Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Industrie et commerce – Chine – Histoire"

Cet article analyse le processus par lequel une industrie de la beauté des années 1960 devient globalisée. Il le fait au travers du prisme de l’industrie hongkongaise de la perruque, – alors n° 1 mondial des industries globales de la beauté aux États-Unis, valant 1 milliard de dollars. Suivre cette industrie de son ascension jusqu’à son déclin permet d’appréhender l’histoire de la mondialisation différemment : non pas comme l’avènement du laissez-faire et d’un capitalisme global dématérialisé, mais comme un ensemble de relations complexes historiquement constituées (connexions à l’Inde et à la Chine), ayant un caractère accidentel découlant de la politique de Guerre froide (embargo surprise contre les cheveux « communistes » asiatiques), ou encore résultant de la surveillance intrusive du commerce hongkongais par le gouvernement britannique, qui, en garantissant la qualité et l’origine, surmonta la méfiance envers la distance inhérente au commerce global.

Résumé En prologue de cet article, nous rappelons les circonstances qui ont amené Jochen Hoock à contribuer à une nouvelle Histoire de Rouen. Il vise aussi à caractériser la spécificité de son approche par rapport à celle développée par Jean-Pierre Bardet dans la précédente Histoire de Rouen. Puis est envisagé, en deux temps, l’apport principal de l’auteur. Durant la première moitié du XVIIe siècle Rouen apparaît comme une grande ville marchande sous tension du fait notamment des guerres européennes. Les années 1650-1700 sont marquées par des difficultés économiques liées à l’exacerbation des tensions religieuses avant que le commerce colonial et international serve d’appui à l’expansion industrielle des années 1680-1740. En conclusion, la démarche de Jochen Hoock paraît essentielle en ce qui concerne l’articulation entre commerce et industrie et aussi entre différents niveaux d’analyse, du local à l’international et au global.

The ancient China's historic stages may be separated into some certain ages: Paleolithic, Neolithic, Bronze, and Ironic Age. There were only broken stone tools in the Paleolithic age. The Paleolithic age witnessed stone tools and copper pottery during the excavations; major relics of the old Nabataean and Byzantine village of Aila were uncovered, which flourished from first century B.C. through the Earliest Muslim invasion. The remnants of the historic Nabataean and Byzantine town of Aila, which existed from the first century B.C. through the Early Muslim invasion, were discovered during the excavation. Chinese pottery played a big role in the economic industries all over the world. This trade was famous according to ancient Chinese families such as Yangshao and Cishan (Zhang et al., 2019, p. 112). During the first century BC and the 2nd century AD, Chinese commerce witnessed a strong export for Chinese ceramics to some majority of countries, particularly the Middle East (Miksic, 2009, p. 72). The types of pottery were exported to the Middle East. This is a product that is mostly exported from China. Finally, Chinese pottery is undoubtedly spread in some certain areas for many centuries BC. Some famous Chinese families such as Yangshaoand Longshan cultures started eliciting the soil and manufactured various shapes of pottery. Chinese pottery was transformed to Aqaba and then to Petra where the remains of Chinese pottery were founded. It is evidence of a certain kind of trade between China and Nabataean Arabs.

Les États-Unis, architectes du système commercial de l’après-guerre, sont devenus aujourd’hui son transgresseur le plus visible. L’administration Biden n’a montré aucun intérêt pour de nouveaux accords commerciaux de quelque nature que ce soit. Les États-Unis refusent de renouveler le mandat des juges de l’Organe d’appel de l’OMC, rendant inapplicables les règles de l’OMC, à moins que les États-Unis (ou tout autre membre) ne choisissent de s’y conformer. Dans cet article, sur la base d’une perspective historique, nous examinons les causes du repli (sur soi) de la politique commerciale américaine tout en nous interrogeant sur son évolution future. Aujourd’hui encore, l’économie américaine reste parmi les plus ouvertes au monde, l’opinion publique soutient le commerce et les partisans du retrait des marchés mondiaux sont difficiles à trouver. Il semble donc difficile de voir dans le changement de politique commerciale des États-Unis une adhésion aux valeurs du protectionnisme. Une interprétation plus convaincante réside dans le fait que la politique commerciale américaine évolue, poussée – comme elle l’a été depuis la naissance de la nation – par des forces sous-jacentes, comme la montée de la Chine, l’inégalité des revenus et le changement climatique. Cela nous aide à comprendre la politique de Biden, mais sans pour autant la justifier car la politique actuelle n’est pas la bonne réponse à ces défis. En effet, si l’histoire est un guide, elle nous suggère alors qu’une autre refonte de la politique commerciale américaine est possible et même probable. Malheureusement, un retour au leadership commercial des États-Unis n’est pas envisageable de sitôt, et quand il arrivera, il sera peut-être trop tard pour sauver le système commercial fondé sur des règles.

In light of the COVID-19 pandemic, where income has become precarious and Internet use has soared, the influencer industry has to strategise over new ways to sustain viewer attention, maintain income flows, and innovate around formats and messaging, to avoid being excluded from continued commercial possibilities. In this article, we review the press coverage of the influencer markets in Australia, Japan, and Korea, and consider how the industry has been attempting to navigate their way through the pandemic through deviations and detours. We consider the narratives and groups of influencers who have been included and excluded in shaping the discourse about influencer strategies in the time of COVID-19. The distinction between inclusion and exclusion has been a crucial mechanism to maintain the social normativity, constructed with gender, sexuality, wealth, able-ness, education, age, and so on (Stäheli and Stichweh, par. 3; Hall and Du Gay 5; Bourdieu 162). The influencer industry is the epitome of where the inclusion-exclusion binary is noticeable. It has been criticised for serving as a locus where social norms, such as femininity and middle-class identities, are crystallised and endorsed in the form of visibility and attention (Duffy 234; Abidin 122). Many are concerned about the global expansion of the influencer industry, in which young generations are led to clickbait and sensational content and normative ways of living, in order to be “included” by their peer groups and communities and to avoid being “excluded” (Cavanagh). However, COVID-19 has changed our understanding of the “normal”: people staying home, eschewing social communications, and turning more to the online where they can feel “virtually” connected (Lu et al. 15). The influencer industry also has been affected by COVID-19, since the images of normativity cannot be curated and presented as they used to be. In this situation, it is questionable how the influencer industry that pivots on the inclusion-exclusion binary is adjusting to the “new normal” brought by COVID-19, and how the binary is challenged or maintained, especially by exploring the continuities and discontinuities in industry. Methodology This cross-cultural study draws from a corpus of articles from Australia, Japan, and Korea published between January and May 2020, to investigate how local news outlets portrayed the contingencies undergone by the influencer industry, and what narratives or groups of influencers were excluded in the process. An extended discussion of our methodology has been published in an earlier article (Abidin et al. 5-7). Using the top ranked search engine of each country (Google for Australia and Japan, Naver for Korea), we compiled search results of news articles from the first ten pages (ten results per page) of each search, prioritising reputable news sites over infotainment sites, and by using targeted keyword searches: for Australia: ‘influencer’ and ‘Australia’ and ‘COVID-19’, ‘coronavirus’, ‘pandemic’; for Japan: ‘インフルエンサー’ (influensā) and ‘コロナ’ (korona), ‘新型コロ ナ’ (shin-gata korona), ‘コロナ禍’ (korona-ka); for Korea: ‘인플루언서’ (Influencer) and ‘코로나’ (corona) and ‘팬데믹’ (pandemic). 111 articles were collected (42 for Australia, 31 for Japan, 38 for Korea). In this article, we focus on a subset of 60 articles and adopt a grounded theory approach (Glaser and Strauss 5) to manually conduct open, axial, and close coding of their headline and body text. Each headline was translated by the authors and coded for a primary and secondary ‘open code’ across seven categories: Income loss, Backlash, COVID-19 campaign, Misinformation, Influencer strategy, Industry shifts, and Brand leverage. The body text was coded in a similar manner to indicate all the relevant open codes covered in the article. In this article, we focus on the last two open codes that illustrate how brands have been working with influencers to tide through COVID-19, and what the overall industry shifts were on the three Asia-Pacific country markets. Table 1 (see Appendix) indicates a full list of our coding schema. Inclusion of the Normal in Shifting Brand Preferences In this section, we consider two main shifts in brand preferences: an increased demand for influencers, and a reliance on influencers to boost viewer/consumer traffic. We found that by expanding digital marketing through Influencers, companies attempted to secure a so-called “new normal” during the pandemic. However, their marketing strategies tended to reiterate the existing inclusion-exclusion binary and exacerbated the lack of diversity and inequality in the industry. Increased Demand for Influencers Across the three country markets, brokers and clients in the influencer industry increased their demand for influencers’ services and expertise to sustain businesses via advertising in the “aftermath of COVID-19”, as they were deemed to be more cost-efficient “viral marketing on social media” (Yoo). By outsourcing content production to influencers who could still produce content independently from their homes (Cheik-Hussein) and who engage with audiences with their “interactive communication ability” (S. Kim and Cho), many companies attempted to continue their business and maintain their relationships with prospective consumers (Forlani). As the newly enforced social distancing measures have also interrupted face-to-face contact opportunities, the mass pivot towards influencers for digital marketing is perceived to further professionalise the industry via competition and quality control in all three countries (Wilkinson; S. Kim and Cho; Yadorigi). By integrating these online personae of influencers into their marketing, the business side of each country is moving towards the new normal in different manners. In Australia, businesses launched campaigns showcasing athlete influencers engaging in meaningful activities at home (e.g. yoga, cooking), and brands and companies reorganised their marketing strategies to highlight social responsibilities (Moore). On the other hand, for some companies in the Japanese market, the disruption from the pandemic was a rare opportunity to build connections and work with “famous” and “prominent” influencers (Yadorigi), otherwise unavailable and unwilling to work for smaller campaigns during regular periods of an intensely competitive market. In Korea, by emphasising their creative ability, influencers progressed from being “mere PR tools” to becoming “active economic subjects of production” who now can play a key role in product planning for clients, mediating companies and consumers (S. Kim and Cho). The underpinning premise here is that influencers are tech-savvy and therefore competent in creating media content, forging relationships with people, and communicating with them “virtually” through social media. Reliance on Influencers to Boost Viewer/Consumer Traffic Across several industry verticals, brands relied on influencers to boost viewership and consumer traffic on their digital estates and portals, on the premise that influencers work in line with the attention economy (Duffy 234). The fashion industry’s expansion of influencer marketing was noticeable in this manner. For instance, Korean department store chains (e.g. Lotte) invited influencers to “no-audience live fashion shows” to attract viewership and advertise fashion goods through the influencers’ social media (Y. Kim), and Australian swimwear brand Vitamin A partnered with influencers to launch online contests to invite engagement and purchases on their online stores (Moore). Like most industries where aspirational middle-class lifestyles are emphasised, the travel industry also extended partnerships with their current repertoire of influencers or international influencers in order to plan for the post-COVID-19 market recovery and post-border reopening tourism boom (Moore; Yamatogokoro; J. Lee). By extension, brands without any prior relationships with influencers, whcih did not have such histories to draw on, were likely to have struggled to produce new influencer content. Such brands could thus only rely on hiring influencers specifically to leverage their follower base. The increasing demand for influencers in industries like fashion, food, and travel is especially notable. In the attention economy where (media) visibility can be obtained and maintained (Duffy 121), media users practice “visibility labor” to curate their media personas and portray branding themselves as arbiters of good taste (Abidin 122). As such, influencers in genres where personal taste can be visibly presented—e.g. fashion, travel, F&B—seem to have emerged from the economic slump with a head start, especially given their dominance on the highly visual platform of Instagram. Our analysis shows that media coverage during COVID-19 repeated the discursive correlation between influencers and such hyper-visible or visually-oriented industries. However, this dominant discourse about hyper-visible influencers and the gendered genres of their work has ultimately reinforced norms of self-presentation in the industry—e.g. being feminine, young, beautiful, luxurious—while those who deviate from such norms seem to be marginalised and excluded in media coverage and economic opportunities during the pandemic cycle. Including Newness by Shifting Format Preferences We observed the inclusion of newness in the influencer scenes in all three countries. By shifting to new formats, the previously excluded and lesser seen aspects of our lives—such as home-based content—began to be integrated into the “new normal”. There were four main shifts in format preferences, wherein influencers pivoted to home-made content, where livestreaming is the new dominant format of content, and where followers preferred more casual influencer content. Influencers Have Pivoted to Home-Made Content In all three country markets, influencers have pivoted to generating content based on life at home and ideas of domesticity. These public displays of homely life corresponded with the sudden occurrence of being wired to the Internet all day—also known as “LAN cable life” (랜선라이프, lan-seon life) in the Korean media—which influencers were chiefly responsible for pioneering (B. Kim). While some genres like gaming and esports were less impacted upon by the pivot, given that the nature and production of the content has always been confined to a desktop at home (Cheik-Hussein), pivots occurred for the likes of outdoor brands (Moore), the culinary industry (Dean), and fitness and workout brands (Perelli and Whateley). In Korea, new trends such as “home cafes” (B. Kim) and DIY coffees—like the infamous “Dalgona-Coffee” that was first introduced by a Korean YouTuber 뚤기 (ddulgi)—went viral on social media across the globe (Makalintal). In Japan, the spike in influencers showcasing at-home activities (Hayama) also encouraged mainstream TV celebrities to open social media accounts explicitly to do the same (Kamada). In light of these trends, the largest Multi-Channel Network (MCN) in Japan, UUUM, partnered with one of the country’s largest entertainment industries, Yoshimoto Kogyo, to assist the latter’s comedian talents to establish a digital video presence—a trend that was also observed in Korea (Koo), further underscoring the ubiquity of influencer practices in the time of COVID-19. Along with those creators who were already producing content in a domestic environment before COVID-19, it was the influencers with the time and resources to quickly pivot to home-made content who profited the most from the spike in Internet traffic during the pandemic (Noshita). The benefits of this boost in traffic were far from equal. For instance, many others who had to turn to makeshift work for income, and those who did not have conducive living situations to produce content at home, were likely to be disadvantaged. Livestreaming Is the New Dominant Format Amidst the many new content formats to be popularised during COVID-19, livestreaming was unanimously the most prolific. In Korea, influencers were credited for the mainstreaming and demotising (Y. Kim) of livestreaming for “live commerce” through real-time advertorials and online purchases. Livestreaming influencers were solicited specifically to keep international markets continuously interested in Korean products and cultures (Oh), and livestreaming was underscored as a main economic driver for shaping a “post-COVID-19” society (Y. Kim). In Australia, livestreaming was noted among art (Dean) and fitness influencers (Dean), and in Japan it began to be adopted among major fashion brands like Prada and Chloe (Saito). While the Australian coverage included livestreaming on platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, YouTube, Twitch, and Douyin (Cheik-Hussein; Perelli and Whateley; Webb), the Japanese coverage highlighted the potential for Instagram Live to target young audiences, increase feelings of “trustworthiness”, and increase sales via word-of-mouth advertising (Saito). In light of reduced client campaigns, influencers in Australia had also used livestreaming to provide online consulting, teaching, and coaching (Perelli and Whateley), and to partner with brands to provide masterclasses and webinars (Sanders). In this era, influencers in genres and verticals that had already adopted streaming as a normative practice—e.g. gaming and lifestyle performances—were likely to have had an edge over others, while other genres were excluded from this economic silver lining. Followers Prefer More Casual Influencer Content In general, all country markets report followers preferring more casual influencer content. In Japan, this was offered via the potential of livestreaming to deliver more “raw” feelings (Saito), while in Australia this was conveyed through specific content genres like “mental or physical health battles” (Moore); specific aesthetic choices like appearing “messier”, less “curated”, and “more unfiltered” (Wilkinson); and the growing use of specific emergent platforms like TikTok (Dean, Forlani, Perelli, and Whateley). In Korea, influencers in the photography, travel, and book genres were celebrated for their new provision of pseudo-experiences during COVID-19-imposed social distancing (Kang). Influencers on Instagram also spearheaded new social media trends, like the “#wheredoyouwannago_challenge” where Instagram users photoshopped themselves into images of famous tourist spots around the world (Kang). Conclusion In our study of news articles on the impact of COVID-19 on the Australian, Japanese, and Korean influencer industries during the first wave of the pandemic, influencer marketing was primed to be the dominant and default mode of advertising and communication in the post-COVID-19 era (Tate). In general, specific industry verticals that relied more on visual portrayals of lifestyles and consumption—e.g. fashion, F&B, travel—to continue partaking in economic recovery efforts. However, given the gendered genre norms in the industry, this meant that influencers who were predominantly feminine, young, beautiful, and luxurious experienced more opportunity over others. Further, influencers who did not have the resources or skills to pivot to the “new normals” of creating content from home, engaging in livestreaming, and performing their personae more casually were excluded from these new economic opportunities. Across the countries, there were minor differences in the overall perception of influencers. There was an increasingly positive perception of influencers in Japan and Korea, due to new norms and pandemic-related opportunities in the media ecology: in Korea, influencers were considered to be the “vanguard of growing media commerce in the post-pandemonium era” (S. Kim and Cho), and in Japan, influencers were identified as critical vehicles during a more general consumer shift from traditional media to social media, as TV watching time is reduced and home-based e-commerce purchases are increasingly popular (Yadogiri). However, in Australia, in light of the sudden influx of influencer marketing strategies during COVID-19, the market seemed to be saturated more quickly: brands were beginning to question the efficiency of influencers, cautioned that their impact has not been completely proven for all industry verticals (Stephens), and have also begun to reduce commissions for influencer affiliate programmes as a cost-cutting measure (Perelli and Whateley). While news reports on these three markets indicate that there is some level of growth and expansion for various influencers and brands, such opportunities were not experienced equally, with some genres and demographics of influencers and businesses being excluded from pandemic-related pivots and silver linings. Further, in light of the increasing commercial opportunities, pressure for more regulations also emerged; for example, the Korean government announced new investigations into tax avoidance (Han). Not backed up by talent agencies or MCNs, independent influencers are likely to be more exposed to the disciplinary power of shifting regulatory practices, a condition which might have hindered their attempt at diversifying their income streams during the pandemic. Thus, while it is tempting to focus on the privileged and novel influencers who have managed to cling on to some measure of success during the pandemic, scholarly attention should also remember those who are being excluded and left behind, lest generations, cohorts, genres, or subcultures of the once-vibrant influencer industry fade into oblivion. References Abidin, Crystal. “#In$tagLam: Instagram as a repository of taste, a burgeoning marketplace, a war of eyeballs.” Mobile Media Making in an Age of Smartphones. Eds. Marsha Berry and Max Schleser. New York: Palgrave Pivot, 2014. 119-128. <https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137469816_11>. 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"코트라, 중국·대만 6곳에 중소기업 온라인마케팅 전용 'K스튜디오' 오픈 [KOTRA Launches 6 ‘K-Studios’ in China and Taiwan for Online Marketing for SME].” Global Economics 16 May 2020. <https://news.g-enews.com/ko-kr/news/article/news_all/2020050611155064653b88961c8c_1/article.html?md=20200506141610_R>. Perelli, Amanda, and Dan Whateley. “How the Coronavirus Is Changing the Influencer Business, According to Marketers and Top Instagram and YouTube Stars.” Business Insider Australia 22 Mar. 2020. <https://www.businessinsider.com.au/how-coronavirus-is-changing-influencer-marketing-creator-industry-2020-3?r=US&IR=T>. Reid, Elise. “COVID-19 Could See Advertisers Move from Influencers to Streaming Sites.” Channel News 27 Apr. 2020. <https://www.channelnews.com.au/covid-19-could-see-advertisers-move-from-influencers-to-streaming-sites/>. Rowell, Andrew. “Coronavirus: Big Tobacco Sees an Opportunity in the Pandemic.” The Conversation 14 May 2020. <https://theconversation.com/coronavirus-big-tobacco-sees-an-opportunity-in-the-pandemic-138188>. Saito, Yurika. “コロナ禍で急増の「インスタライブ」。誰でも簡単に出来る視聴・配信方法 [The Boom of Instagram Live during the Pandemic: Anyone Can Easily Watch and Stream Content].” Forbes Japan 19 May 2020. <https://forbesjapan.com/articles/detail/34475>. Sanders, Krystal. “Perth Influencer Brooke Vulinovich Says Instagram Has Become ‘Lifeline’ for Small Businesses.” Perth Now 29 Apr. 2020. <https://www.perthnow.com.au/news/coronavirus/perth-influencer-brooke-vulinovich-says-instagram-has-become-lifeline-for-small-businesses-ng-b881533823z>. Stäheli, Urs, and Rudolf Stichweh. "Introduction: Inclusion/Exclusion–Systems Theoretical and Poststructuralist Perspectives." Inclusion/Exclusion and Socio-Cultural Identities, 2002. Stephens, Lee. “Why Influencer Marketing Will Win after COVID-19.” Ad News 9 Apr. 2020. <https://www.adnews.com.au/opinion/why-influencer-marketing-will-win-after-covid-19>. Tate, Andrew. “How Vanity Viral Marketing Ran Headlong into Coronavirus.” The New Daily 29 Apr. 2020. <https://thenewdaily.com.au/news/coronavirus/2020/04/28/how-vanity-viral-marketing-ran-headlong-into-corornavirus/>. Webb, Loren. “Brands Pivot Their Marketing Strategies in the Wake of the Coronavirus.” Dynamic Business 13 Mar. 2020. <https://dynamicbusiness.com.au/topics/news/brands-pivot-their-marketing-strategies-in-the-wake-of-the-coronavirus.html>. Wilkinson, Zoe. “Head to Head: Will the Economy of Celebrity and Influencer Endorsement Recover after the COVID-19 Crisis?” Mumbrella 28 Apr. 2020. <https://mumbrella.com.au/head-to-head-will-the-economy-of-celebrity-and-influencer-endorsement-recover-after-the-covid-19-crisis-625987>. Yadorigi, Yuki. “【第7回】コロナ禍のなかで生まれた光明、新たなアプローチによるコミュニケーション [Episode 7: A Light Emerged during the Corona Crisis, a Communication Based on a New Approach].” C-Station 28 Apr. 2020. <https://c.kodansha.net/news/detail/36286/>. Yamatogokoro. “アフターコロナの観光・インバウンドを考えるVol.4世界の観光業の取り組みから学ぶ、自治体・DMOが今まさにすべきこと [After Corona Tourism and Inbound Tourism Vol. 4: What Municipalities and DMOs Should Do Right Now to Learn from Global Tourism Initiatives].” Yamatogokoro 19 May 2020. Yoo, Hwan-In. "코로나 여파, 연예인·인플루언서 마케팅 활발 [COVID-19, Star-Influencer Marketing Becomes Active].” SkyDaily 19 May 2020. <http://www.skyedaily.com/news/news_view.html?ID=104772>. Appendix Open codes Axial codes 1) Brand leverage Targeting investors Targeting influencers Targeting new digital media formats Targeting consumers/customers/viewers Types of brands/clients 2) Industry shifts Brand preferences Content production Content format Follower preferences Type of Influencers Table 1: Full list of codes from our analysis

Les années de 1945 à 1949 marquent une période de double transition en Chine : d'abord le passage de l'occupation japonaise à la domination du Guomindang, ensuite l'échec de ce dernier qui aboutit à la victoire du Parti Communiste. Pendant cette époque, le capital étranger cesse pour la première fois de concurrencer le capital chinois dans l'industrie cotonnière, et l'on voit se créer un grand groupe d'état qui va entrer en concurrence avec les filatures privées. Avec des fonds accumulés à l'époque de l' " ilot isolé " (1937-1941) et profitant de conditions économiques favorables, les filatures privées de Shanghai retrouvent un nouvel "âge d'or". Développant leur production, elles réalisent d'importants profits. Mais cette prospérité ne va durer qu'un peu plus de deux ans. Car le gouvernement, pour faire face à la guerre civile et à une inflation galopante, rétablit une politique de contrôle, qui sera de plus en plus contraignante. Cette politique entraine une fuite importante des capitaux des filateurs privés vers l'étranger et la constitution de caisses noires. Leurs rapports avec l'état et les entreprises publiques deviennent de plus en plus complexes, allant de la collaboration à la confrontation en passant par toutes sortes d'accomodements. Le secteur public est de son côté soumis à une forte intervention étatique. Devenu à la fois un organisme de contrôle gouvernemental et un entrepôt de produits cotonniers, il ne peut fonctionner comme une entreprise normale. Pendant quatre ans, le Guomindang pratique une politique économique à la fois rigide et inadaptée qui pousse la bourgeoisie dans les bras de l'opposition et voit un certain nombre de technocrates se détacher du secteur public. Toutefois, il faut constater que c'est à cette époque que sont nées les premières entreprises publiques de l'industrie légère
The years 1945 to 1949 represent a time of double transition in china : first the transition from japanese occupation to guomindang's rule, second the civil war and guomindang's defeat which leads to the victory of the communist party. During that period and for the first time, foreign interests are no more in competition with chinese investments, as far as the cotton industry is concerned. An important state-owned group is created, which will compete with the private cotton mills. Funds gathered during the time of "isolated island" (1937-1941) and favorable economic conditions enable the shanghai private cotton mills to enjoy a new "golden age", which will however last no more than two years, as the government takes constraining measures in order to meet the civil war needs and a galloping inflation. Private funds then escape to foreign countries or go illicit. Relations between private companies and state-owned ones become complex, extending from collaboration to confrontation, through all sorts of arrangements. The public sector is altogether a means of state control and a warehouse for cotton products ; submitted to a strong state intervention, it cannot work properly. During these four years, the guomindang economic policy is both rigid and inadequate. As a result, the bourgeoisie will look towards the opposition parties and a certain number of technocrats will leave the public sector. But it is also a time when the first public companies were born in the field of light industry

À la fin de la dynastie des Qing, un nombre important d'ingénieurs français se rendirent dans différentes régions de l'Empire chinois, jouant divers rôles dans les relations franco-chinoises. Provenant de milieux sociaux variés, ils étaient souvent jeunes et partageaient des profils professionnels. Fréquemment bien rétribués et parés de titres honorifiques au cours de leur carrière, nombre d'entre eux connurent une ascension sociale notable. L'effectif de ces ingénieurs augmenta de manière significative du milieu du XIXe siècle au début du XXe. Initialement, les ingénieurs militaires occupaient une position prédominante, mais ils cédèrent progressivement la place aux ingénieurs issus des corps civils d'État et aux ingénieurs civils qui assumèrent une multitude de fonctions dans les affaires commerciales et industrielles. Simultanément, un grand nombre d'ingénieurs militaires rejoignirent des activités commerciales privées, lesquelles se multipliaient et se diversifiaient. Les ingénieurs français qui s'installèrent en Chine pour une longue durée étaient principalement des ingénieurs civils. Le mariage, la religion et l'attrait culturel constituaient des éléments essentiels pouvant conduire à un séjour prolongé en Chine. Dans l'Empire chinois, la France bénéficiait de ses élites techniques pour rivaliser avec les autres puissances industrielles. Ces ingénieurs réalisèrent d'importants ouvrages dans l'Empire chinois, laissant derrière eux un patrimoine historique. Sans que ce fût toujours un succès économique, leurs réalisations témoignaient à la fois de leurs compétences techniques et de la puissance technologique de la France. Leurs écrits, rapports, plans, récits et correspondances familiales, ainsi que les photographies qu'ils prirent et les documents qu'ils rapportèrent, constituaient des éléments de recherche précieux pour les études historiques. S'ils transmirent un savoir-faire, leur rôle fut limité par les contraintes historiques
During the late Qing dynasty, a multitude of French engineers embarked on journeys to various regions of the Chinese Empire, assuming diverse and evolving roles in Franco-Chinese relations. Despite their diverse backgrounds, they were typically youthful and shared some common professional traits. They often enjoyed substantial compensation and prestigious honors throughout their careers, leading to remarkable upward social mobility. Their numbers witnessed significant growth from the mid-19th to the early 20th century. Initially, military engineers held dominance, but they gradually ceded ground to engineers from the state civil corps and civilian engineers who assumed multifaceted roles in commerce and industry. Concurrently, many military engineers entered private commercial ventures, which were expanding and diversifying. The enduring presence of French engineers in China was predominantly composed of civil engineers, drawn by factors such as marriage, religion and culture. Within the Chinese Empire, France leveraged its technical expertise to compete with other industrial powers. These engineers accomplished impressive infrastructural projects within the Chinese Empire, leaving behind them a rich historical legacy. Although not always synonymous with economic success, their achievements showcased both their technical expertise and the technological prowess of the French industrial landscape during the 19th and 20th centuries. Their written works, encompassing reports, blueprints, narratives, and familial correspondences, alongside photographic records and archives they amassed, serve as invaluable resources for historical research. Despite their role in technology transfer, historical constraints limited their impacts

En 1832, date de sa fondation officielle, jardine, matheson & co. Etait, a canton, l'une des rares maisons de commerce anglo-ecossaises independantes. Comme ses concurrentes, elle exercercait ses divers metiers dans le sillage du commerce officiel de la compagnie des indes orientales britannique : commerce international des denrees -- principalement de l'opium, mais aussi des autres produits orientaux; commerce des instruments financiers; et commerce de l'argent-metal. Neanmoins, cette firme familiale de taille encore tres modeste au debut des annees 1830, fut la seule parmi toutes ses concurrentes a passer sans encombre apparent le cap de la decennie extremement difficile qui preceda immediatement la premiere guerre de l'opium. Mais entre la legende d'un succes facile, et la realite d'un succes commercial authentique, quoique aprement dispute aux deboires et aux erreurs, la difference est considerable. Ce fut seulement grace a son assise commerciale solide, a des appuis politiques habilement recherches puis entretenus par les fondateurs, et a des benefices toujours accrus dans le commerce de l'opium, que la firme reussit a assurer sa perennite et sa croissance jusqu'a l'oree de la cinquieme decennie du xixe siecle. Cette longevite, inhabituelle parmi les firmes cantonaises exercant leur activite a cette epoque, trouve sa principale explication dans les caracteristiques particulieres du fonds de commerce de la firme, tel que le developperent deux fondateurs aux talents complementaires, william jardine et james matheson. Le present travail, essentiellement fonde sur une analyse des archives comptables et discursives de la firme pendant la periode consideree, met en lumiere les caracteristiques du fonds de commerce de la firme a cette etape de son developpement, et l'habilete des fondateurs a reparer les breches repetees qu'y entamerent tour a tour les retentissantes faillites internationales, de meme que la plus grande dereglementation commerciale de l'epoque -- l'abolition par le parlement britannique du monopole de la compagnie des indes orientales pour l'importation du the de chine
In 1832, the year of its official foundation, jardine, matheson & co. Was one of the few scottish independent agency houses operating in canton. Like its competitors, it plied its different lines of business in the wake of the official trade conducted by the british east india company. Its business was made up of trades for which there was international demand -- principally opium, as well as other oriental products; financial instruments; and bullion. The family firm, however, which had remained very small up to the early eighteen thirties, was the only one among its competitors to sail through the extremely stormy waters of the ten years immediately preceding the first opium war with no apparent harm. But there is considerable difference between the legend of an easy success, and the reality of this hard-won commercial success, which was reached only through a constant fight against repeated misfortunes and human errors. A stable commercial foundation, political alliances developed with flair and assiduity by the founders, and ever increasing profits from the opium trade, were among the main reasons which combined to ensure that the firm survived, grew and prospered into the eighteen forties when others faltered and disappeared. This unusual longevity for a canton firm of the period is best explained by the special characteristics of its constituency, as it was developed by two founders endowed with complementary talents, william jardine and james matheson. The current work, which is essentially based on an analysis of the archives of the firm for the relevant period -- both its accounts and its correspondence -- highlights the characteristics of the firm's constituency at that stage of its development, and the founders' skill at organising, and sometimes at improvising, repair-work against the repeated onslaught of international bankruptcies and of the most important commercial deregulation of the time -- the vote by the british parliament to abolish the monopoly of the east india company for china-tea imports

Creee a shanghai en 1865, l'entreprise de jiangnan symbolise les premiers efforts de la modernisation militaire et navale chinoise. Sa fondation par les pouvoirs publics regionaux offre le caractere original d'une entreprise publique, mais autonome a l'egard du pouvoir central. Dans une premiere partie, nous analysons le contexte dans lequel l'arsenal et le chantier naval ont ete fondes, ainsi que le role traditionnel de l'etat imperial dans l'economie. Dans une seconde partie, nous montrons l'echec partiel de cette entreprise qui se traduit par la separation du chantier naval et de l'arsenal. Le chantier naval devient alors une entreprise libre de sa gestion et de ses finances, tout en ayant pour tutelle le ministere de la marine. Pendant deux decennies, le chantier naval conait son age d'or grace a la gestion mixte sinoetrangere et a un contexte economique favorable. Dans une troisieme partie, nous suivons l'evolution de l'entreprise sous le regime de nankin(1927-1937), qui se caracterise par un controle central de l'economie. Le chantier naval de jiangnan devient un departement technique du ministere de la marine et perd en partie son dynamisme et son autonomie. Si l'arrivee des nationalistes au pouvoir permet de moderniser les infrastructures du chantier naval, elle met fin a une experience originale de gestion et de cooperation sino-etrangere
The jiangnan arsenal and shipyard was established by the regional public authorities in 1865, and has played a leading role in the economic and naval modernization of china. Its history helps us to follow the specific relations between the chinese state and its public enterprises. After a first part which relates the historical background and the traditional role of the imperial state, we try to definie the state of the jiangnan shipyard from 1905 to 1927. At this particular period, the arsenal and the dock were spareted and the dock becam a "free public enterprise". During these two decades, jiangnan's management and commercial policy were comparable to a private enterprise. Its modern organization stemmed from a "sino-foreign mixed management". In the third part, we analyze the shift in the management of jiangnan during the nanking decade (1927-1937). Then, the nationalist government marked a major step in the direction of central control over industrial development in china. Despite a central control, jiangnan has always tried to keep an autonomous management

L'industrie automobile chinoise est au 8ème rang mondial à l'heure actuelle. L'entrée de la Chine dans l'Organisation mondiale de commerce (OMC) vers la fin de 2001 accélère l'évolution de tous les secteurs liés à cette industrie. La question centrale de la thèse est donc la suivante : quelle peut être la trajectoire de développement de l'industrie automobile chinoise dans le contexte de mondialisation ? Dans une recherche appliquée, nous abordons une analyse prospective en termes de scénarios. Cinq éléments ont une place centrale dans l'analyse. Il s'agit du modèle du cycle de vie du produit, de l'entreprise chinoise, de l'entreprise étrangère, de l'Etat chinois, et de l'OMC. La première partie de la thèse étudie l'émergence de l'industrie automobile. La deuxième partie analyse les effets de l'investissement direct étranger sur la restructuration de l'industrie. La troisième partie est consacrée à une analyse prospective sur les trajectoires de développement à moyen terme et à long terme. Nous y étudions trois scénarios pour l'avenir de l'industrie automobile en Chine : scénario possible, scénario réalisable et scénario souhaitable.

Ce travail est une étude de synthèse s'inscrivant dans le cadre de l'histoire des techniques. Nous situons en parallèle les industries de la soie française et chinoise ainsi que les sociétés et les cultures construites autour d'elles de la fin du XVIIIe au début du XXe siècle. La confrontation des documents en langues occidentales et orientales offre différents points de vue pour reconstituer l'histoire de ces industries, leurs relations commerciales ainsi que les échanges techniques et de styles. La première partie traite des industries des deux pays au XVIIIe, ainsi que de leurs premiers contacts. La seconde concentre sur l'évolution de cette industrie en France, de la fin du XVIIIe au milieu du XIXe siècle où, malgré les contacts perdus, s'approfondissaient les études sur les documents chinois recueillis au siècle précédent. La troisième partie aborde l'introduction des techniques européennes et l'évolution des techniques en Chine, du milieu du XIXe au début du XXe siècle
This thesis studies the interaction between the French and the Chinese silk industries during the period between the 18th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The reconstruction of this history is based on the different perspectives reflected in the historical documents in both Western and Oriental languages, which concerned with the commercial relations and the technical and stylistic exchanges between the two industries. The first part deals with these two silk industries during the 18th century and the second part is concerned with the evolution of the French silk industry from the end of the 18th to the mid-19th century. During this period, even though the contacts between the two industries became minimal, the study of the Chinese silk technology continued in France, based on the Chinese documents in France. The third part tackles the introduction of European techniques to China during the period between the mid-19th century and the beginning of the 20th century

Depuis que la chine a entame la reforme de son systeme economique en 1978, les entreprises chinoises de l'habillement qui ont obtenu une grande autonomie pour leur fonctionnement, se trouvent confrontees a un environnement de plus en plus turbulent. Cette recherche met en lumiere le fait que, sans une renovation radicale en matiere de gestion, les entreprises chinoises de l'habillement ne pourront pas se developper davantage sur le marche international, malgre l'avantage considerable que represente le faible cout de leur main-d'oeuvre, et seront condamnees a la fermeture en depit d'un potentiel de demande interieure toujours tres important. L'adoption d'un nouveau mode de gestion a la fois strategique, systemique et mobilisateur apparait ainsi indispensable pour les entreprises qui veulent survivre et se developper. Ce mode de gestion pourrait conduire les entreprises chinoises de l'habillement a la recherche d'une competitivite durable, a la pratique d'une gestion globalisante tenant compte des facteurs de toutes les dimensions et des interactions entre tous les composants, et a la mobilisation des intelligences des hommes de tous les niveaux pour leur reussite
Ever-since economic reforme started in china in 1978, garment enterprises that have sought and obtained considerable autonomy, are confronted to an extremely turbulent environment. This research shows the fact that in the absence of a radical change in management, chinese garment enterprises cannot attain growth objectives in the international market, despite the great labour-cost advantage that they dispose of, and may even be condemned to close down activities inspite of strong domestic demand. The adoption of a new strategic, systemic and mobilising management appears indispensable for firms that wish to survive. Such a new mode of management could induce firms to seek long-run competitive advantages, to search for a global dimension in running the affaires of the firm as well as interactions between the various sub-parts of the whole. Finally, this new mode management will cater for the intelligence of all participants in the daily activities of the firm in its search for success

Le travail realise est une analyse de la dynamique a l'echelle mondiale de la production et des echanges du coton/textile (coton fibre, file et tissu de coton) avec la particularite d'une prise en compte explicite du role de l'etat. Notre recherche nous conduit a affirmer qu'il n'y a pas de developpement effectif du coton/textile sans implication de l'etat et que cette derniere est fondee sur le plan economique. La justification resulte d'abord de l'impact positif des activites du coton/textile sur le developpement economique. Elle decoule ensuite de la necessite de reduire les contraintes liees a l'environnement economique de la production cotonniere et de l'industrie textile pour parvenir a un reel developpement du coton/textile. L'implication de l'etat dans le domaine du coton/textile va bien au-dela de la phase de promotion. C'est la consequence de l'effet du renversement de sens de la relation entre les activites du coton/textile et le developpement economique, accentue par la concurrence des pays entres plus recemment dans le coton/textile. La theorie standard du commerce et du developpement permet de comprendre la succession de phases de relation positive puis negative entre les activites du coton/textile et le developpement economique, elle n'explique pas cependant la diversite du declin de l'industrie textile entre des pays a anciennete equivalente dans cette industrie. La notion de "social capability" degagee des etudes sur l'hypothese de convergence tempere le determinisme voire le fatalisme de la theorie utilisee. La dynamique du coton/textile dans le monde est donc d7abord la consequence des relations entre cette activite et le developpement economique. Cette dynamique n'est cependant pas le seul resultat d'un mecanisme economique, ce dernier est accompagne par l'etat, qui l'accentue au depart lorsqu'il est favorable au coton/textile et qui l'entrave au contraire lorsqu'il devient defavorable
Our research work is an analysis of the evolution of production and exchange of cotton/textile in the world (cotton fiber, yarn and fabric of cotton). Taking into account the role of the state, we achieve to the conclusion that there is no actual cotton/textile developement without state involvement and that this involvement is economically founded. The rationale of this involvement comes basically from the positive impact of cotton/textile activities on economic development. This involvement is also required in practice to mitigate economic environment constraints against development of new cotton/textile productions. The state involvement in the field of cotton/textile goes beyond the development stage of these activities. This is a consequence of the reversion of the relationship between cotton/textile activities and economic development in the related country, in addition to the international competition from new-comers in cotton/textile production. The standard theory of trade anddevelopment helps to understand the sequence of phases with positive then negative relationship between cotton/textile and economic development, however this theory does not predict diversity of textile industry demise patterns among countries with similar age in this industry. The principle of "social capability" as an output of studies upon the convergence hypothesis allows to alleviate determinism if not fatalism of the theory used. Dynamics of cotton/textile in the world araises basically from the relationship between these activities and economic development. This dynamics is not only the result of an economic mechanism, as this latter is accompanished by the state, who enhanced it when it favors cotton/textile development and who hinders it in the opposite case

Des membres de la dynastie haviland, d'abord commercants en faience aux etats-unis, sont devenu fabricants en europe et exportateurs vers leur pays d'origine. Ces hommes s'adaptent a la culture et au savoir-faire des petites fabriques artisanales limousines tout en restant a l'ecoute des attentes de leur concitoyens americains. Leur double appartenance est source d'atouts, mais est aussi a l'origine de recherche constante de compromis, d'autant plus que la concurrence avec les firmes europeennes est vive, au niveau des prix surtout. La production locale americaine mettra longtemps a s'affirmer, en particulier face a haviland, en raison de la capacite d'adaptation de la firme francaise. Par la rationalisation de sa production et de sa distribution, le passage d'une production artisanale a un stade industriel, le recours a un atelier de creation, la mise en place d'un reseau commercial original, haviland satisfait les besoins de la population americaine. Haviland, en particulier grace a theodore, est en phase avec les attentes du public en ce qui concerne la variete des articles disponibles mais surtout leur decoration qui s'appuie sur sur la connaissance d'aspects de la vie et de la culture americaine chers au public. La representation de la nature, realiste et mythique a la fois et la symbolisation allegorique des attributs du pouvoir democratique dans un pays jeune, qui envisage pour lui-meme une destinee manifeste, sont appreciees. La prise en compte des avancees des concurrents, la capacite a anticiper des mouvements artistiques comme l'art nouveau firent de haviland une des firmes vedettes dans les arts de la table.