Готові списки джерел за темами / Reparations, 1934

Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Reparations, 1934"

Автор: Grafiati
Опубліковано: 26 липня 2024
Оновлено: 28 липня 2024

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Статті в журналах з теми "Reparations, 1934"

1

Astore, Marianna, and Michele Fratianni. "‘We can't pay’: how Italy dealt with war debts after World War I." Financial History Review 26, no. 2 (March 14, 2019): 197–222. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565019000039.

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The article deals with Italian inter-war debts against the background of the contentious international issue of war reparations that many Allied nations wanted to link to war debt repayments. Italy, having first achieved an extremely large haircut by restructuring US and UK debts in 1925-6, defaulted in 1934, after the Lausanne conference of 1932 failed to deliver war debt forgiveness. We construct a new series of Italian foreign debt from 1925 to 1934 that is consistent with the unfolding of relevant historical events. Starting in 1926, our values are much lower than the currently available foreign debt series. The reason is that the current series do not take into account the large haircut that Finance Minister Volpi extracted from the London debt accord of 1926. Then, beginning in 1932, the values of our series exceed the currently available series because we date the formal Italian exit of the US war debt to 1934, whereas the current series dates it to 1932, at Lausanne.
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Andersen, Astrid Nonbo. "Hvornår er sager om historiske uretfærdigheder forældede? – dynamikken mellem historieforståelse, erstatningskrav og retsopgør." Slagmark - Tidsskrift for idéhistorie, no. 60 (March 9, 2018): 53–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.7146/sl.v0i60.103988.

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The Durban Conference in 2011 brought international attention to the question of the descendants of victims of slavery and colonialism were entitled to reparations. Shortly after the Durban Conference several cases were filed in the USA by amongst other The Herero People Reparation Corporation claiming reparations from the German State for the Genocide on the Herero-people in 1904-07. These types of cases raise a host of complex questions – amongst others the question of when a historical injustice is too old to be subject for reparations. But as this paper explores the answer to this question depends not only on law but also the dominating politics of history, political will, and historical consciousness. A fact that might also have some influence on the Danish debate on reparations for slavery in the former Danish West-Indies.
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Namakula, Catherine S. "Reparations without reparation: A critique of the Germany–Namibia Accord on colonial genocide." African Yearbook on International Humanitarian Law 2021 (2021): 46–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.47348/ayih/2021/a2.

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Reparation is meant for effect: to make amends. The offer of EUR 1,100 million by the Federal Republic of Germany to the Republic of Namibia, in an agreement of June 2021, for the genocide committed during the colonial-era occupation encourages debate about the categorisation and effect of the payment in the fields of human rights and international criminal justice. The genocide was characterised by the loss of the lives of thousands of people among the Nama and Herero of Namibia between 1904 and 1908. In a pioneering analysis, this article reiterates the principles of reparation in international criminal jurisprudence as a yardstick for this significant gesture of remorse. Reparations must meet both procedural and substantive requirements: they must be proportional, appropriate, prompt and adequate, and they must culminate from a process that ensures the meaningful participation of victims and judicious regard for all relevant factors and circumstances. Reparations for the sake of it, without the remedial effect, make a mockery of justice. An agreement for development aid, however generous, cannot meet the standards of reparation for gross human rights violations. It does not oust the jurisdiction of a competent court on the matter and the pre-emptive clause intended to make the financial component in the Germany–Namibia Accord conclusive is unenforceable. This significant discourse must be guided by clearly set standards to avoid replicating the power dynamics which characterised the commission of the crimes that are intended to be addressed. Furthermore, the distinct treatment of victims on the basis of race and colonial history is repugnant and not defensible. A formidable institutional framework is needed for reparations for the trans-Atlantic trade and trafficking in enslaved Africans and colonial crimes, comprising a United Nations independent mechanism and a specialised committee of the African Union, supported by national committees of the respective countries.
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Mierzejewski, Alfred C. "The German National Railway Company, 1924–1932: Between Private and Public Enterprise." Business History Review 67, no. 3 (1993): 406–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0007680500070355.

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This article examines some major aspects of the history of the state-owned, privately operated German National Railway Company under the reparations regime of 1924 to 1932. It explores the dispute that erupted between the Reichsbahn and the government concerning whether the DRG should be used primarily to serve national economic and social ends or to earn a surplus to pay reparations. The controversies that erupted concerning tariffs, motor vehicle competition, and wages are examined against the background of the Reichsbahn's financial performance. The article argues that the political and cultural clashes caused by the introduction of Western management priorities and practices were more significant than the financial burdens that reparations imposed on the Reichsbahn.
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Ritschl, Albrecht O. "Krieg, Verteilungskonflikt, Reparationen: die deutsche Inflation von 1920 bis 1923." Wirtschaftsdienst 103, no. 2 (February 1, 2023): 90–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/wd-2023-0028.

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Abstract Germany’s hyperinflation resulted from a confluence of several factors, all of which contributed to a temporary breakdown in state capacity and to unsustainable public sector deficits. Wartime debt deflated by 90% already in 1920. Informal wage indexation and failure to enforce collection of a new progressive income tax contributed to recurrent inflation. Unsustainable reparations were met by purchasing gold abroad, further accelerating inflation. Conflict over reparation arrears resulted in the military occupation of the Ruhr industry district in early 1923. Stabilisation occurred after informal moratoria on both international and internal conflict, allowing for budget stabilisation and a two-step currency reform, as well as a return to gold in 1924.
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Yee, Robert. "Reparations revisited: the role of economic advisers in reforming German central banking and public finance." Financial History Review 27, no. 1 (December 26, 2019): 45–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0968565019000258.

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The economic advisers of the 1924 Dawes Committee enacted currency and banking reforms as a means of resolving financial and geopolitical problems. Although the committee members stated that they had no plans to resolve the Ruhr occupation, evidence from the technical advisers demonstrated the opposite. Economists Edwin Kemmerer, Joseph Davis and Arthur Young sought to appease Franco-Belgian demands for a resolution to the reparations debate by balancing the German budget and reorganising the banking system, thereby also addressing the question of military occupation. This research delves into the advisers’ reports on public finance, currency stabilisation and the gold standard, arguing that their attempts to assuage reparation-related concerns rested on major reforms to German central banking.
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Mierzejewski, Alfred C. "Payments and Profits: The German National Railway Company and Reparations, 1924-1932." German Studies Review 18, no. 1 (February 1995): 65. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1431519.

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Wixforth, Harald. "The Economic Consequences of the First World War." Contemporary European History 11, no. 3 (July 31, 2002): 477–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0960777302003090.

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Arthur Turner, The Cost of War: British Policy on French War Debts, 1918–1932 (Brighton: Sussex Academic Press, 1998), 272pp., £45.00 (hb), ISBN 1-898723-37-0.Patricia Clavin, The Great Depression in Europe, 1929–1939 (Basingstoke: Macmillan/Palgrave 2000) 244pp., £13.99 (pb), ISBN 0-333-60681-7.Karl Mayer, Zwischen Krise und Krieg. Frankreich in der Außenpolitik der United States zwischen Wirtschaftskrise und Zweitem Weltkrieg (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1999), 275pp., DM 84.00, ISBN 3-515-07373-6.Christoph Buchheim and Redvers Garside, eds., After the Slump. Industry and Politics in 1930s Britain and Germany (New York and Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2000), 235pp., DM 69.00. ISBN 3-631-34912-2.Philipp Heyde, Das Ende der Reparationen. Deutschland, Frankreich und der Youngplan 1929–1932. Paderborn: Schöningh, 1998), 506 pp., DM 134.00 ISBN 3-506-77507-3.Monika Rosengarten, Die Internationale Handelskammer. Wirtschaftspolitische Empfehlungen in der Zeit der Weltwirtschaftskrise 1929–1939 (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2001), 360 pp., DM 148.00, ISBN 3-428-10411-0.
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Davis, John R. "German Reparations, 1919–1932: A Historical Survey." Contemporary British History 26, no. 3 (September 2012): 430–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13619462.2012.701904.

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Moravcová, Dagmar. "Economic and political aspects of german reparations, 1918-1932." Acta Oeconomica Pragensia 13, no. 3 (October 1, 2005): 48–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.18267/j.aop.150.

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Дисертації з теми "Reparations, 1934"

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Cheung, Hok-wong. "The demand for reparations and the grievances of war crime victims in China /." View Abstract or Full-Text, 2002. http://library.ust.hk/cgi/db/thesis.pl?SOSC%202002%20CHEUNG.

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Jones, Adrian Philip. "Resistance, rejection, reparation : Anne Sexton and the poetry of therapy." Phd thesis, Department of English, 2010. http://hdl.handle.net/2123/8384.

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Lauter, Anna-Monika. "Sicherheit und Reparationen : die französische Öffentlichkeit, der Rhein und die Ruhr 1919-1923 /." Essen : Klartext, 2006. http://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb41244220x.

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Santos, Sheila Cristina. "Tempo de reparação: história de resistências e o processo de anistia aos operários perseguidos em São Paulo (1964-1979)." Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, 2015. http://tede2.pucsp.br/handle/handle/2536.

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Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-25T20:21:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sheila Cristina Santos.pdf: 854701 bytes, checksum: 04a51b7a58e5a7fa7e7a4124bd304ed0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-04-10
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico
In 1985, Brazil started a process of returning to Democracy after 21 years of establishment of civil-military dictatorship (1964-1985). During this period, numerous Brazilian citizens had their rights annulled, were expelled from the country, banned from their jobs, victims of persecution and often subjected to forced exile because of a repressive apparatus that offered no possibility of defense. The dictatorship acted swiftly to keep "under control" the political opposition that were being organized in the country. First, with the decrees and laws that legitimized the actions of the new regime, later with the publication of Institutional Act no. 5 (AI-5) which compromised radically all sectors of public life through the establishment of full censorship vetoed the right to protest, opposition and individual freedoms. The arrests those who resisted in the moment of the Overthrow, interventions in the labor unions, persecution of workers and students, the annihilation of the armed resistance groups, are characteristic of a "time" of our history that left many sequels and culminated, later, in a long process of reparation to victims. By the 10,559 Act, of November 13, 2002, the Brazilian State establishes conditions for financial and moral reparation to citizens who were affected by the strong action of political repression unleashed during the military regime. Among the sectors most affected in this period, is notable the violence against the labor movement that, from the beginning, adopted different ways of resistance. In December 2012, in open court in the Memorial de Resistência de São Paulo, several workers had the opportunity to see their stories told, receiving the official State's apology, through the Amnesty Commission of the Ministry of Justice and hence be "benefit" with their financial reparations due to the suffered persecution, imprisonment, exile and the damage caused in their personal lives and in their professional careers. The records and the memory of the labor movement will compose one of the most beautiful stories of resistance in the recent history of our country
Em 1985, o Brasil inicia um processo de retorno democrático após 21 anos de instauração da ditadura civil-militar (1964-1985). Durante esse período, inúmeros cidadãos brasileiros tiveram seus direitos cassados, foram expulsos do país, banidos dos seus postos de trabalho, vítimas de perseguições e, muitas vezes, submetidos ao exílio forçado por conta de um aparato repressivo que não ofereceu chances de defesa. A ditadura agiu rapidamente para manter sob controle as oposições políticas que se articulavam no país. Em princípio, com os decretos e leis que legitimaram as ações do novo regime; posteriormente, com a edição do Ato Institucional n. 5 (AI-5) que comprometeu de forma radical todos os setores da vida pública, através do estabelecimento da censura plena que vetou o direito à manifestação, à oposição e as liberdades individuais. As prisões aos que resistiram no momento imediato ao Golpe, as intervenções nos meios sindicais, a perseguição aos trabalhadores e estudantes, o aniquilamento aos grupos de resistência armada, são características de um tempo da nossa história que deixou muitas sequelas e que culminou, posteriormente, num longo processo de reparação às vítimas. Por meio da Lei 10.559, de 13 de novembro de 2002, o Estado brasileiro estabeleceu condições de reparação financeira e moral aos cidadãos que foram atingidos pela ação da forte repressão política desencadeada durante o regime militar. Dentre os setores mais atingidos nesse período, destaca-se a violência praticada ao movimento operário que, desde o início, adotou diferentes formas de resistência. Em dezembro de 2012, em audiência pública no Memorial de Resistência de São Paulo, vários trabalhadores tiveram a oportunidade de ver suas histórias contadas, de receber o pedido de desculpas oficiais do Estado, através da Comissão de Anistia do Ministério da Justiça e, consequentemente, serem beneficiados com as respectivas reparações financeiras por conta das perseguições e prisões sofridas, pelo exílio e pelos danos causados na vida pessoal e em suas trajetórias profissionais. Os registros e a memória do movimento operário irá compor uma das mais belas histórias de resistência da recente história do nosso país
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Hainbuch, Dirk [Verfasser]. "Das Reichsministerium für Wiederaufbau 1919 bis 1924 : Die Abwicklung des Ersten Weltkrieges: Reparationen, Kriegsschäden-Beseitigung, Opferentschädigung und der Wiederaufbau der deutschen Handelsflotte / Dirk Hainbuch." Frankfurt a.M. : Peter Lang GmbH, Internationaler Verlag der Wissenschaften, 2016. http://d-nb.info/1129544761/34.

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Ribeiro, Patrícia da Silva. "Em luto e luta: construindo a memória da FEB." reponame:Repositório Institucional do FGV, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10438/11296.

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This thesis aims at the investigation of how the issue of conflicting memories about the participation of the Brazilian Expeditionary Force (BEF) during World War II is configured today . To accomplish this goal, it was necessary to take into account not only the political players that act in this process – among others: State, Army, Veteran's Associations and society – as well as the fluctuations and appropriations of their memory. Traumatic memories of the veterans about this event arise through different ways of self-writing – with special emphasis on journals, letters and interviews – and lead to the notion of the duty of memory in the fight for reparation and recognition.
O presente trabalho procura investigar como se configura atualmente o campo da disputa memorial sobre a participação da Força Expedicionária Brasileira (FEB) durante a Segunda Guerra Mundial. Para isso, foi preciso levar em conta não apenas os sujeitos políticos que atuam nesse processo – entre outros: Estado, Exército, Associações de veteranos e sociedade – como também as flutuações e apropriações de memória das quais se valem. As memórias traumáticas que os veteranos guardam desse episódio ganham voz através das diversas modalidades da escrita de si – com destaque para os diários, as correspondências e entrevistas – e remetem à noção do dever de memória na luta por reparação e reconhecimento.
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TOLLEFSEN, Trond Ove. "The British-German fight over dismantling : the removal of industrial plants as reparations after the Second World War and its political repercussions." Doctoral thesis, 2016. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/41938.

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Defence date: 9 June 2016
Examining Board: Professor Youssef Cassis, EUI (Supervisor); Professor Anne Deighton, Oxford University (External Supervisor); Professor Federico Romero, EUI; Professor Gabriele Clemens, Hamburg University.
The programme of dismantling German factories for reparations caused the biggest crisis in the relationship between British and the Germans during the apost-Second World War occupation years. By 1949, the peak year for dismantling in the British Zone, the Germans were convinced that the British, alone among the Allies, were pushing for continued dismantling, and that they were doing so for purely commercial reasons. The dismantling campaign has been almost exclusively by economic historian, with the consensus being that its effect was limited. This raises the question of why it turned into such a bitter political conflict. My thesis explores the dismantling programme from this angle. I show that the renewed dismantling programme from 1947 onwards caused rifts inwards in the British occupation apparatus, as the punitive aspects of the dismantling campaign and the strong German reaction against it started threatening what the British saw as their positive mission in Germany, re-educating the Germans. It caused a rift between the Allies, as the US Congress started a massive campaign to end dismantling in connection with the Marshall Aid, and with the French vacillating between ending and continuing dismantling. In Germany itself, the dismantling programme became an issue where the political parties, industry groups and labour unions sought to exploit the groundswell of popular discontent against dismantling for their own, wider political goals, often with a troublesome nationalistic rhetoric. Dismantling as a major political issue ended with the Petersberg agreement in November 1949. By this time the conflict over dismantling had festered for so long that it was relatively easy for the Adenauer government to sideline the British and focus their attentions on rapprochement with France and European economic integration. The most original part of the research focuses on how British debates on whether to proceed or end dismantling, and how British dismantling policies were shaped by other occupation goals focused on a particular British conception of power. The British increasingly saw dismantling as influencing British prestige, meant to compensate for lagging relative power. I define what the British meant by their prestige in this question, its imperial origins and how it failed.
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GLATT, Carl. "Reparations and the transfer of scientific and industrial technology from Germany : a case study of the roots of British industrial policy and of aspects of British occupation policy in Germany between Post-World War II, reconstruction and the Korean War, 1943-1951." Doctoral thesis, 1994. http://hdl.handle.net/1814/5773.

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Defence date: 12 December 1994
Examining Board: Prof. Werner Abelshauser (University of Bielefeld) ; Prof. Albert Carreras (European University Institute, Florence) ; Prof. Peter Hertner (European University Institute, Florence) ; Prof. Alan S. Milward (supervisor, London School of Economics) ; Prof. Ulrich Wengenroth (University of Munich)
PDF of thesis uploaded from the Library digitised archive of EUI PhD theses completed between 2013 and 2017
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Destroismaisons, Martin. "L'occupation de la Ruhr et le révisionnisme de l'ordre versaillais dans deux grands journaux français (1920-1924)." Thèse, 2008. http://hdl.handle.net/1866/7699.

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Naidoo, Renay. "Restitution of land rights : the requirement of feasibility of restoration." Diss., 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/21164.

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The purpose of the Restitution of Land Rights Act 22 of 1994 is to provide for the restitution of rights in land to persons or communities dispossessed of such rights after 19 June 1913 as a result of past racially discriminatory laws or practices. The restitution of a right in land can include the restoration of a right in land. The aim of this dissertation is to investigate the requirement of feasibility in restoring land rights and in particular the role of feasibility studies and the courts’ interpretation of the feasibility requirement in restoring such rights. The methodology used includes a review of literature, legislation and policies on land restitution and an analysis of case law. The outcome of the research indicates that while actual restoration ought to take preference in all instances, it may only be granted once all the relevant circumstances and factors have been considered. In certain circumstances it may not be feasible to restore land rights.
Private Law
LL. M. (Property Law)
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Книги з теми "Reparations, 1934"

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Ritschl, Albrecht. Deutschlands Krise und Konjunktur 1924-1934: Binnenkonjunktur, Auslandsverschuldung und Reparationsproblem zwischen Dawes-Plan und Transfersperre. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 2002.

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Gomes, Leonard. German Reparations, 1919–1932. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465.

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D, Rosensaft Joana, and Fordham University. School of Law, eds. The early history of German-Jewish reparations. New York: Fordham University School of Law, 2001.

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Unverferth, Gabriele, Karl-Peter Ellerbrock, Margrit Schulte Beerbühl, and Klaus Tenfelde. Erster Weltkrieg, Bürgerkrieg und Ruhrbesetzung: Dortmund und das Ruhrgebiet 1914/18-1924. Dortmund: Gesellschaft für Westfälische Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 2010.

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Gomes, Leonard. German reparations, 1919-1932: A historical survey. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010.

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M, Góralski Witold, Dębski Sławomir, and Polski Instytut Spraw Międzynarodowych, eds. Problem reparacji, odszkodowań i świadczeń w stosunkach polsko-niemieckich 1944-2004. Warszawa: Polski Instytut Spraw Międzynarodowych, 2004.

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Heikkilä, Hannu. The question of European reparations in Allied policy, 1943-1947. Helsinki: SHS, 1988.

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Heikkila, Hannu. The Question of European Reparations in Allied Policy: 1943-1947. Helsinki: Finnish Historical Society, 1988.

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Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service., ed. Japan's World War II reparations: A fact sheet. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1991.

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Library of Congress. Congressional Research Service, ed. Japan's World War II reparations: A fact sheet. [Washington, D.C.]: Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress, 1991.

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Частини книг з теми "Reparations, 1934"

1

Gomes, Leonard. "Introduction." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 1–2. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_1.

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Gomes, Leonard. "Reparations and the Legacy of War." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 3–46. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_2.

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Gomes, Leonard. "Summits on Sums." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 47–83. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_3.

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Gomes, Leonard. "Fulfilment Crises and Allied Disunity." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 84–140. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_4.

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Gomes, Leonard. "From Dawes to Young." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 141–91. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_5.

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Gomes, Leonard. "The End of Reparations (and After)." In German Reparations, 1919–1932, 192–227. London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230277465_6.

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ten Gate, Johannes Houwink. "Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht and the Reparation Payments (1924–1930)." In German Yearbook on Business History 1988, 73–111. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-75512-5_3.

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Marin, André. "La Reparation Du Dommage Corporel En Europe: Tentative D’Harmonisation." In Acta Medicinæ Legalis Vol. XLIV 1994, 404–10. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-79523-7_131.

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Larche-Mochel, M., C. Dalm, and J. Doignon. "Reflexions Sur L’Aggravation et L’Etat Antérieur Dans La Reparation du Dommage Corporel." In Acta Medicinæ Legalis Vol. XLIV 1994, 393–96. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1995. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-79523-7_127.

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Boyer, John W. "The Reconstruction of a Republican Political System, 1945‒1955." In Austria 1867–1955, 861–961. Oxford University PressOxford, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198221296.003.0011.

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Анотація:
Abstract This final chapter describes the work of Austrian leaders after 1945 to revive the Republic of 1920 under the pressures of the Soviet occupation and the onset of the Cold War in Central and Eastern Europe. The “new” Austria of 1945 came to be governed under the aegis of a restored liberal constitution—the Constitution of 1920, as revised in 1929—and under a second set of constitution-like “liberal” institutions, namely, the Allied Control Council operating under its Control Agreements of 1945 and 1946 as a parallel instrument of power. For Karl Renner, Adolf Schärf, and other Socialists, April 1945 was a chance to restart a history of equity and justice that had ended badly in March 1933 and February 1934. For Leopold Figl and the Catholics, in contrast, April 1945 was a chance to salvage their traditional cultural values and to defend pre-1938 industrial and commercial structures without acknowledging any shame about 1934. Even so, the moderate Catholics and right-wing Socialists joined in a hyper-partisan but effective coalition government that endured until 1966. Citing the Moscow Declaration of 1943 leaders of both the Socialists and the Catholics argued that Austria had been occupied by an external power in March 1938 against its will, and this act of aggression gave the new state of 1945 the status of an official victim under international law. This “victim” thesis (Opferthese) eliminated the need or duty to pay restitution or make reparations, since Austria as a sovereign state after 1945 was not itself either to blame for or to be held legally accountable for the criminal acts committed by the Nazi regime on its territories between 1938 and 1945. Slowly, as the renewed Republic succeeded and gained public credibility and legitimacy, the idea of an Austrian nation emerged, and by the 1960s and 1970s public opinion polls began to show a clear trend of popular confidence in the conception of an unambiguous Austrian national identity. With the massive influx of US development funds under the Marshall Plan, the Red–Black coalition government managed to push forward negotiations for a State Treaty, signed in May 1955 and ending the foreign occupation.
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