Добірка наукової літератури з теми "New South Wales Gold discoveries"

The discovery of gold in Australia forced many changes to theory on the occurrence and origin of gold deposits. Initial discoveries appeared to confirm existing ideas on the global distribution of gold-bearing terrains. Later discoveries and research would show that this confirmation was largely coincidental, but nevertheless helpful in early prospecting. Prior to the first Australian gold rush, theoretical predictions of payable gold were made by Sir Roderick Murchison and Rev. W. B. Clarke based on knowledge of accidental gold finds and geological analogy with known areas of significant gold occurrence, particularly the Ural region in Russia. These predictions were overwhelmed when Edward Hargraves, realised he might be able to spark a gold rush that would prove the existence of payable gold. Hargraves travelled to the Bathurst region of New South Wales where numerous gold finds had already been made and with local guides, prospected Lewis Ponds Creek and the Macquarie River. He demonstrated the methods of alluvial mining, to John Lister and William and James Tom enabling them to find sufficient alluvial gold to initiate a gold rush. The crowd of attracted diggers demonstrated the existence of a payable goldfield. The unstoppable first rush resulted in the pragmatic introduction of government regulation and administration to allow alluvial gold mining. Other discoveries of payable goldfields quickly followed. As the local scientific expert on gold, W. B. Clarke was commissioned to conduct two extensive surveys of the goldfields between 1851 and 1853. Clarke also drew on his geological knowledge to provide practical advice to the thousands of prospecting gold diggers. Gold-bearing quartz reefs and lodes were discovered, but it was predicted that these could not be mined economically. Theory also predicted that the reef gold would not continue to depth. Practical observations and mining experience from the numerous discoveries led to revision of the widely held dicta on gold occurrence. Alluvial gold was found in a range of settings, including the recent drainage and ancient and buried leads. A wider variety of rock types was recognised as favourable for gold. Different styles of reef gold were identified and found to be economically mineable to great depth. Evolving ideas on the origin of gold deposits were widely discussed, tested, and refined. Of the many players involved in the early discovery of gold in Australia, Clarke, Hargraves and Murchison probably had the greatest overall influence in terms of theoretical predication and practical outcomes that initiated the Australian gold-mining industry.

ABSTRACTThis paper provides description and context for some of the discoveries made by the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Wales during aerial reconnaissance in the drought conditions of the summer of 2018. New discoveries include two marching camps, three auxiliary forts and a remarkable series of stone buildings outside the fort at Pen y Gaer. The photographs also clarify the plan of several known villas as well as identifying some potential villa sites and enclosure systems of probable Romano-British date in south-eastern, south-western and north-western Wales. The recognition of a new road alignment south of Carmarthen is suggestive of another coastal fort at or near Kidwelly.

AbstractThis article examines debates over Chinese indentured labor in the Australasian colonies at the height of the gold rushes. It does so through the testimony of Chinese gold miners who protested the seizure of their gold by customs officials in Sydney Harbour. As a result of these protests, a “New South Wales Select Committee into the Seizure of Gold from Chinese Miners” was established in 1857 to investigate customs law and “coolie” rights. The findings of this committee uncovered Chinese and white settler memories over failed coolie transportation schemes, revealing the ways in which the legacies of coolie migration continued to shape understandings in the Australian colonies of law, labor rights, and fair taxation well after the cessation of such schemes in the 1840s. The archive of Chinese grievance against the colonial state, preserved in testimonies given to the select committee, reveal the long shadow of slavery in the British Empire, the complexities of multiracial communities, and the role of law and legal institutions in shaping both.

The development of an open pit mine at the Endeavour 42 (E42) epithermal gold deposit, situated in the Junee-Narromine Volcanic Belt of the Ordovician Macquarie Arc, central New South Wales, has provided a 3D view of the structurally controlled deposit which was hitherto not available due to the paucity of outcrop in the region. Outcropping geological relationships present a complicated history of overprinting structural deformation and vein events, including the spatial characterization of the gold-mineralizing system. Host rocks consisting of interbedded sedimentary and resedimented volcaniclastic facies, trachyandesite and porphyritic andesite lavas and intrusions (coherent and autoclastic facies), intruded by a large diorite sill, were initially tilted and faulted, followed by the emplacement of multiple dyke phases along faults. Economic gold mineralization at E42 is restricted to faults, fault-hosted breccias, and veins, and was deposited over a period spanning two distinct structural regimes. Early gold-bearing veins are steeply dipping and interpreted as forming coevally along two sets of faults and dykes within a tensional stress regime. High grade fault-hosted, hydrothermally cemented breccia intervals are included temporally with early gold-bearing veins based on comparable mineralogy and steep, fault parallel orientations. Crosscutting the early steep gold-bearing vein sets are two populations of coeval inclined gold-bearing veins, dipping moderately to the southwest and northwest, respectively, which formed in a compressional stress regime with tension directed subvertically. The E42 epithermal deposit likely developed in the period of overall crustal extension, ca. 443-433 Ma, following Phase 1 of the Late Ordovician – Early Silurian Benambran Orogeny. The generation of permeability, styles of fracture propagation, and the reactivation of pre-existing planes of weakness in the rock package are key factors in the development and current geometry of the E42 gold deposit. High grade veins and faults are commonly flanked by sericite-quartz ± carbonate alteration haloes, which exhibit consistent geochemical patterns for metals and pathfinder elements, both laterally away from structures, and vertically within the deposit. Au, Ag, As, Hg, Sb, Tl, Cu, Pb, and Zn, all display increasing concentrations towards high-grade structures, as well as higher up in the epithermal system, with varying dispersion haloes.

Alluvial mining for gold was from fi rst to last the almost sole cause of attraction for Chinese immigrants in the Australian Colonies during the mid to late nineteenth-century. The primary goal that drew thousands of predominantly Cantonese speaking Chinese to the goldfields during that time was the fulfilment of group duty rather than the pursuit of individual success. Gold was a means to fulfil the social responsibilities of filial piety, to pay homage to one's ancestors, glorify the lineage and elevate the status of the family. Initial arrivals in Australia, and NSW, in the 1850s and 1860s were extremely well organised through group employment arrangements, usually under the direction of a 'headman'. During those years, large groups, sometimes numbering in the hundreds, traversed the land to newly discovered goldfields. On their arrival at a new location with their limited possessions, such groups established temporary tent camps, and new arrivals were naturally attracted to existing settlements. As the Chinese population became settled their calico tents were abandoned in favour of more durable huts, usually made from local material. Those settlements functioned as homogenous and segregated communities, with many persisting as permanent villages for up to 40 years, albeit in an ever-diminishing capacity, until the end of the nineteenth-century. Although almost ignored by history and lost to memory, these now largely hidden Chinese goldfield settlements tenaciously endure in the rural Australian landscape as evidence of the resilient community structure of the world's longest continuous civilisation. Archaeological investigations have allowed this structure to be seen in the physical and symbolic characteristics of several of those settlements in southeastern NSW, in their locations across the landscape, their composition and in their material culture remains. This thesis is the first to investigate and combine all of the elements that comprised mid to late nineteenth-century overseas Chinese settlements in rural Australian locations, and to compare them with each other at regional, national and international levels. It contends that such settlements in rural southeastern NSW conformed to a highly codified hierarchical pattern of community organisation in both a physical and perceived landscape. It asserts that the physical landscape was imprinted with traditional material elements of Chinese community organisation and the perceived landscape was imbued by its occupants with the symbolic animistic elements of Chinese culture, including dragons, which were seen as integral to the welfare of such communities. This hierarchical pattern of community organisation, it is argued, was not only repeated throughout the study area and at similar mid to late nineteenth-century Chinese settlements elsewhere in Australia and overseas, but was also distinct and separate from contemporary British-based rural settlements. The establishment of such settlements in the 1850s and 1860s, their consolidation during the 1870s and 1880s, and their gradual demise, with the resultant movement of remnant Chinese communities into the predominant British settlement infrastructure of rural southeastern NSW towards the end of the nineteenth-century is also evident in the archaeological record.
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Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Sulfur- and lead-isotope signatures for 64 deposits/systems located in the Central and Easternn Subprovinces of the Lachlan Orogen in eastern New South Wales were characterised in the present study. Here are presented four new ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dates, 644 new sulfur- and 105 new leadisotope analyses, plus a collation of 386 unpublished and 277 published sulfur isotope and over 560 unpublished and published lead isotope analyses for middle Silurian to Early Carboniferous mineralisation. Measured δ³⁴S values for 22 VHMS deposits range between -7.4‰ to 38.3‰. S-isotope values for Currawang East, Lewis Ponds, Mount Bulga, Belara and Accost (Group 1) range from - 1.7‰ to 5.9‰ with the ore-forming fluids for this group of deposits likely to have been reducing and sulfur derived largely from magmatic sources. By contrast, S-isotope signatures for sulfides from Black Springs, Calula, Captains Flat, Commonwealth, Cordillera, Gurrundah, Kempfield, Peelwood mine, Sunny Corner, The Glen, Wet Lagoon and Woodlawn (Group 2) have average δ³⁴S values between 5.4‰ and 8.1‰. These deposits appear to have formed from ore fluids that were more oxidising than those for Group 1 deposits, representing a mixed contribution of sulfur derived from partial reduction of seawater sulfate, in addition to sulfur from other sources. Four deposits, Elsinora, John Fardy, Mount Costigan and Stringers, have heavier average δ³⁴S signatures (10.1‰ to 13.2‰) than Group 2 deposits, suggesting that these deposits included a greater component of sulfur of seawater origin. The S-isotope data for barite from Black Springs, Commonwealth, Stringers, Gurrundah, Kempfield and Woodlawn range from 12.6‰ to 38.3‰. Over 80% of the δ³⁴S values are between 23.4‰ and 30.9‰, close to the previously published estimates for the composition of seawater sulfate during Late Silurian to earliest Devonian times, providing supporting evidence that these deposits formed concurrently with a Late Silurian volcanic event. New Pb isotope data for eleven VHMS deposits included in the present study support earlier Pb-isotope studies which indicate that lead was largely sourced from the host sequence. However, the data for Black Springs, Elsinora and Commonwealth indicate that some lead, included in these deposits, was sourced from units forming basement to the Silurian troughs. Sulfur isotope values for thirteen orogenic gold systems range between -7.5‰ and 16.1‰ (excluding outliers). The Wyoming One–Myall United system has an average δ³⁴S value of -5.5‰ and a primitive mantle-derived lead isotope signature implying that sulfur and gold were sourced from a fractionated mantle-derived intrusion. The δ-isotope data for Adelong, Bodangora, Calarie, Hargraves, Hill End, London–Victoria, Sebastopol, Sofala–Wattle Flat and Stuart Town are all very similar with average δ³⁴S values close to 0‰ (range -2.8 to 3.4‰). Sulfur in these deposits was derived from reduced fluids, sources from magmatic reservoirs either as a direct input or through dissolution and recycling of rock sulfide. For deposits hosted by the northern HET it is suggested that sulfur and gold were sourced from mantle-derived units located beneath the HET rather than the siliclastic fill of the trough itself. Windeyer and Napoleon Reefs have heavier S-isotope signatures suggesting a greater contribution of sulfur derived from reduced seawater sulfate reservoirs. Springfield, located adjacent to the northern HET, has the heaviest S-isotope signature (15.4 δ³⁴S‰) for orogenic gold deposits included in the present study. For this deposit it is suggested that HET-derived basinal fluids containing reduced seawater sulfate migrated along faults and leached gold from Ordovician mantle-derived units forming basement to that area. Seven sulfide-rich orogenic base metal deposits were included in the present study. Average δ³⁴S values for Currawang South, Frogmore, Montrose, Ruby Creek, Wallah Wallah vary between 3.5‰ and 6.0‰ (Group 1), with Kangiara, and Lucky Hit–Merrilla, having heavier average δ³⁴S values (10.0‰ and 8.2‰ respectively — Group 2). Group 1 deposits are small, and S-isotope signatures suggest significant sulfur was sourced from magmatic reservoirs; whereas, Group 2 deposits are larger and δ³⁴S signatures indicate a larger component of sulfur was derived from reduced seawater sulfate reservoirs. The Pb-isotope data for these deposits suggest that the majority of the lead was derived from older Ordovician and Silurian crustal reservoirs. The data for Mount Werong and Merrilla support a Middle Devonian Pb-model age; whereas, those for Wallah Wallah point to an Early Carboniferous Pb-model age. Browns Reef, in the Central Subprovince, is now interpreted to be a syn-deformational orogenic base metal deposit, for which the S-isotope data are similar to Group 2 orogenic base metal deposits and Pb-isotope data suggest lead was sourced from the fill of the Rast Trough. Five epithermal systems were included in the present study. Bauloora, Bowdens and those in the Yerranderie district are intermediate-sulfidation epithermal systems; whereas, Yalwal and Pambula are low sulfidation epithermal systems. Yerranderie, Yalwal, Pambula and Bauloora have δ³⁴S values close to 0‰. Sulfur in these deposits was derived largely from a magmatic reservoir. The Yerranderie system is zoned with respect to S-isotope distribution and shows mineralogical zonation along the Yerranderie Fault. Yalwal is zoned with 0‰ S-isotope values correlating with sericitic alteration assemblages and heavier S-isotope values (up to 17.9 δ³⁴S‰) correlating with assemblages that include minerals characteristic of argillic alteration. Sixteen middle Silurian to Early Devonian intrusion-related deposits were included in the present study. Collector, Dargues Reef, Mayfield, Ryans, Tallawang, Whipstick and Yambulla are located east of the I–S granite line, with Dargues Reef, Majors Creek, Mayfield, Whipstick and Yambulla hosted by or adjacent to their causative intrusion. These deposits have S-isotope signatures close to 0‰ (range -3.6‰ to 3.0‰) similar to that for granites east of the I–S line (range -1.5‰ to 4.9‰). The Pb-isotope data for these deposits includes both crustal- and mantle-derived lead. Deposits distal to their causative intrusions (Collector and Ryans) have heavier S-isotope signatures (7.7‰ and 4.3‰ respectively) indicating that some sulfur was probably sourced from the host sequence. The majority of lead, for these deposits, was sourced from the host sequence and/or older reservoirs. The S-isotope data for Tallawang suggest that the sulfur was largely sourced from the host sequence. Eight deposits are located to the west of the I–S line. Nasdaq, Phoenix, Tara, Rye Park and Mineral Hill have heavier S-isotope signatures (range: 2.6‰ to 7.3‰) which overlap with the range of values typical of granites located to the west of the I–S line (1.9 to 9.6‰) supporting the interpretation that the majority of sulfur was derived from the causative intrusion. The Pb-isotope data for Nasdaq, Mineral Hill and Tara suggest that lead originated from the host sequence or from older lead reservoirs; whereas, at Rye Park and Phoenix lead was probably sourced from the causative intrusion. Ardlethan and Browns Creek deposits have near 0‰ S-isotope signatures, lower than the range of δ³⁴S values for granites west of the I–S line which is accounted for by mantle-derived volatiles and a possible biogenic sulfur component. The Pb-isotope data for these two deposits are consistent with a lead sourced largely from the causative intrusion; although, some mantlederived lead is probably present. Red Hill has the highest S-isotope signature (13.7‰) indicating that the majority of sulfur was sourced from a seawater sulfate reservoir. ⁴⁰Ar/³⁹Ar dating showed that intrusion-related mineralisation at Tara formed at 420 ± 2 Ma; VHMS-related mineralisation at The Glen (Glen E deposit) formed at 418.2 ± 2.2 Ma; and that the Yerranderie and Bauloora intermediate sulfidation epithermal systems formed at 372.1 ± 1.9 Ma and 371 ± 13 Ma (respectively). New dating plus a review of timing constraints to Tabberabberan and Kanimblan cycle-related mineralisation highlighted metallogenic events at ~430 Ma (intrusion-related), ~420 Ma (intrusion- and VHMS-related) and a mid Devonian epithermal event. The timing of orogenic-related mineralisation is diachronous across the study area with the majority of orogenic gold systems in the west forming during the Middle Devonian Tabberabberan Orogeny; whereas, similar mineralisation in the northern HET formed during the Early Carboniferous Kanimblan Orogeny.

For the first time in a single volume, this book brings together more than 140 of the best walks, tracks or trails in New South Wales, which can be walked by the moderately fit individual. They are located in national parks, coastal parks, state forests, conservation reserves, historic parks and local government and public easements. Other routes follow state highways, minor roads, coastal cliffs, old gold routes, or pass bushranger haunts and back roads linking towns and historical features. Most routes do not require specialist navigation or bushcraft skills, and vary in length from a 45-minute stroll to a 4-day, 65-kilometre camping trip. Walks, Tracks and Trails of New South Wales highlights the best the state has to offer, from an outback ghost town and ancient lake beds, to Australia’s highest mountain, coastal environments and World Heritage rainforests. Easy-to-interpret maps are included to help you navigate, and the book’s size makes it convenient to bring with you on your adventures.

Before any great expedition, there is a gathering of all of the forces—of the clans, the troops, the mercenaries—from near and far, by various routes. Once met, they will then travel en masse, their fortunes from then to be bound together, for good or ill. Sediment particles of the future pebble were gathering, around the shores of Avalonia, in the Silurian Period, for a journey that would take them to a resting place, one where they would not see the light of day for something over 400 million years. The grains of sand and flakes of mud, with all their variety and histories, were being washed into some long-vanished shoreline by Avalonian rivers, rivers that have not yet been discovered, or charted, or named, by modern-day explorer–geologists. Likely these rivers never will be charted, for in flowing they eroded themselves away, washing away their own tracks, as Avalonia was being dismantled, grain by grain, by the eternal, tireless action of the weather. All that is left is the freight they carried, the baggage of sand, mud and pebbles. The ancient shoreline lay not much more than 50 miles away from what is now our pebble beach in west Wales. It lay to the south, around what is now Pembrokeshire in South Wales. What did it look like, that ancient coastline? Well, it may even have resembled the rugged Pembrokeshire coastline of today, though it faced north rather than south, looking across an area of open sea that was later transformed into the Welsh mountains. For the pebble stuff, the passage across that coastline marked the entrance into a new realm. As the river waters entered the sea, their onrush slowed. The sediment grains, no longer driven by river flow, would have piled up around river mouths as deltas, or within silting-up estuaries. They would not have been stilled for long though, for coastlines are places where energy is exchanged. New forces acted on these sediment particles: wind and tides and waves, the forces that nowadays mariners need to respect, and understand, and predict.

Abstract The Cadia district of New South Wales contains four alkalic porphyry Au-Cu deposits (Cadia East, Ridgeway, Cadia Hill, and Cadia Quarry) and two Cu-Au-Fe skarn prospects (Big Cadia and Little Cadia), with a total of ~50 Moz Au and ~9.5 Mt Cu (reserves, resources, and past production). The ore deposits are hosted by volcaniclastic rocks of the Weemalla Formation and Forest Reefs Volcanics, which were deposited in a submarine basin on the flanks of the Macquarie Arc during the Middle to Late Ordovician. Alkalic magmatism occurred during the Benambran orogeny in the Late Ordovician to early Silurian, resulting in the emplacement of monzonite intrusive complexes and the formation of porphyry Au-Cu mineralization. Ridgeway formed synchronous with the first compressive peak of deformation and is characterized by an intrusion-centered quartz-magnetite-bornite-chalcopyrite-Au vein stockwork associated with calc-potassic alteration localized around the apex of the pencil-like Ridgeway intrusive complex. The volcanic-hosted giant Cadia East deposit and the intrusion-hosted Cadia Hill and Cadia Quarry deposits formed during a period of relaxation after the first compressive peak of the Benambran orogeny and are characterized by sheeted quartz-sulfide-carbonate vein arrays associated with subtle potassic, calc-potassic, and propylitic alteration halos.

Unlike the opiates, which are a rather homogeneous group, the drugs we call stimulants come in a variety of forms. In this chapter, we will devote most of our time to the classical stimulants, cocaine and the amphetamines, but will consider as well caffeine, nicotine, ephedrine, and modafinil. All are capable of enhancing mental and physical performance, and some produce distinctly pleasurable effects that sometimes lead to addiction. About the time that humans living in what is now South America started to draw on the walls of their caves, one among them discovered the unusual properties of the coca shrub. When the leaves were chewed, wondrous things happened to the chewer: Hunger and fatigue were replaced by feelings of strength and power; the world seemed not such a bad place to live. By the time Francisco Pizarro led his conquistadors into Peru early in the 16th century, coca leaf had found an exalted place in the Incan Empire. One legend has it that coca was brought from heaven to earth by Manco Capac, son of the Sun god and the Inca from whom the ruling class traced its lineage. (Interesting how often royalty has claimed divine origins.) The Spaniards developed no great respect for coca, regarding it as but another facet of a pagan people who had no claim on civilization. But the new rulers were nothing if not practical. Coca allowed native workers to be pushed beyond the normal bounds of physical endurance. More tin and silver could be brought from the mines with fewer workers fed less food. Coca leaf lost its status as a sacrament and a pleasure of the ruling class. It became a part of the internal economy of Spanish Peru, a means of enhancing productivity, and a contributor to the destruction of the Incan people and their civilization. It was inevitable that Europeans would become familiar with the effects of coca leaf both by their observation of native use and by personal experience. In 1859, an Italian physician named Paolo Mantegazza who had spent some time among the Peruvian natives put it this way.

Golden varnishes appear on frames, furniture, wall hangings, leatherwork, panel paintings, mural paintings, and polychromy, and were applied to white metal gilding to imitate gold and other semi-precious materials. Despite the number of examples in cultural heritage there are few publications that discuss the ethical considerations of treating coloured silver gilded surfaces. The chromatic reintegration of gold-coloured varnishes on white metal gilding present specific material and technical challenges. In 2021 the Art Gallery of New South Wales (AGNSW) treated two identical late 19th century silver gilded frames for portraits by Joseph Backler from the Australian collection. In addition, a third portrait required the fabrication of a reproduction frame identical to the others. Conservation of the frames presented an opportunity for carrying out experiments into coloured coatings for loss compensation on silver gilding exploring applications for select conservation paints, dyes, and synthetic resins as substitutes for shellac. The results of experiments demonstrate that with the right application Liquitex Soluvar Gloss Varnish, Laropal A81 and Paraloid B72, present gloss levels and visual film forming properties comparable to shellac coatings when applied to burnished gilding. Additional tests with various dye colours illustrate that Orasol ® dye mixtures in colours Yellow 2GLN, Yellow 2RL, and Brown 2GL are reliable colour imitations for traditional gold-coloured varnishes. Although this research is preliminary, it may inform the selection and application of appropriate retouching materials for compensating losses to burnished silver leaf and golden varnishes in gilding conservation.