cie em ambiente natural objetivando estimar a ?rea do territ?rio ocupado e os padr?es comportamentais da por ela expressos. Sendo encontrado que a ?rea m?dia ocupada por S. fuscus foi de 274 cm2 e os comportamentos mais observados foram: vigil?ncia, ingest?o de alimento, tempo no abrigo/toca e displays agressivos. O segundo cap?tulo teve como alvo investigar a capacidade de localiza??o espacial da esp?cie mediada por pistas visuais. Os resultados demonstraram que S. fuscus apresenta marcante aprendizagem condicionada e possibilidade de exist?ncia de orienta??o espacial na esp?cie. O terceiro cap?tulo teve como objetivo avaliar a influ?ncia da resid?ncia pr?via estabelecida e do reconhecimento de coespec?ficos nos resultados de confrontos agon?sticos. Os resultados apontaram a resid?ncia como fator priorit?rio na din?mica das disputas agon?sticas e que aspectos relacionados ? familiaridade como relevantes e destacam-se mais quando n?o existe um territ?rio previamente estabelecido. Diante disso nossos resultados podem favorecer o entendimento da din?mica estrutural da comunidade na qual S. fuscus esta inserida, sendo isto significativo tendo em vista a import?ncia ecol?gica da esp?cie para o ecossistema.

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The main purpose of this work is to show the growing importance of South Atlantic Ocean to Brazil s foreign policy and security issues, from the seventies to 21st century. The oil crises in the early seventies changed brazilian perception about its maritime frontier. The enlargement of territorial sea to 200 miles and a diplomatic approach to Africa were strategic to assure Brazilian interests in the South Atlantic. The central role of Brazil to build the Zone of Peace and Cooperation of the South Atlantic stresses the choice to the multilateralism and the international law. This choice results from regional and hemispheric context. In the early 21st century, the international system allows Brazil to drawn a military capability towards its maritime frontier. Economic resources as great stocks of oil could turn the South Atlantic a vulnerable zone to Brazilian interests. Idealism and Realism on foreign politics and defense issues tend to combine themselves on Brazil s projection at South Atlantic
O objetivo principal deste trabalho consiste em demonstrar a crescente importância do Atlântico Sul na política externa e nos assuntos de defesa do Brasil, desde a década de 70 até o limiar do século XXI. A crise do petróleo, no início da década de 70 transformou a percepção do Brasil sobre sua fronteira marítima. O alargamento do mar territorial para 200 milhas e a aproximação diplomática da África foram estratégicos para assegurar os interesses do Brasil no Atlântico Sul. O papel central do Brasil em construir a Zona de Paz e Cooperação do Atlântico Sul reforçou a escolha pelo multilateralismo e pelo direito internacional. Essa escolha foi decorrente do contexto regional e hemisférico. No início do século XXI, o Brasil percebe possibilidades de projetar uma capacidade militar para defender sua fronteira marítima. Recursos econômicos, como grandes reservas de petróleo, podem tornar o Atlântico Sul uma área vulnerável para os interesses brasileiros. No entanto, idealismo e realismo em política externa e defesa tendem a combinar-se na projeção do Brasil no Atlântico Sul

Switzerland's experience in the Second Wolrd War differs markedly from that of any other European nation and offers a unique historical oppurtunity to study civil-military relations in a democratic environment under the strain of a long-lasting existential threat. Entirely on its own and surrounded by and extremely aggressive enemy block, Switzerland has to struggle in that hazy, difficult-to-define situation between war and peace, which in modern terms would be referred to as "low intensity conflict". Thus military and civilian authorites were literally forced to think in terms of modern national security policy and to adopt a holistic security philosophy. It becamse apparent that the disproportionate role of the military component did not measure up to the threat and was at odds with a modern, overall security policy. The results were not limited to the serious, practically insoluble conflicts between millitary and civilian authorities, the preparedness and the dissuasive power of the army itself was thus called into question. The historical experience showed clearly that modern territorial defense requires first and foremost a balance between the individual components of security policy carefully adapted to the political, economic, and psychological realities of the nation. The military component, on the other hand, can only fulfill its mission if it can concentrate the personnel and material resources at its disposal on it original task of military defense; in the terminology of World War II, the army is responsible for "warfare", not "national defense"

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
O comportamento territorial é uma estratégia de monopolização de recursos quando esses são essenciais para o sucesso reprodutivo de um organismo. Um território é uma área de uso exclusivo, defendido contra invasores coespecíficos de mesmo sexo, resultante da interação social entre vizinhos. A territorialidade exerce importante papel no sistema reprodutivo de uma espécie, pois influencia a participação do macho na reprodução. Nesses casos, as fêmeas podem obter vantagens diretas, como sítios de nidificação e cuidado parental. O comportamento territorial também exerce influência na regulação do tamanho populacional através de uma relação entre custos e benefícios individuais: em ambientes ótimos e com alta densidade populacional, os territórios são pequenos com pouca substituição, e jovens machos têm dificuldade para conseguirem estabelecer-se. O presente estudo teve como objetivo investigar aspectos comportamentais do tropeiro-da-serra, espécie rara e endêmica de Floresta Atlântica, com distribuição bastante restrita. Ao longo de 18 meses na Ilha Grande (RJ), analisamos seu comportamento territorial, mensuramos os tamanhos de territórios individuais de machos e realizamos estimativas de densidade populacional. O playback foi utilizado para atestar a presença de territorialidade na espécie, para simular a aproximação de coespecíficos (interações intraespecíficas) e para induzir o deslocamento dos indivíduos até os limites de seus territórios. Para investigar as respostas comportamentais à aproximação de invasores, analisamos quantitativamente as reações dos indivíduos a estímulos sonoros (vocalização espontânea e induzida pelo playback). Os territórios individuais foram definidos em duas estações reprodutivas através do método do Mínimo Polígono Convexo (MPC) em uma área equivalente a 20ha. A densidade populacional foi definida através do número de territórios encontrados e pelo número de indivíduos vistos/ouvidos por unidade de área através de transecções lineares. As vocalizações espontâneas e induzidas ocorreram somente entre os meses de agosto a janeiro, caracterizando uma estação reprodutiva bem definida. Durante este período, os machos tornaram-se solitários e agressivos com coespecíficos; na fase não-reprodutiva, entretanto, os indivíduos mostram-se sociáveis, forrageando em pequenos grupos de até quatro indivíduos. Os resultados indicam que o território é estabelecido para a monopolização de alimento e acesso às fêmeas. Essas observações sugerem que a espécie estudada é territorialista. Foram estimados sete territórios com valores entre 0,21ha e 0,73ha (0,43 + 0,16ha). Os indivíduos apresentaram fidelidade territorial, ocupando os mesmos territórios em duas estações reprodutivas. A densidade populacional de L. lanioides apresentou flutuações ao longo do ano, com os maiores valores encontrados durante a estação reprodutiva (variando entre 0,37 e 1,84 indivíduos/ha). Flutuações na densidade populacional podem apontar migrações altitudinais motivadas por variações na disponibilidade de recursos alimentares. Concluímos que o comportamento reprodutivo de L. lanioides não se enquadra no conceito de sistema reprodutivo em leks, conhecido em outros cotingídeos (ex. Lipaugus vociferans), no qual a corte é um comportamento social, com disputa por status de dominância, e o papel do macho resume-se à cópula sem benefícios diretos para as fêmeas. Dessa forma, os resultados do presente estudo trazem informações originais sobre a biologia de L. lanioides
Territorial behavior is a strategy to monopolize resources when these are important to reproductive success of an organism. A territory is an exclusive area, defended against intruders and same sex coespecific, coming from social interactions between neighbors. Territorial behavior performs an important role in a reproductive system species as well, because it influences male contribution on reproduction. In these cases, females can get direct benefits, as nesting sites and parental care. Territoriality also interferes in population size through a costs and benefits relation: on ideal environments and highly population density, territories are small and there are few substitutions because young males have difficulties to establish territories themselves. This present study researched behavioral aspects of Cinnamon-vented Piha, an endemic and rare Atlantic forest species, with restrict distribution. Throughout 18 months at Ilha Grande, RJ, we investigate its territorial behavior, measured males individual territories sizes and estimated population density. A playback was played to attest territoriality in species, simulate coespecific approaches (intraspecific interactions) and encourage individual displacements to their territories boundaries. To investigate behaviors responses to intruders invasions, we quantified males reactions to sonorous stimulus (spontaneous and induced vocalizations by playback). Their territories were defined during two reproductive periods by Minimum Convex Polygon (MCP) at an area equivalent to 20ha. Population density was defined by the number of territories found and the number of individuals seen/heard at an area unit by linear transections. On this period, males became solitary and aggressive with coespecific; in non-reproductive phase, however, they stood sociable, foraging in small groups up to four individuals. The results suggest that territories are established to monopolize food and access to females, therefore this studied species is territorialist. In total, seven territories were estimated with values between 0,21ha e 0,73ha (0,43 + 0,16ha). Individuals display territorial fidelity, preserving their territories along two reproductive seasons. L. lanioides population density ranged along the year showing highest values on reproductive season (0.37 and 1.84 individuals/ha). Fluctuations in population density can aim to altitudinal migrations motivated by variations of food resources availability. L. lanioides reproductive behavior does not fit in the reproductive leks system concept, attested in some other cotingas (eg. Lipaugus vociferans), in which courtship is a social behavior, with contests for dominance status, and male roles is restricted to copula without direct benefits for females. In this way, our results bring original information about L. lanioides biology

The influence of Pedro Luis Escrivá in the American colonial defense systemThe architect and military engineer Pedro Luis Escrivá (1490 ca. - sixteenth century), at the service of Charles V of Habsburg and the Viceroyal Court of Naples, built two bastioned fortifications designed to considerably influence the subject of territorial defense structures: The quadrangular Spanish Fort of L'Aquila (1534-1567) and the reconstruction of the Sant’Elmo Castle in Naples (1537), with an elongated six-pointed stellar plan, served as a reference point for the European and American fortifications of the period. Due to its size and versatility, the model adopted in L’Aquila was widely used in the Latin American context between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries. It is found in countries that were Hispanic colonies such as Cuba, Mexico, Venezuela, Chile, Argentina and Uruguay; as well as in the Hispanic domains of the United States and in some of the dependent territories of the Portuguese crown, in Brazil. Based on a historical-architectural and contextual analysis of these structures, the effects of the “cultural transfer” between Europe and America will be investigated with respect to the model devised by Escrivá to promote its cultural valorization.

Este artículo analiza la forma urbana de tres ciudades industriales surgidas de (1885-1921), etapa en la que México vivió con la industrialización su mayor modernización a manos de capitalistas norteamericanos y europeos. Estos ejemplos ponen de manifiesto los grandes proyectos territoriales, urbanos y arquitectónicos que surgieron de la política del régimen del presidente Porfirio Díaz de fundar y poblar ciudades en el Norte, justificando así el crecimiento económico, la estructuración del territorio y la defensa de la soberanía nacional en la frontera. This article analyses the urban form of three industrial cities emerged between (1885-1921), Mexico lived with industrialization his maximum modernization at the hands of American and European capitalists. These examples highlight the large territorial, urban and architectural projects that emerged from the policy regime of President Porfirio Díaz to found and populate cities in the North, justifying the economic growth, the structure of the territory and the defence of national sovereignty at the border.

Rather than considering coastal architecture and flood defense infrastructure as having incompatible agendas, this paper argues for a study of new architectural and infrastructural hybridizations with a focus on the underlying systems that not only determine manmade fortifications that control the movement of and access to water but also offer discrete spaces for inhabitation. A study of water management infrastructural types, paired with vulnerable, remote, and unprotected coastal and riverine sites, anticipate alternative methods of resilience that serve to mediate human inhabitation in flood-threatened territories. What strategies of resilience can we establish that go beyond the typical (that accommodate flooding, flee from it, and fortify against it)and begin to incorporate dynamic characteristics of the physical environment with architectural form? The projects discussed in this paper explore these questions and are a product of the Cornell University architecture studio Lo-Res: Architectural Scales of Localized Resilience conducted during Spring 2016.

The defense of Ossola territories, on the Spanish passageway to Flanders, in the late seventeenth centuryThe Ossola territories, in the area to the northwest of Milan, have constituted the western border most in contact with the nordic and tens-alpine world, ever since the first establishment of the Duchy of Milan. It is already known from G. Parker’s monography on the camino español that one of the common routes, which allowed overland redeployment of Spanish troops headed towards Flanders, from the Liguria region across central Europe, would go through Ossola and cross the Simplon Pass or the Gries Pass. During the turbulent historical period of the Thirty Years’ War and the following one, the changing fortunes of the Duchy of Milan in Spanish hands led to the fast and strategic conquest of Piedmontese cities (1639) and their equally rapid loss on the western border. Especially in the second half of the seventeenth century, the Franco-Savoy advance threw the Piedmontese borders into a severe crisis and the Spanish governors of Milan accordingly adopted all the military measures needed to address the issue. Fearing incursions from the north, through Romandie, Valais and Ossola, in the late seventeenth century, many field engineers among whom Beretta and Formenti, arranged the transformation of Domodossola, the outermost military stronghold only equipped with obsolete medieval walls at the time, into a “modern” rampart city (1687-1690). The engineers produced an accurate study of the territory, preserved today in the Historical Civic Archive and at the Trivulziana library in Milan in a cartographic manuscript series of all the Ossola valleys and the Swiss territory from Brig to Lake Leman.

The Galician Band: defensive vertebration of a frontier space in the Northwestern limit of the domains of Seville in the Late Middle AgesThe northwestern limit of the Seville domains constituted a complex frontier space of high potencial tension throughout the Late Middle Ages. Once the conquest of this historical territory was over, the council of Seville promotes the definition of a castral system destined to guarantee the guard and defense of its extensive territory. The Galician Band constituted a large network of fortifications who knew how to incorporate the existing ones and build new castles, which responded to an adaptive logic based on the poliorcetic and geopolitical requirements. The geospacial analysis carried out in this research, implemented through GIS, allowed contrasting certain hypotheses sustained from historiography regarding the territorial implementation strategy of these passive defenses. The detailed analysis of the intervisibility relations between the fortifications of the Galician Band, allowed to define its spatial link. The analyzed castramental spaces are hierarchized, presenting a progressive stratification from the border spaces into the deep lands of the Council, following a spatial pattern that allows the strategic control of the main paths of territorial penetration.

The representations of the ideal town: CosmopolisIn 1548, under the Florentine lordship of the Medici, Charles V gave Cosimo I de 'Medici the task of defending the territories of Elba and the commercial traffic of the Tyrrhenian Sea. The Duke, who strongly believed in the potential of the island and wanted to transform it into the center of Florentine rule over the Tyrrhenian, decided to fortify the ancient city of Ferraia, the current Portoferraio. A real jewel of military town planning that took the name of Cosmopolis was born by the architect Giovanni Battista Bellucci and by the engineer Giovanni Camerini. Thanks to its natural conformation, the gulf of Portoferraio protected on one side a strip of land that closes the port like a spiral, and on the other hand protected by two rocky headlands overlooking the sea, was extremely strategic and suitable for defense. Fort Stella and Fort Falcone were built in the upper part of the promontory and the Linguella tower, near the dock, all connected by a bastion wall. Later the defense was further strengthened by walls and ramparts also on the land front side according to the project of the architect Bernardo Buontalenti, transforming the city into an impregnable fortress, as well as a safe naval base. The study of urban representations of the city testifies to how the foundation of Cosmopolis for the Medici duchy was an event of extraordinary value, symbol of the strength of the Duke and his expansive abilities, symbol of an ideal city not only conceived and designed in contemporary treatises, but actually made.

Planimetric maps, views and three-dimensional representations for the fortification of two western Mediterranean islands: Elba and Palmaria (nineteenth century)The French expansion and domination in Italy between the Revolutionary Age and the Empire based on a widespread activity of territorial knowledge, which rested in the Corps of Engineers-Geographers and in the Military Genius the main actors. The paper summarizes the results of long research on this activity, carried out in the islands of Elba (Tuscany) and Palmaria (Liguria): two strategic islands in the western Mediterranean. The need to equip the territories dominated by the French with increasingly functional defenses, gave a strong impulse to the renewal of surveying and cartography, with the use of geodetic projections, views and three-dimensional models. Elba example is significant for the complete triangulation of the island connected to the Corsica one (with part of Sardinia and the smaller islands of the Tuscan archipelago). Geographer engineers such as Tranchot, Simonel, Moynet, Puissant worked on these activities and produced some maps and a small model of part of Elba. In the Palmaria example the three-dimensional reproduction (plan-relief) was contextual to the work of Genius engineers who produced a vast and organic corpus of maps of various scales, views, sketches and watercolors, suitable to represent the most complete visualization of the landscapes where to insert defensive buildings. The collaboration between French and Italian engineers took advantage of this first experience in designing some batteries. However, it was the post-Napoleonic decades that made Palmaria island a powerful “fortress island” to defend the entrance to the Gulf of La Spezia, where the military arsenal (commissioned by Cavour and built by Domenico Chiodo) arose.

Shishigaki (wild boar defense walls), as a part of cultural landscapes in Japan, currently faces serious deterioration. The research aims to identify the characteristics of Shishigaki walls in eight villages located at the foot of Mt. Hira and propose conservation strategies. Interpretation of historical documents and cadastral maps, interviews, and measurement surveys were conducted. As a result, about 4,3 km of Shish-igaki relics are confirmed, of a total length up to12,7 km built in the 18th to 19th century. Shishigaki walls were built by local households collaboratively with different drystone masonry techniques. Based on the field surveys, it was found that although up to 91% of Shishigaki walls located within the village territories were demolished, only half of Shishigaki walls in the forest were deconstructed. Loss of functionality as protection fences with the change of land use is considered as the main reason for the demolition of Shish-igaki walls. It is suggested that Shishigaki relics in the forest could be integrated into existing hiking routes and promoted through collaborative map-making with local residents. The authors contest that heritage interpretation rooted in local historical studies and conservation with community involvement could be adopted in the promotion of cultural landscapes worldwide.

The “Mediterranean Wall” in the territory of the Marina Alta: bunkers and batteries of the Spanish War (1936-1939)In 1936-1939 the War of Spain took place, turning its territory into the testing ground of Europe in anticipation of the Second World War; here new weapons were tested: mass media, propaganda and aviation. The national side used Mallorca as “aircraft carrier” from which it launched airstrikes on the Mediterranean coast: a rearguard that required fortification. To defend the cities, the Republican government ordered, in 1937, to build a coastal defensive system (“Mediterranean Wall”). On the Valencian coast there were ten basic enclaves: from the lighthouse of Castellón to the end of Santa Pola. This network of defenses had two built lines. The first was constituted by elements located at zero level, by the sea and on the beaches, which maintained regular distances from each other; these were reinforced concrete bunkers that sought to camouflage themselves. A second was formed by coastal and antiaircraft, concrete and masonry batteries that merged with the land, located in the hills to have a wider horizon and be closer to its objectives. Bunkers and batteries that followed geometric patterns in constant evolution. This communication studies the defensive settlements built by the Republican army in the cities of Xàbia and Dénia (Marina Alta), which had a port, airfield and armament factories, which made them the target of enemy aviation. In these territories many of these architectures have disappeared under real estate pressure, but there are still several bunkers, batteries and ammunition deposits that are intended to be inventoried and documented (especially the 7th of the Montgó and the 8th of the Portixol batteries) to insert into of the tradition of historical military forts (typological genealogies) and their understanding as a networked defensive system that maintains parallels with the system of coastal towers of the system of coastal towers of the Modern Age.

Desde hace décadas, en el Sur global, y muy particularmente en América Latina, las mujeres desarrollan un fuerte protagonismo en las luchas sociales y en los procesos de autoorganización colectiva vinculados al campo de los derechos humanos y a la defensa de los sectores más excluidos, a lo que se han sumado en los últimos tiempos las luchas ambientalistas. Este texto analiza algunos de los temas centrales que abordan las luchas de las mujeres en su vinculación con los movimientos y organizaciones ambientales y antiextractivistas en la región latinoamericana. Para referirme a estas luchas adopto el concepto de feminismos ecoterritoriales, en virtud de su vinculación con los movimientos ecoterritoriales y las movilizaciones de afectados socioambientales. Por un lado, el texto establece las relaciones con la perspectiva ecofeminista, en el marco de un paradigma relacional y de la cultura de los cuidados. Por otro, destaca las diferentes narrativas de los feminismos ecoterritoriales, así como el rol creciente de la violencia extractiva. El análisis se centra en las diferentes corrientes de los feminismos ecoterritoriales y el modo en que estos van configurando un espacio de geometría variable en torno a ciertos temas: Afectación ambiental y zonas de sacrificio; Agua, territorio y extractivismos; Cuerpos y territorios; Demanda de tierra y soberanía alimentaria.

Territorios indígenas (ITs, en sus siglas en inglés) en la Amazonia protegen aproximadamente 24,GtC sobre el suelo, funcionan como barreras significativas contra la deforestación y la degradación del bosque, y sirven como una defensa importante contra el cambio climático. Los ITs demarcados tienen significativamente menos deforestación en comparación con tierras no reconocidas, demostrando la importancia de demarcar ITs para proteger los sustentos y la cultura de los indígenas Amazónicos y para conservar sus bosques y ríos.

Territorios indígenas (ITs, en sus siglas en inglés) en la Amazonia protegen aproximadamente 24,GtC sobre el suelo, funcionan como barreras significativas contra la deforestación y la degradación del bosque, y sirven como una defensa importante contra el cambio climático. Los ITs demarcados tienen significativamente menos deforestación en comparación con tierras no reconocidas, demostrando la importancia de demarcar ITs para proteger los sustentos y la cultura de los indígenas Amazónicos y para conservar sus bosques y ríos.

Territorios indígenas (ITs, en sus siglas en inglés) en la Amazonia protegen aproximadamente 24,GtC sobre el suelo, funcionan como barreras significativas contra la deforestación y la degradación del bosque, y sirven como una defensa importante contra el cambio climático. Los ITs demarcados tienen significativamente menos deforestación en comparación con tierras no reconocidas, demostrando la importancia de demarcar ITs para proteger los sustentos y la cultura de los indígenas Amazónicos y para conservar sus bosques y ríos.

El Control Fiscal Ambiental, como herramienta de evaluación de la función pública, otorgada por la Constitución a los entes de control, permite vigilar las inversiones en materia ambiental y las acciones encaminadas al mejoramiento del medio ambiente. El presente artículo permite analizar la gestión realizada por los municipios del departamento de Antioquia, dicho análisis está enfocado en la preservación y defensa de la flora y la fauna, las inversiones realizadas en el año 2021, la existencia de organizaciones defensoras de animales, la realización de las jornadas de esterilización y el reporte de los casos atendidos por el maltrato animal. Todo ello, bajo la óptica del control financiero de tipo ambiental como instrumento de evaluación y cumplimiento de la legislación perteneciente a las unidades territoriales, utilizando siempre medidas preventivas y de control. Lo anterior, fundamentado en las responsabilidades legales que les competen a los entes territoriales y que deben adelantar en la protección de su patrimonio natural, de acuerdo con las responsabilidades que por ley les corresponden a los municipios para proteger sus recursos dado los resultados de la gestión ejecutada por los entes territoriales en el año 2021. El método utilizado en esta investigación fue el inductivo, bajo un enfoque cualitativo, el cual se enmarcó en una investigación con alcance analítico-descriptivo y se utilizaron técnicas como el análisis de texto y la observación. Los resultados logrados muestran un desempeño parcial por parte de los municipios, se evidencia que aún persiste falta gestión y voluntad de las administraciones municipales para la elaboración de inventarios sobre fauna y flora. Además, se observa una disminución en las inversiones para la creación de jornadas de esterilización y reducción de casos de maltrato animal. Finalmente, esta investigación resume acciones y estrategias, proactivas y sostenibles, para conservar la flora y la fauna municipales. También, sirve como base para desarrollar políticas públicas dirigidas a proteger los recursos naturales cuyos beneficios van más allá de su valor inmediato.

Europa mantiene una posición delicada en la configuración del nuevo paradigma digital global. Por un lado, lidera la creación de marcos regulatorios capaces de imponer valores democráticos que garanticen un entorno digital más seguro y más justo, y constituye uno de los mercados con más proyección e influencia internacional. Por el otro, carece de una industria propia capaz de competir con los grandes bloques antagónicos de China y EE.UU., y delega el desarrollo de las grandes infraestructuras digitales a las grandes plataformas tecnológicas que amenazan su soberanía. Este contexto viene agravado por tres crisis interconectadas: la crisis climática, la crisis energética y la crisis política. Las decisiones que ahora tomemos serán determinantes a la hora de posicionarnos como una fuerza política capaz de trascender las patologías del capitalismo y defender el Estado del bienestar con la creación de redes productivas basadas en la cooperación. O, por el contrario, nos enfrentaremos a los retos de los próximos años como subordinados de tecnologías ajenas que ejercen un poder sin responsabilidades sobre nuestro territorio y nuestra sociedad.

The subject of the study is the cooperation of S. Efremov with Western Ukrainian periodicals as a page in the history of Ukrainian journalism which covers the relationship of journalists and scientists of Eastern and Western Ukraine at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Research methods (biographical, historical, comparative, axiological, statistical, discursive) develop the comprehensive disclosure of the article. As a result of scientific research, the origins of Ukrainocentrism in the personality of S. Efremov were clarified; his person as a public figure, journalist, publisher, literary critic is multifaceted; taking into account the specifics of the memoir genre and with the involvement of the historical context, the turning points in the destiny of the author of memoirs are interpreted, revealing cooperation with Western Ukrainian magazines and newspapers. The publications ‘Zoria’, ‘Narod’, ‘Pravda’, ‘Bukovyna’, ‘Dzvinok’, are secretly got into sub-Russian Ukraine, became for S. Efremov a spiritual basis in understanding the specifics of the national (Ukrainian) mass media, ideas of education in culture of Ukraine at the end of XIX century, its territorial integrity, and state independence. Memoirs of S. Efremov on cooperation with the iconic Galician journals ‘Notes of the Scientific Society after the name Shevchenko’ and ‘Literary-Scientific Bulletin’, testify to an important stage in the formation of the author’s worldview, the expansion of the genre boundaries of his journalism, active development as a literary critic. S. Yefremov collaborated most fruitfully and for a long time with the Literary-Scientific Bulletin, and he was impressed by the democratic position of this publication. The author’s comments reveal a long-running controversy over the publication of a review of the new edition of Kobzar and thematically related discussions around his other literary criticism, in which the talent of the demanding critic was forged. S. Efremov steadfastly defended the main principles of literary criticism: objectivity and freedom of author’s thought. The names of the allies of the Ukrainian idea L. Skochkovskyi, O. Lototskyi, O. Konyskyi, P. Zhytskyi, M. Hrushevskyi in S. Efremov’s memoirs unfold in multifaceted portrait descriptions and function as historical and cultural facts that document the pages of the author’s biography, record his activities in space and time. The results of the study give grounds to characterize S. Efremov as the first professional Ukrainian-speaking journalist.

Informe do Consello da Cultura Galega emitido en resposta á solicitude achegada o 15 de decembro de 2020 por parte de representantes das asociacións UMIAVIVO, Colectivo pola defensa do territorio ANOVATERRA, asociación Irmandade ILLA DE TAMBO e Colectivo pola defensa do Patrimonio AFORNEIRIÑA na que demandaban o posicionamento do Consello da Cultura Galega (CCG) en relación coa denuncia pública e ante os organismos con competencias na xestión e defensa do patrimonio cultural verbo das intervencións realizadas sobre tres castros da provincia de Pontevedra: Castro de Toiriz (Silleda), Castro da Subidá (Marín) e Castro de Alobre (Vilagarcía de Arousa) e sobre a intención de desenvolver actuacións semellantes noutros 15 castros da provincia.

We consider it criminal and strongly condemn the violation of the territorial integrity and borders of Ukraine by the Russian Federation. We also consider inadmissible the statements of the leadership of the Russian Federation regarding our state, interference in the internal affairs of Ukraine by denying its civilizational subjectivity and demanding the abandonment of its own path of development. With great gratitude and confidence in the victory, we turn to the defenders of Ukraine: we are together, we are convinced of the strength and steadfastness of those who defend Democracy, Freedom, and Human Values! Resistance is not just military resistance. The opposition of every citizen is not to succumb to provocations and panic, to prevent escalation of tensions, to refute fakes, to maintain clarity of thinking. A patriot is someone who invests in the development of the country and preserves its defense capabilities in a way accessible to him. For representatives of pedagogical and psychological sciences — is to maintain the national identity and unity of the nation at the level of consciousness of every citizen, territorial community, society. This is the strengthening of the subjectivity of every citizen through his awareness of Ukrainian history from the times of Kyivan Rus, Ukrainian mentality of freedom from the Cossack era, the spirit of Ukrainian democracy from the Constitution of Philip Orlyk, invincibility of the Ukrainian army from the victories of Peter Konashevych-Sahaidachnyi and Bohdan Khmelnytskyi, exercise of self-awareness by Hryhorii Skovoroda and Taras Shevchenko. Scientists of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine, as always, are ready for a dialogue with anyone who finds himself in difficult life circumstances, in situations of confusion or uncertainty, who needs advice or psychological help. We all have hard work ahead of us every day. But our goal is common and high — to preserve the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Ukraine. To this end, we have worked for Ukraine′s independence, we have also worked for the development of our state for the last 30 years, for this, we are mobilizing for further struggle! We will win! Glory to Ukraine!

Estamos ante una encrucijada global de proporciones nunca vistas. El planeta se calienta más rápido de lo esperado y enfrentamos condiciones climáticas cada vez más extremas, lo que pone en riesgo la sostenibilidad de la vida humana en el mediano y largo plazo. El nivel de los océanos está aumentando, los arrecifes de coral están muriendo, las especies se están extinguiendo, los glaciares se están derritiendo y las condiciones climáticas extremas se hacen cada vez más frecuentes con intensas olas de calor, inundaciones, huracanes, incendios y/o sequías. Para hacer frente a esta compleja situación, todos, personas e instituciones en los ámbitos nacional, regional y global, tenemos que hacer nuestra parte para evitar llegar a un punto de no retorno. Aunque Colombia solo genera el 0,6 % de los gases de efecto invernadero (GEI), es uno de los veinte países más amenazados por la crisis climática. Nuestro país alberga el 50 % de los páramos del mundo y es catalogado como una potencia en agua, biodiversidad y ambiente, aloja alrededor del 10 % de la fauna y flora del mundo, teniendo por ello un rol central en los esfuerzos globales que se realizan para mitigar los efectos del cambio climático. También es reconocido por ser el segundo país con más alta presencia en biodiversidad en la tierra, goza de dos océanos, cinco vertientes hidrográficas, ríos, lagunas y ciénagas, siendo de esta manera el agua un recurso fundamental para el desarrollo de las generaciones futuras. El país cuenta con grandes extensiones de páramos, los cuales son la fuente del 70 % de agua dulce en nuestro país y comparte al sur de nuestras fronteras con la Amazonía, considerada la selva tropical más extensa del planeta y el pulmón del mundo. Una porción representativa de ese 10 % del total de la biodiversidad mundial que tiene nuestro país, se encuentra dentro del Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (SINAP), del que hace parte el Sistema de Parques Nacionales Naturales y las Reservas Forestales (más de 17 millones de hectáreas), una fuente importante de bienes y servicios ecosistémicos, entre los cuales, el suministro del recurso hídrico incluye más del 62 % de los nacimientos de los acuíferos nacionales y abastece a casi un 80 % de la población colombiana. Así mismo, protege lagunas y ciénagas que contienen el 20 % de los recursos hídricos que abastecen la generación de energía eléctrica del país. En estas áreas protegidas se conservan muestras representativas de los ecosistemas naturales marinos y continentales, los cuales, además de albergar un gran número de especies de fauna y flora, contribuyen a la regulación del clima y protegen las cuencas hidrográficas. Es así como por su especial importancia ecológica, los Parques Nacionales Naturales tienen la función de conservar, proteger y salvaguardar sus ecosistemas de especial valor por medio del Estado y de los particulares. Esta gran riqueza ambiental del país está siendo amenazada por el uso indebido de los recursos naturales, lo que genera un acelerado deterioro de los ecosistemas, alterando su funcionalidad y poniendo en riesgo la biodiversidad. Esta problemática se ha convertido en un reto de primer orden para el Estado colombiano, sus autoridades ambientales y la sociedad en general. El Sector Defensa no ha sido ajeno a esta realidad, por lo que en el marco definido por la ley, la Presidencia de la República y el Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, ha reconocido el potencial desestabilizador de las afectaciones causadas por las diversas actividades ilícitas de los Grupos Armados Organizados (GAO), los Grupos Delincuenciales Organizados (GDO) y ciudadanos que hacen un uso indebido de los recursos naturales. Fenómenos como la siembra de cultivos ilícitos, la extracción ilícita de minerales, la tala indiscriminada, la ganadería extensiva, el acaparamiento de tierras, la pesca ilegal, la contaminación, el vertimiento de sustancias peligrosas y el tráfico ilegal de flora y fauna, han debilitado los ecosistemas nacionales. Estas actividades ilegales afectan los recursos hídricos del país, los suelos, los páramos y la atmósfera, produciendo efectos negativos que generan deforestación, pérdida de hábitats, extinción de especies, la destrucción de fuentes de agua, el deterioro de las tierras de cultivos e impactos negativos en las reservas forestales y las áreas que integran el Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas (SINAP). La degradación ambiental que hemos visto no solo es utilizada por las organizaciones criminales para obtener recursos que les permiten sostener su accionar delictivo en diversas zonas del país, más grave aún, se constituye en un atentado directo contra el porvenir de las generaciones futuras. Es por ello que el Sector Defensa ha reconocido el agua, la biodiversidad y el medio ambiente como activos estratégicos de interés nacional, con un carácter principal y prevalente, buscando apoyar con sus capacidades a las autoridades ambientales del país, con el fin de realizar acciones cada vez más eficaces contra las organizaciones criminales responsables del deterioro ambiental. Es en ese contexto surge la idea de este libro, que busca presentar la problemática que se enfrenta y visibilizar las acciones realizadas por el Sector Defensa en coordinación con las autoridades ambientales, con el fin de apoyar la defensa de estos activos estratégicos, así como prevenir los daños futuros a los mismos, en aras de trabajar en la protección de los recursos naturales, bajo una visión multidimensional de la seguridad. El Ministerio de Defensa (MDN) ha sido consciente de los desafíos climáticos a los que se enfrenta, no solo el Sector, sino el territorio nacional, en cuanto a los impactos cada vez mayores derivados de las condiciones meteorológicas extremas y la explotación de los recursos. Por ello, el Sector ha trabajado para alinearse con la Política Nacional de Cambio Climático, los compromisos del país ante la Contribución Nacionalmente Determinada (NDC), el cumplimiento del CONPES 4021 de diciembre de 2020 para el Control de la Deforestación y la Gestión Sostenible de Bosques, para así aportar con acciones de adaptación, mitigación y gestión del riesgo ante el cambio climático y variabilidad climática mediante del Plan de Gestión de Cambio Climático del Sector Defensa (PIGCCSD). Este libro reúne los principales resultados del Sector Defensa en materia de protección del medio ambiente y resalta la articulación de las políticas, así como de la operativización de las mismas por parte de las Fuerzas Militares y la Policía Nacional, por la protección de los recursos naturales de la Nación, una responsabilidad que ha quedado claramente plasmada en la “Estrategia Artemisa”, que es un esfuerzo permanente, sostenido, conjunto, coordinado, e interinstitucional que permitirá proteger y defender el agua, la biodiversidad y el medio ambiente como activos estratégicos de la Nación, a partir de la lucha contra la deforestación, sus causas directas o subyacentes y contrarrestar los efectos del cambio climático, como también la lucha contra la explotación ilícita de minerales, contra los cultivos ilícitos que afectan el medio ambiente y el conjunto de actividades de control y vigilancia que apoya nuestra Fuerza Pública para la defensa de los recursos naturales. Trabajando de forma articulada con la Fiscalía, el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible, el Instituto de Hidrología, Meteorología y Estudios Ambientales (Ideam), y la Unidad de Parques Nacionales Naturales, en diversas zonas del país, la Estrategia Artemisa ha permitido brindar apoyo a las autoridades ambientales y administrativas, para preservar y defender el agua, la biodiversidad y el medio ambiente en las áreas de reserva forestal, áreas protegidas y 59 Parques Nacionales Naturales. Mediante la Directiva Permanente 008 del 22 de marzo de 2022, el MDN institucionalizó e impartió lineamientos e instrucciones al Comando General de las Fueras Militares, la Dirección General de la Policía Nacional y la Unidad de Gestión General del MDN, con el propósito de implementar medidas, desplegar operaciones, actividades de apoyo y gestión ambiental, para la implementación de la Estrategia Artemisa. De esta forma y bajo un enfoque sostenido, conjunto, coordinado, interinstitucional y multilateral, se trabajará para incluir dentro de la doctrina militar y policial las acciones relacionadas con la protección del agua, la diversidad y el medio ambiente, al tiempo que se concentrarán los esfuerzos de inteligencia en la identificación del modus operandi de las organizaciones criminales que afectan el medio ambiente, desarrollando operaciones contra los GAO y los GDO que atentan contra el medio ambiente. Desde el 2019 a la fecha se han realizado diecisiete (17) operaciones sobre las áreas de los Parques Nacionales Naturales, especialmente en las regiones de la Amazonía y la Orinoquía, como son los Parques Nacionales Naturales (PNN) Serranía de Chiribiquete, PNN La Paya, PNN Tinigua, PNN Picachos, PNN Sierra de La Macarena, la Zona de Reserva Forestal de la Amazonía y la Reserva Natural Nukak. Se han dispuesto, para esta campaña, 22.300 hombres de la Fuerza Pública, que, desde sus respectivas unidades militares y policiales resguardan las áreas protegidas del territorio nacional. Estas unidades incluyen: 10 batallones de alta montaña (páramos), una brigada contra el narcotráfico, una brigada contra la minería ilegal, unidades de guardacostas, infantería de marina y efectivos de la Policía Nacional. El Sector Defensa es consciente de que a futuro será fundamental continuar fortaleciendo las capacidades de la Fuerza Pública para, en el marco de sus competencias, continuar apoyando a las autoridades ambientales, entes territoriales y a la comunidad en la defensa y preservación del agua, la biodiversidad y el medio ambiente como activos estratégicos de la Nación. Será fundamental profundizar la disrupción del delito de la explotación ilícita de minerales, mediante el desmantelamiento de las economías ilícitas que se lucran de ella y de la afectación de la cadena criminal. En igual medida, será vital apoyar la recuperación de los ecosistemas más afectados por las actividades ilegales, por medio de actividades de restauración de áreas, del trabajo articulado con las comunidades, la construcción y mantenimiento de viveros forestales y el fortalecimiento a las investigaciones científicas lideradas desde la Armada Nacional y la Dirección General Marítima para la protección de los océanos, el recurso hídrico y sus ecosistemas. De esta forma será posible continuar trabajando en la reducción de los riesgos que se ciernen sobre los ecosistemas del país y disminuir los índices de deforestación, y tras la búsqueda de soluciones que contribuyan a la reducción y mitigación de los GEI. Esta estrategia que ha puesto en marcha el Sector Defensa y que es recogido en esta obra, presenta los aportes sectoriales del trabajo interinstitucional que se han venido realizando en los últimos años, siendo un ejemplo de la forma en la que se pueden sumar esfuerzos para contribuir a la superación de la encrucijada global que nos afecta a todos y que debe ser enfrentada con un esfuerzo común.