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Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Grammar"

Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 4 червня 2021

Оновлено: 30 липня 2024

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Статті в журналах з теми "Grammar"

Hartwell, Patrick. "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar." College English 47, no. 2 (February 1985): 105. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/376562.

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Hartwell, Patrick. "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar." College English 47, no. 2 (February 1, 1985): 105–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.58680/ce198513293.

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Nitay, Dolav, Dana Fisman, and Michal Ziv-Ukelson. "Learning of Structurally Unambiguous Probabilistic Grammars." Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence 35, no. 10 (May 18, 2021): 9170–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1609/aaai.v35i10.17107.

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The problem of identifying a probabilistic context free grammar has two aspects: the first is determining the grammar's topology (the rules of the grammar) and the second is estimating probabilistic weights for each rule. Given the hardness results for learning context-free grammars in general, and probabilistic grammars in particular, most of the literature has concentrated on the second problem. In this work we address the first problem. We restrict attention to structurally unambiguous weighted context-free grammars (SUWCFG) and provide a query learning algorithm for strucuturally unambiguous probabilistic context-free grammars (SUPCFG). We show that SUWCFG can be represented using co-linear multiplicity tree automata (CMTA), and provide a polynomial learning algorithm that learns CMTAs. We show that the learned CMTA can be converted into a probabilistic grammar, thus providing a complete algorithm for learning a strucutrally unambiguous probabilistic context free grammar (both the grammar topology and the probabilistic weights) using structured membership queries and structured equivalence queries. We demonstrate the usefulness of our algorithm in learning PCFGs over genomic data.

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Rice, Keren. "A typology of good grammars." Perspectives on Grammar Writing 30, no. 2 (March 31, 2006): 385–415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/sl.30.2.10ric.

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Writing a grammar is an exhilarating and exhausting experience. All grammars must meet high expectations. This paper reports on a study of qualities sought in grammars based on a survey of reviews of grammars. The study reveals that linguists expect a grammar to be comprehensive, clear, and accessible to all. It should also contain careful argumentation and a wealth of data that is appropriate, authentic, and meticulously checked. Writers of grammars must ask themselves a variety of questions before they begin, including what the goal of the grammar is, who the audience for the grammar is, how much time there is to write the grammar, and what the language reveals about its grammar. The paper then discusses and evaluates specific examples of good grammars of various types.

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Li and, Xin, Linda C. Schmidt, Weidong He,, Lixing Li, and, and Yuanmei Qian. "Transformation of an EGT Grammar: New Grammar, New Designs." Journal of Mechanical Design 126, no. 4 (July 1, 2004): 753–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1758256.

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True design with grammars lies in the creation of the grammar rules, not in the application of the rules to generate design alternatives. Existing grammars can be modified to describe new languages of designs [1–4]. Studying an epicyclic gear train graph grammar leads to purposeful relaxation of grammar rules and subsequent discovery of new designs. A revised new EGT grammar is presented, which is designed to generate a wider selection of valid EGTs.

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Ham, Sanda. "Croatian Shtokavian grammar books." St open 1 (2020): 1–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.48188/so.1.10.

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This paper describes the criteria for the systematic periodization of Croatian grammar books. These criteria are exclusively linguistic and take into account the phonological and morphological structure described in these grammar books; where the grammar books contain a dictionary, the lexical organization has been taken into consideration as well. Based on these criteria, all Croatian grammar books may be systematized into four periods: I. 1604 – 1836 (old Croatian grammars), II. 1836 – 1899 (Croatian grammars from the Illyrian Movement to the end of the 19th century, with two parallel subgroups: grammars by the Zagreb School and Croatian Vukovians), III. 1899 – 1986 (with three successive subgroups: Croatian grammars from the beginning of the 20th century to 1940, Croatian grammars from 1940 to 1945, Croatian grammars from 1945 to the 1970s), IV. contemporary Croatian grammars. All these grammars clearly reveal the continuity of the Croatian literary language. This language is recognizable and comprehensible in all grammars, primarily owing to its Shtokavian stylization – and not to any kind of “organic basis”.

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Kolln, Martha. "A Comment on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"." College English 47, no. 8 (December 1985): 874. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/376626.

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Williams, Joe, Richard D. Cureton, Carole Moses, and Edward A. Vavra. "Four Comments on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"." College English 47, no. 6 (October 1985): 641. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/377166.

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Huckin, Thomas N. "A Comment on "Grammar, Grammars, and the Teaching of Grammar"." College English 48, no. 4 (April 1986): 397. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/377267.

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Ozaki, Satoru. "A phonotactic-tonotactic grammar for Tokyo Japanese that clusters by lexical strata offers a good trade-off between model size and likelihood." Proceedings of the Linguistic Society of America 9, no. 1 (May 15, 2024): 5725. http://dx.doi.org/10.3765/plsa.v9i1.5725.

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Анотація:

The Japanese lexicon is typically classified into at least three etymological strata: native, Sino-Japanese and foreign words. In Tokyo Japanese, nouns from different strata are known to have different phonotactic as well as tonotactic properties. Should one analyze Tokyo Japanese nouns using a non-clustering grammar that generates all nouns using the same phonological grammar, or should one analyze them using a clustering grammar that generates nouns from different strata using different grammars? In this study, I address this question from a probabilistic and a model selection perspective: the better probabilistic grammar is one that better balances fit to data and the number of parameters in the grammar. Using the UCLA Phonotactic Learner, I train two kinds of MaxEnt grammars that correspond to non-clustering and clustering grammars. I compare the two kinds of grammar using the Bayesian Information Crierion (BIC), and show that the non-clustering grammars make a better trade-off between fit to data and model size than non-clustering grammars. Consequently, different etymological strata of the Tokyo Japanese nominal lexicon are better analyzed as being generated from different MaxEnt grammars than from the same MaxEnt grammar.

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Дисертації з теми "Grammar"

Carazzai, Marcia Regina Pawlas. "Grammar and grammar teaching." Florianópolis, SC, 2002. http://repositorio.ufsc.br/xmlui/handle/123456789/83160.

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Анотація:

Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Centro de Comunicação e Expressão. Programa de Pós-Graduação em Letras/Inglês e Literatura Correspondente.
Made available in DSpace on 2012-10-19T21:28:19Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0
Partindo do pressuposto de que para melhor compreender o ensino de línguas é essencial saber que tipo de concepções, conhecimentos e crenças os professores de língua têm (Freeman & Richards, 1996), esta pesquisa enfoca nas crenças de nove professores de inglês como língua estrangeira - LE a respeito da gramática e do ensino da gramática, e nas práticas de um desses professores ao trabalhar a gramática numa sala de aula de inglês - LE. A pesquisa objetiva investigar (a) as crenças que os professores têm à respeito da gramática, (b) as funções que os professores atribuem à gramática e ao seu ensino na sala de aula de inglês - LE, (c) os fatores que influenciam as crenças desses professores à respeito da gramática e de seu ensino, (d) como essas crenças podem ser contextualizadas com os dados das aulas de um desses professores. Na primeira fase de coleta e análise de dados, um questionário aberto foi aplicado aos professores com a finalidade de atingir os três primeiros objetivos da pesquisa. Posteriormente, com o objetivo de contextualizar as crenças encontradas na análise dos dados do questionário, um segundo estágio de coleta e análise de dados focalizou em episódios de aulas de um dos professores participantes. A análise dos dados mostra que de acordo com esses professores de inglês - LE a gramática e o ensino da gramática devem ser usados como facilitadores para ajudar os alunos em seu processo de aprendizagem. Os resultados também indicam que as crenças desses professores sobre a gramática e o seu ensino são influenciadas por fatores interativos - cognitivos, contextuais e experienciais - corroborando, portanto, os resultados de Borg (1999c).

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Tegel, Sara. "Grammar structures." Thesis, Högskolan Dalarna, Engelska, 2005. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:du-1653.

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Mayall, Kevin. "Landscape Grammar." Thesis, University of Waterloo, 2002. http://hdl.handle.net/10012/987.

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The protection and enhancement of visual resources constitute an on-going challenge to the planning authorities in many communities. The crux of this challenge is to guide development towards built and natural landscape forms that will not cause detriment to an existing landscape character. To understand and cope with this problem, there is the need for a means to define and model a landscape's character, to identify methods for constructing that character definition, to create tools for storing and using such a definition to visualize its spatial manifestations, and to incorporate alternative development regulatory parameters in order to assess their impact on landscape character. Current spatial data technologies are able to portray inventories of specific, real-world objects. While well established in the planning profession, these technologies and their attendant data manipulation tools do not easily facilitate the creation of generalized, non-specific statements that are applicable across a region. Such generalized statements regarding visual and spatial features are at the heart of descriptions of landscape character and implicit within most planning regulations intended to produce a desirable landscape character. Current spatial data tools therefore do not satisfy the stated needs of planning for landscape character. In satisfying these conceptual, methodological and technological deficiencies, the research presented in this dissertation defines and demonstrates a theory of landscape grammar which formally draws parallels between the structures of linguistics and the character of landscapes. A landscape grammar defines a landscape character using a spatial vocabulary and syntax rules and can be applied to a site to generate landscape forms that embody the defined character. In this dissertation, the spatial counterparts of the linguistic concepts of vocabulary and grammar rules are formalized and implemented for use in a custom-developed geographic information system. Methods that enable the use of landscape grammars in a planning environment are presented and subsequently applied through the formal expression of planning regulations into the grammar-based model. The theory, methods and software implementation are demonstrated using a residential area of the island of Bermuda. The iterative grammatical generation of an example two-dimensional landscape scene is demonstrated with further three-dimensional representations of the results for visualization purposes. Alternative planning regulations are also incorporated into the case study grammar and resultant three-dimensional landscapes are shown. Several suggestions for future research on landscape grammars are offered in the conclusions of the dissertation.

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Begay, Kayla Rae. "Wailaki Grammar." Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, 2018. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=10745621.

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Wailaki, a Dene language of northwestern California, is known as what is referred to in academic literature and sources such as the Ethnologue as an “extinct” language. While Wailaki descendant people may remember an older generation of relatives who spoke Wailaki to one another, as far as is known, there are no people alive today who grew up speaking this language (Golla 2011:81). This term extinct used to describe such languages, however, does not reflect the desire of communities for languages to be spoken again, and the efforts many are taking towards language revitalization. Extinct conveys finality to language loss and shift; however, the term sleeping is today used to describe dormant languages with substantial documentation that may be spoken again (Leonard 2011). Wailaki is one such language.

For Wailaki, documentation exists; however, no detailed description of the language exists prior to this work. For any scholar and language learner interested in the language, published materials on related languages such as Hupa or Mattole are referenced in order to make sense of available Wailaki documentation. This dissertation puts forth a phonological, morphological, and limited syntactic description of Wailaki, which is a cover term, used by many tribal descendants, for a dialect continuum also known as Eel River Athabaskan/Dene (Golla 2011).

Chapter 1 gives background information regarding the people, the resources available for analysis. Chapter 2 is a description of phonological processes within the dialect continuum. Chapter 3 is a description of word classes in Wailaki, and what criteria and behavior (either morphological or syntactic) that may be given to delineate classes. Chapter 4 describes the verbal morphology, and Chapter 5 describes the nominal morphology. Chapter 6 titled Clitics and Syntax describes clitics that express categories such as tense, aspect or mode, or perform syntactic functions. In addition, Chapter 6 gives limited description of aspects of Wailaki syntax such as conjunctions, negation, question formation, and some discussion of word order.

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Daniels, Michael W. "Generalized ID/LP grammar a formalism for parsing linearization-Based HPSG grammars /." Connect to resource, 2005. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc%5Fnum=osu1118867950.

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Thesis (Ph.D.)--Ohio State University, 2005.
Title from first page of PDF file. Document formatted into pages; contains xiii, 173 p.; also includes graphics. Includes bibliographical references (p. 160-171). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

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Nava, A. "Grammar by the book. Voice in pedagogical grammars for EFL/ESL teachers." Doctoral thesis, Università degli Studi di Milano, 2007. http://hdl.handle.net/2434/142720.

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The aim of this work is to investigate how the English passive, as both a linguistic phenomenon and a learning/teaching issue, is presented in pedagogical grammars for EFL/ESL teachers - grammar books aimed at trainee and practising teachers of English as a foreign/second language and intended to supply metalinguistic information on English grammar, practice in language analysis and error correction as well as an overview of grammar teaching activities and the typical problems experienced by EFL/ESL learners. Whereas a great deal of ink has been poured by theoretical and descriptive linguists in the last fifty years in attempts to conceptualise and describe the passive, very little awareness appears to exist of this recent research among language teachers. Pedagogical grammars for teachers are arguably a concrete attempt to redress the situation inasmuch as they are primarily aimed at bridging the gap between linguistic research and the practical concerns of the teacher. Spanning approximately thirty years (1978-2004), the sample of ten grammars on which this study is based originated not only in Inner Circle countries (Canada, USA, UK, New Zealand), but also in former British colonies (India, Hong Kong, Singapore) and in a country where English is learnt as a foreign language (Colombia). Through the analysis of the verbal descriptions, the examples and the diagrams featured in the corpus of ten presentations of the passive as well as the subject-specific metalanguage used, the book pieces together a picture of the way an important grammatical phenomenon has been turned into a grammaticographical product and explores how insights from the last one hundred years of linguistic and applied linguistic research have been mediated and represented for a non-academic audience. A subsidiary focus of the analysis is the evaluation of the 'fitness-for-purpose' of the grammars, i.e. whether they achieve the purposes that a teacher-oriented pedagogical presentation should serve.

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Morrill, Glyn Verden. "Extraction and coordination in phrase structure grammar and categorial grammar." Thesis, University of Edinburgh, 1989. http://hdl.handle.net/1842/6609.

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A large proportion of computationally-oriented theories of grammar operate within the confines of monostratality (i.e. there is only one level of syntactic analysis), compositionality (i.e. the meaning of an expression is determined by the meanings of its syntactic parts, plus their manner of combination), and adjacency (i.e. the only operation on terminal strings is concatenation). This thesis looks at two major approaches falling within these bounds: that based on phrase structure grammar (e.g. Gazdar), and that based on categorial grammar (e.g. Steedman). The theories are examined with reference to extraction and coordination constructions; crucially a range of 'compound' extraction and coordination phenomena are brought to bear. It is argued that the early phrase structure grammar metarules can characterise operations generating compound phenomena, but in so doing require a categorial-like category system. It is also argued that while categorial grammar contains an adequate category apparatus, Steedman's primitives such as composition do not extend to cover the full range of data. A theory is therefore presented integrating the approaches of Gazdar and Steedman. The central issue as regards processing is derivational equivalence: the grammars under consideration typically generate many semantically equivalent derivations of an expression. This problem is addressed by showing how to axiomatise derivational equivalence, and a parser is presented which employs the axiomatisation to avoid following equivalent paths.

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Beamish, Anne 1954. "A tropical grammar : an architectural grammar for hot humid climates." Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1993. http://hdl.handle.net/1721.1/64518.

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Thesis (M.S.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Architecture, 1993.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 171-177).
This thesis considers the viability of an architectural grammar based on traditional Caribbean architecture as an aid to designing climatically responsive architecture in hot humid climates. It argues that since traditional Caribbean architecture is a successful response to the constraints of climate and resources, a grammar based on this architecture would produce designs with similar characteristics and therefore would still be relevant today. The purpose of focusing on the relationship between architectural form and energy use is to help designers understand the consequences of basic design decisions and to help them to use these issues positively to generate form. In order to investigate this issue, a number of questions were addressed in the thesis. They were: What are shape grammars? What is appropriate design in hot humid climates? What is traditional Caribbean architecture and is it climatically appropriate? What would a tropical grammar look like and what would it produce? and How could it be used practically? A grammar was formulated based on a set of 16 traditional Caribbean houses and as a test, two new designs were generated. Shape grammars, in their most basic form, are essentially a set of rules that if followed, will generate designs in the same family as the original set. Typically, they are used to study a particular architect's style or occasionally a building style. This thesis states that shape grammars have two serious limitations which reduce their usefulness to designers. The first is that shape grammars focus only on physical form and the second is that they do not increase the user's understanding of the reasons for the grammar rules. However, it was found that, in contrast, the process of developing or formulating a grammar (as opposed to using one) was exceptionally useful for developing a deep understanding of the architectural style or type. The thesis concludes that architectural grammars can be a very useful and accessible tool for designers: 1. if they are able to go beyond physical form to include other architectural issues and knowledge; 2. if means are developed for presenting grammars which allow users to understand the rules, and not simply follow them; and 3. if methods are developed for analyzing and evaluating the designs that are generated by the grammar. It also concludes that a grammar is a useful tool to familiarize designers with the most successful characteristics of traditional architectural vocabulary. The purpose of this type of grammar is not to copy or duplicate a style, but to learn from its practical solutions in order to create new combinations of form that would be appropriate to the conditions found today.
by Anne Beamish.
M.S.

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ZAMPOLLI, SERENA. "Grammar Stories: a proposal for the storification of grammar rules." Doctoral thesis, Università degli studi di Genova, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/11567/929454.

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This thesis proposes a procedure to transform abstract concepts into meaningful stories and evaluates its application to grammar rules in two contexts of English learnt as foreign language by Italians: as online resources available to adult independent learners, and as learning activity carried out in school. In the first case, users are passive receivers of the content produced with the procedure; in the second case, learners actively apply it while working on grammar rules. In both situations, the present research study aims to evaluate if the delivery of abstract information in story-form facilitates its understanding and memorization. This thesis, however, is also a journey which lasted three years. It started in November 2013, with the admission into the Digital Humanities PhD program of the University of Genoa. The research project I1 proposed was aimed at developing a playful and narrative digital tool to help people learn English. My previous studies and my experiences as a teacher had convinced me of the value of games and stories for learning: the combination of the two looked like the Holy Grail of teaching to me. While deepening the theoretical background necessary to realize my idea, I ended up refining my initial plan, abandoning the idea of the video-game in favour of a simpler tool apt to help Italian adult independent learners of English as a foreign language. This certainly was influenced not only by the literature, but also, and especially, by observing many of my friends struggling with speaking correct English, a situation which is shared with too many Italians. I therefore decided I needed more information on this issue. As suggested by Design Thinking, the first thing to do was framing the problem, understanding its peculiarities, and identifying the needs of my prospective users. I was surprised to note that almost all of them, even the most skilled ones or those who had been living abroad, were prone to very basic mistakes. Most of them confessed to talk and write English as if they were “playing by ear”. The problem with such behaviour is that their native language, Italian, was interfering with the foreign language and leading them to use incorrect forms. They said they remembered grammar rules vaguely and would not rely too much on them. They also did not want to spend time studying on books to learn things they felt they “knew already”: they seemed to be irritated by lengthy and abstract explanations. In order to help them – and the many Italian learners in a similar situation - I decided to focus on one specific, concrete problem: I decided to work on common mistakes of Italian speakers of English and concentrated on a book that highlighted them (Swan, Smith, 2001). As a pedagogical approach, I decided to focus on narrative learning. My previous research in storytelling and my experiences with it in real life had convinced me of the communication power of stories. Good storytelling works with any age, any background, any topic. In fact, it has been used for teaching since the dawn of time, as I had discovered during the year I spent in Australia teaching Italian as a Foreign Language at high-school level. It was while visiting Uluru, the most sacred of the Aboriginal mountains, that I found that its lower part is completely covered by drawings that were used by the elders to tell stories to the kids and educate them about Life. I was thrilled by the idea of exploring new digital forms of storytelling that would perpetuate its role in learning. For the issue I wanted to address, however, a level of difficulty was introduced by the fact that grammar rules are abstract concepts, and therefore they cannot be straightforwardly expressed in story form. Moreover, I knew it was not enough to produce some videos presenting a story, but rather to find a “formula” apt to transform grammar rules, and possibly any other abstract concept, into stories. The narrativization of abstract concepts has been discussed for quite some time by academics of different backgrounds, but a replicable procedure that could work in a variety of cases was still missing. It took several months and many readings to find a way to standardize the process. By February 2016 I had created the first prototype of Grammar Story, working on a mistake that is very common among Italians: the missing -s at the end of Present Tense verbs at the third singular person. The story was titled “Speed Dating”. By the end of the year, the first version of what I called “storification procedure” was ready. Between February and March, I wrote, scripted, produced, edited five other Grammar Stories, further refining the procedure during the process. My intention was to define a procedure people could use to create effective learning material (education professionals, designers of multimedia learning material and e-learning platforms, publishing houses, …), but in the meanwhile I realised there were other people who could benefit from the storification procedure: students and teachers. The procedure could be used by teachers to create material for their students, but also as class activity to be carried out with and by the students, in which they would be guided to produce their own stories. This possibility was worth being explored as well. As soon as my Grammar Stories were ready, I created a website to experiment them with independent adult learners, and at the same time I started sending a proposal for a Grammar Stories workshop to Dottoranda: Serena Zampolli 8 schools. Thanks to a keen English teacher, I was able to do a first exploratory trial in June 2017. The experience helped me understand what needed to be adjusted, and in the Fall I repeated the experiment in three schools. This thesis is the detailed report of this learning journey. Chapter 1 provides the Theoretical Framework for this study; it constitutes the foundation of my proposal and it is the result of extensive readings on storytelling and multimedia technology in learning context. Chapter 2 describes the storification procedure and its development. Chapter 3 illustrates the methodology for the experimentation and frames it in the context of language learning theory. Chapter 4 reports Experiment A, carried out with adult independent learners who were using the 6 Grammar stories produced. Chapter 5 describes the first field trial realised in schools on June 2017, while Chapter 6 reports on the multiple trials run in Fall 2017; all together they constitute Experiment B. Lastly, Chapter 7 draws some conclusion from this experience. I decided to devote this introduction to talking about the journey of this study for two reasons: the first is that I believe in storytelling as a most powerful communication tool, and it would be contradictory not to present it in form of story; the second is that these three years were not an easy journey. It took time to develop each part of this project, it was necessary to repeatedly explore, compare, analyse and check, but it surely was a journey where much was learnt. Before starting, some terminological clarifications are needed. In this work, “storytelling” is intended as the telling of stories which have a beginning, a development, and an end. “Narrate” is the action of delivering information in the form of a story or anyway in narrative form. It was decided to call the procedure a “storification procedure” because it aims to create stories with a beginning, a development (often including a conflict) and an end. Most of the studies on storytelling start with a definition of what is intended with "story". Instead of providing a rigid definition, I decided to identify some structural features of stories, and they are described in Section 1.2

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Cardó, Carles 1975. "Algebraic dependency grammar." Doctoral thesis, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, 2018. http://hdl.handle.net/10803/463326.

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We propose a mathematical formalism called Algebraic Dependency Grammar with applications to formal linguistics and to formal language theory. Regarding formal linguistics we aim to address the problem of grammaticality with special attention to cross-linguistic cases. In the field of formal language theory this formalism provides a new perspective allowing an algebraic classification of languages. Notably our approach suggests the existence of so-called anti-classes of languages associated to certain classes of languages. Our notion of a dependency grammar is as of a definition of a set of well-constructed dependency trees (we call this algebraic governance) and a relation which associates word-orders to dependency trees (we call this algebraic linearization). In relation to algebraic governance, we define a manifold which is a set of dependency trees satisfying an agreement condition throughout a pattern, which is the algebraic form of a collection of syntactic addresses over the dependency tree. A boolean condition on the words formalizes the notion of agreement. In relation to algebraic linearization, first we observe that the notion of projectivity is quintessentially that certain substructures of a dependency tree always form an interval in its linearization. So we have to establish well what is a substructure; we see again that patterns proportion the key, generalizing the notion of projectivity with recursive linearization procedures. Combining the above modules we have the formalism: an algebraic dependency grammar is a manifold together with a linearization. Notice that patterns sustain both manifolds and linearizations. We study their interrelation in terms of a new algebraic classification of classes of languages. We highlight the main contributions of the thesis. Regarding mathematical linguistics, algebraic dependency grammar considers trees and word-order different modules in the architecture, which allows description of languages with varied word-order. Ellipses are permitted; this issue is usually avoided because it makes some formalisms non-decidable. We differentiate linguistic phenomena structurally by their algebraic description. Algebraic dependency grammar permits observance of affinity between linguistic constructions which seem superficially different. Regarding formal language theory, a new system for understanding a very large family of languages is presented which permits observation of languages in broader contexts. We identify a new class named anti-context-free languages containing constructions structurally symmetric to context-free languages. Informally we could say that context-free languages are well-parenthesized, while anti-context-free languages are cross-serial-parenthesized. For example copy languages and respectively languages are anti-context-free.
Es proposa un formalisme matemàtic anomenat Gramàtica de Dependències Algebraica amb aplicacions a la lingüística formal i a la teoria de llenguatges formals. Pel que fa a la lingüística formal es pretén abordar el problema de la gramaticalitat, amb un èmfasi especial en la transversalitat, això és, que el formalisme sigui apte per a un bon nombre de llengües. En el camp dels llenguatges formals aquest formalisme proporciona una nova perspectiva que permet una classificació algebraica dels llenguatges. Aquest enfocament suggereix a més a més l'existència de les aquí anomenades anti-classes de llenguatges associades a certes classes de llenguatges. La nostra idea d'una gramàtica de dependències és en un conjunt de sintagmes ben construïts (d'això en diem recció algebraica) i una relació que associa ordres de paraules als sintagmes d'aquest conjunt (d'això en diem linearització algebraica). Pel que fa a la recció algebraica, introduïm el concepte de varietat sintàctica com el conjunt de sintagmes que satisfan una concordança sobre un determinat patró. Un patró és un conjunt d'adreces sintàctiques descrit algebraicament. La concordança es formalitza a través d'una condició booleana sobre el vocabulari. En relació amb linearització algebraica, en primer lloc, observem que l'essencial de la noció clàssica de projectivitat rau en el fet que certes subestructures d'un arbre de dependències formen sempre un interval en la seva linearització. Així doncs, primer hem d'establir bé que vol dir subestructura. Un cop més veiem que els patrons en proporcionen la clau, tot generalitzant la noció de projectivitat a través d'un procediment recursiu de linearització. Tot unint els dos mòduls anteriors ja tenim el nostre formalisme a punt: una gramàtica de dependències algebraica és una varietat sintàctica juntament amb una linearització. Notem que els patrons són a la base de tots dos mòduls: varietats i linearitzacions, així que resulta del tot natural estudiar-ne la interrelació en termes d'un nou sistema de classificació algebraica de classes de llenguatges. Destaquem les principals contribucions d'aquesta tesi. Pel que fa a la matemàtica lingüística, la gramàtica de dependències algebraica considera els arbres i l'ordre de les paraules diferents mòduls dins l'arquitectura la qual cosa permet de descriure llenguatges amb una gran varietat d'ordre. L'ús d'el·lipsis és permès; aquesta qüestió és normalment evitada en altres formalismes per tal com la possibilitat d'el·lipsis fa que els models es tornin no decidibles. El nostre model també ens permet classificar estructuralment fenòmens lingüístics segons la seva descripció algebraica, així com de copsar afinitats entre construccions que semblen superficialment diferents. Pel que fa a la teoria dels llenguatges formals, presentem un nou sistema de classificació que ens permet d'entendre els llenguatges en un context més ampli. Identifiquem una nova classe que anomenem llenguatges anti-lliures-de-context que conté construccions estructuralment simètriques als llenguatges lliures de context. Informalment podríem dir que els llenguatges lliures de context estan ben parentetitzats, mentre que els anti-lliures-de-context estan parentetitzats segons dependències creuades en sèrie. En són mostres d'aquesta classe els llenguatges còpia i els llenguatges respectivament.

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Книги з теми "Grammar"

Mallon, Alexis. Coptic grammar: Grammaire copte. [Boulder?, Colo.]: Boulos Ayad Ayad, 2004.

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editor, Raby Valérie, ed. Grammaire françoise: French grammar. Paris: Classiques Garnier, 2014.

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Peck, E. J. Eskimo grammar =: Inuktitut grammar. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services, 1997.

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Grammar with Gramma Grams. XLIBRIS, 2012.

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Rosen, Leonard J. Correct spelling of "Grammer" - Grammar. Barnes & Noble, 1985.

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Advanced Grammar of School-Grammars. Creative Media Partners, LLC, 2022.

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Action Grammaire! (A Level Grammar). Hodder Arnold H&S, 1996.

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Vive La Grammaire! (GCSE Grammar). Hodder Arnold H&S, 1998.

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Easy Grammar !: La Grammaire Facile. Le Robert, 2006.

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Press, Ian. Ukrainian: A Comprehensive Grammar (Routledge Grammars). Routledge, 1999.

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Частини книг з теми "Grammar"

McCarthy, Michael. "Grammar policy, grammar politics and grammar police." In English Grammar, 145–67. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2021.: Routledge, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780367633677-7.

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Arrington, Robert L. "The Grammar of Grammar." In Wittgenstein — Eine Neubewertung / Wittgenstein — Towards a Re-Evaluation, 210–20. Munich: J.F. Bergmann-Verlag, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-30086-2_19.

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Aarts, Flor G. A. M., and Herman Chr Wekker. "Grammar and Contrastive Grammar." In A Contrastive Grammar of English and Dutch, 1–8. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-4984-8_1.

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Garcea, Alessandro. "Grammar." In A Companion to Late Antique Literature, 451–70. Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118830390.ch28.

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Turkstra, Lyn S. "Grammar." In Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1604–5. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-57111-9_890.

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Pinborg, Jan. "Grammar." In Philosophie et science au Moyen Age / Philosophy and Science in the Middle Ages, 779–82. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 1990. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-3649-7_9.

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Horobin, Simon. "Grammar." In Chaucer’s Language, 96–127. London: Macmillan Education UK, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-27457-1_6.

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Turkstra, Lyn S. "Grammar." In Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology, 1. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-56782-2_890-4.

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Topaloğlu, Simge. "Grammar." In Encyclopedia of Evolutionary Psychological Science, 1–5. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-16999-6_2415-1.

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Valenzuela, Hannah. "Grammar." In Linguistics for TESOL, 107–30. Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40932-6_6.

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Тези доповідей конференцій з теми "Grammar"

Li, Xin, Linda Schmidt, Weidong He, Lixing Li, and Yuanmei Qian. "Transformation of an EGT Grammar: New Grammar, New Designs." In ASME 2001 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2001/dtm-21716.

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Abstract Grammars generate design options through the application of predefined rules that transform collections of symbols into more meaningful expressions. Research on the nature of grammars tells us that writing the rules is where the fundamental design activity occurs. Using the grammar rules allows us to explicitly articulate one design at a time. We can exploit the design power of grammars further by modifying a grammar to describe new languages of designs. Here we examine an existing grammar to demonstrate how modifying its rule base to relax an assumption can expand the space of solutions it generates significantly. We show that investing our design attention on the grammar itself can yield dramatic results.

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Stouffs, Rudi. "On Shape Grammars, Color Grammars and Sortal Grammars: A sortal grammar interpreter for varying shape grammar formalisms." In eCAADe 2012 : Digital Physicality. eCAADe, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.52842/conf.ecaade.2012.1.x.j7v.

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Nikitin, Yury R., and Sergei A. Trefilov. "Diagnostics of robot drives based on DC motors by identifiability criterion of nonlinear discrete model in state space." In The VI International Forum "Instrumentation Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications - 2020". Publishing House of Kalashnikov ISTU, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.22213/2658-3658-2020-24-31.

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The paper deals with the formation of contextual grammars in the methods of complex scene recognition. It proposes the use of multi-level grammar, which includes the task of syntactic analysis of image sequences and the task of syntactic analysis of a scene taking into account the multi-level movement of objects. It is shown that the formation of grammar, describing both the structural information of the image and the interaction of images, is associated with the need to develop an algorithm to output grammar on a given set of dynamic images, which represent a learning sample. As a result of training, structural descriptions of images and descriptions of their relations are formed and later used for syntactic analysis of complex structure events. It is postulated that for dynamic scenes with multi-level movement and complex structure, which is constantly changing in time, it is reasonable to apply context grammar rules, and in this connection arises the concept of multi-level context grammar. Some basic principles of the theory of formal grammars inherent in structural methods of recognition are described.

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Sidnyaev, Nikolay I., Yulia I. Butenko, and Elizaveta E. Bolotova. "A syntactic method in recognizing unidentified objects." In The VI International Forum "Instrumentation Engineering, Electronics and Telecommunications - 2020". Publishing House of Kalashnikov ISTU, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.22213/2658-3658-2020-32-39.

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Sutorius, Konstantin V., and Saida I. Yarulina. "e Novgorod Greek Grammar of Leichoudis and Its Possible Sources." In Лихудовские чтения — 2022. НовГУ им. Ярослава Мудрого, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.34680/978-5-89896-832-8/2023.readings.04.

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The Novgorod edition of the Leichoudis Greek grammar or the Novgorod grammar is viewed in conjunction with their Greek grammars edited in Moscow and Kostroma. e authors found that in addition to the mentioned in the literature variants of the text, there is a well-known manuscript containing an incomplete copy of the Novgorod grammar. Considering the Novgorod grammar in connection with the Moscow grammar, the authors pay attention not only to the points of contact between the two copies, but also to the fact that the Moscow grammar itself have textual di erences and the Novgorod grammar can be associated with a very speci c group of these copies. In this regard, the authors draw attention to the fact that part of the copies of the Moscow grammar was rewritten by students of the Novgorod Archbishops' School. is may indicate the use of Moscow grammar in the practice of this school. e study revealed a close relationship between the Kostroma grammar and grammar collections that contain the text of the Novgorod grammar, which may indicate the use of the Kostroma grammar in the Novgorod school. In addition, the authors nd many parallels with the Greek grammar of the Jesuit Jacob Gretzer in the Kostroma grammar itself, and show that the connection with the didactics of the Jesuits was not accidental for the Leichoudis. Finally, a comparison with the records of the students of the Novgorod school suggests that the teaching/ learning of grammar as a whole followed the structure of the manual (textbook).

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Kim, Yoon, Chris Dyer, and Alexander Rush. "Compound Probabilistic Context-Free Grammars for Grammar Induction." In Proceedings of the 57th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics. Stroudsburg, PA, USA: Association for Computational Linguistics, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.18653/v1/p19-1228.

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Agarwal, Manish, and Jonathan Cagan. "Shape Grammars and Their Languages: A Methodology for Product Design and Product Representation." In ASME 1997 Design Engineering Technical Conferences. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 1997. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc97/dtm-3867.

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Abstract This paper argues that shape grammars and the languages they define are an ideal means to generate and represent products where basic functionality can be decomposed into discrete processes, forms can be created to fulfill those functional processes, and variation in those forms differentiates between competitive products. A shape grammar for the design of coffee makers is highlighted and used to illustrate how an infinite set of a class of products can be articulated through a concise shape grammar. Novel coffee makers and coffee makers in the market today are generated from the grammar.

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McCormack, Jay, and Jonathan Cagan. "Enabling the Use of Shape Grammars: Shape Grammar Interpretation Through General Shape Recognition." In ASME 2000 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2000/dtm-14555.

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Abstract Shape grammars have recently shown promise in engineering applications. The need to efficiently implement such grammars, rather than hard code them, in a way that supports creativity through shape emergence has still remained an ongoing research challenge. This paper introduces a shape grammar interpreter that supports parametric shape recognition, and thereby shape emergence. The approach divides shapes into hierarchies of subshapes based on specified geometric relationships within the shape. A default hierarchy based on geometric relations often found in engineering and architectural designs is presented as an efficient example of one appropriate hierarchy. A classic shape grammar demonstrates the interpreter’s shape recognition and generation abilities.

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Königseder, Corinna, and Kristina Shea. "A Method for Visualizing the Relations Between Grammar Rules, Performance Objectives and Search Space Exploration in Grammar-Based Computational Design Synthesis." In ASME 2015 International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/detc2015-46761.

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Design grammars have been successfully applied in numerous engineering disciplines, e.g. in electrical engineering, architecture and mechanical engineering. A successful application of design grammars in Computational Design Synthesis (CDS) requires a) a meaningful representation of designs and the design task at hand, b) a careful formulation of grammar rules to synthesize new designs, c) problem specific design evaluations, and d) the selection of an appropriate algorithm to guide the synthesis process. Managing these different aspects of CDS requires not only a detailed understanding of each individual part, but also of the interdependencies between them. In this paper, a new method is presented to analyze the exploration of design spaces in CDS. The method analyzes the designs generated during the synthesis process and visualizes how the design space is explored with respect to a) design characteristics, and b) objectives. The selected algorithm as well as the grammar rules can be analyzed with this approach to support the human designer in successfully understanding and applying a CDS method. The case study demonstrates how the method is used to analyze the synthesis of bicycle frames. Two algorithms are compared for this task. Results demonstrate how the method increases the understanding of the different components in CDS. The presented research can be useful for both novices to CDS to help them gain a deeper understanding of the interplay between grammar rules and guidance of the synthesis process, as well as for experts aiming to further improve their CDS application by improving parameter settings of their search algorithms, or by further refining their design grammar. Additionally, the presented method constitutes a novel approach to interactively visualize design space exploration considering not only designs objectives, but also the characteristics and interdependencies of different designs.

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Звіти організацій з теми "Grammar"

Obua, Steven. Indentation-Sensitive Parsing with Pyramids. Steven Obua (trading as Recursive Mind), March 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.47757/pwp.1.

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Echevarria, II, and Antulio J. War's Second Grammar. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, October 2009. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada509111.

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Stuart, Joshua, and Elizabeth Bradley. Learning the Grammar of Dance. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, January 1998. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada452050.

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Stevens, Anthony R. Transformational Generative Grammar: A Survey. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, March 1988. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada196636.

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Коваленко, Г. С., та А. Д. Подвінська. Розвиток граматичних навичок на уроках з англійської мови у школярів основної школи за допомогою навчальних інтернет-програм. Криворізький державний педагогічний університет, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.31812/123456789/5999.

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Статтю присвячено використанню навчальних iнтернет-програм на уроках англiйської мови для розвитку граматичних навичок в учнiв основної школи. Розроблено план-конспект уроку з англiйської мови у 7 класi на тему “City features”, пiдтему “Quantifiers” з використанням мобiльних додаткiв “Johnny Grammar’s Word Challenge” та “Oxford English Grammar and EnglishListening”.

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Oates, Tom, and Brent Heeringa. Estimating Grammar Parameters using Bounded Memory. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, January 2002. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada459912.

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Gaynor, Robert. Computer Grammar Checkers and ESL Writers. Portland State University Library, January 2000. http://dx.doi.org/10.15760/etd.6679.

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Gildea, Daniel, and Julia Hockenmaier. Identifying Semantic Roles Using Combinatory Categorial Grammar. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, January 2003. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada459462.

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Lafferty, John, Saniel Sleator, and Davy Temperley. Grammatical Trigrams: A Probabilistic Model of Link Grammar. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, September 1992. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada256365.

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Gurney, Jr, Claffy John O., Elbaum Kimberly C., and Jason H. Implementing a Definite Clause Grammar for Parsing Surface Syntax. Fort Belvoir, VA: Defense Technical Information Center, February 1989. http://dx.doi.org/10.21236/ada205268.

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