Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Droi comparé des contrats"

L'idée d'énoncer le droit dans un code constitue un projet ambitieux. L'évolution du temps a démontré les insuffisances du code actuel et le rôle fondamental joué par la jurisprudence. Avant d'aller plus loin dans le processus législatif, il faut se poser certaines questions indispensables. Faut-il toujours codifier dans le secteur des obligations et, si oui, que faut-il codifier ? Le législateur ne peut prétendre poser des règles précises en toutes matières, particulièrement dans le domaine des contrats où la volonté des parties doit s'exprimer. Par une démarche comparatiste, on aborde d'une part les avantages et inconvénients de la codification elle-même; d'autre part on s'interroge sur le prix à payer pour la sauvegarde de la liberté contractuelle

Pour la doctrine française, l’économie du contrat constitue l’une des notions prétoriennes les plus influentes en droit contemporain des contrats. Notion à géométrie variable, née en jurisprudence française en 1894, l’économie du contrat fut reprise dès 1919 par les juridictions québécoises. Son essor reste cependant plus significatif en droit français où elle a reçu, depuis lors, une stature constitutionnelle. Cette étude propose, dans une approche systématico-fonctionnaliste, d’examiner les contours et les solutions que la notion inspire à travers le prisme du droit comparé, et présente dès lors un grand intérêt pour la doctrine québécoise où elle demeure encore peu connue.

Abstract: Parties often exchange promises of future performance with one another. Legal systems frame and regulate contracts involving the exchange of bilateral promises of future performance differently from one another. Two conceptual and practical questions often arise in these bilateral situations. Should a breaching promisor be allowed to force the performance of his non-breaching promisee? Should a breaching party be able to collect damages in a contract if his counterpart was also in breach? This article examines these interrelated questions from a comparative law and economics perspective. We consider contracts in which parties make reciprocal promises of performance and study the incentives created by applying a defence of non-performance in unilateral breach cases and the 'plaintiff in default' preclusion rules in bilateral breach cases. Résumé: Les parties échangent souvent entre elles des promesses de prestation future. Les systèmes légaux encadrent et règlent différemment les uns des autres les contrats comportant l'échange de promesses bilatérales de prestations futures. Deux questions conceptuelles et pratiques se posent souvent dans ces situations bilatérales. Le promettant en défaut devrait-il être autorisé à exiger la prestation de l'autre partie qui n'est pas en défaut? Une partie en défaut pourrait-elle obtenir une indemnisation dans un contrat si la contrepartie était aussi en défaut? Le présent article examine ces questions, en relation étroite les unes avec les autres, du point de vue du droit comparé et dans une perspective économique. Nous examinons des contrats dans lesquels les parties se font des promesses réciproques de prestations et étudions les motivations créées par l'application d'une défense basée sur la non-prestation dans des cas de manquement unilatéral et les règles de prévention concernant le 'plaignant en défaut' dans des cas de manquement bilatéral.

Abstract: In this article, O. Lando investigates if good faith can be considered an overarching principle in European contract law. It looks at the principle from a historical and comparative law perspective. In all continental European countries a general principle of good faith can be found. The principle is also encountered in the Principles of European Contract Law, the Unidroit Principles of Commercial Contracts and, to some extent, in the Vienna Convention on the International Sale of Goods. However, in English law good faith is not treated as an over-arching principle, although the principle can be found incidentally in specific regulations and cases. O. Lando concludes that, in spite of logical and technical arguments to the contrary made by H. Beale, good faith is an over arching principle. Résumé: Dans cet article, O. Lando étudie si la bonne foi peut être considérée comme un principe primordial du droit européen des contrats en l’analysant du point de vue historique et du point de vue du droit comparé. Le principe de bonne foi se retrouve dans tous les pays continentaux européens et est également présent dans les Principes du droit européen des contrats, les Principes d’UNIDROIT relatifs aux contrats du commerce international, et dans une certaine mesure, dans la Convention de Vienne sur les contrats de vente internationale de marchandises. Le droit anglais cependant ne traite pas la bonne foi comme un principe primordial, bien que le principe puisse incidemment être trouvé dans des législations spécifiques et dans la jurisprudence. O. Lando conclut qu’en dépit des arguments techniques et logiques contraires exposés par H. Beale, la bonne foi est un principe primordial. Zusammenfassung: In seinem Beitrag untersucht O. Lando, ob das Institut des Treu und Glaubens als allumfassender Grundsatz innerhalb des europäischen Vertragsrechts angesehen werden kann. Der Beitrag stellt diesen Grundsatz sowohl in einem historischen als auch in einem vergleichenden Zusammenhang dar. In allen Staaten des europäischen Kontinents ist ein allgemeiner Grundsatz des Treu und Glauben wiederzufinden. Dieser Grundsatz ist ebenfalls in den Principles of European Contract Law, den Unidroit Principles sowie zum Teil auch im Übereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen über Verräge über den internationalen Warenkauf aufgenommen. Im englischen Recht wird der Grundsatz des True und Glaubens nicht als ein allumfassender Grundsatz angesehen, obwohl er gelegentlich in einigen spezifischen Bestimmungen und gerichtlichen Entscheidungen wiederzufinden ist. O. Lando folgert, dass der Grundsatz des Treu und Glaubens trotz einiger logischer und technischer Gegenargumente, die insbesondere durch H. Beale vorgetragen wurden, im Ergebnis als ein allumfassender Grundsatz angesehen werden kann.

Au milieu du xxe siècle, l’engagement de professeurs de carrière annonce la transformation des facultés de droit. Paul-André Crépeau compte au nombre de ces recrues qui ont poursuivi des études supérieures à l’étranger. Il se voit confier en 1965 la présidence de l’Office de révision du Code civil. Il pilote ce vaste chantier ; son nom demeure indissociable du Projet de Code civil. Comme auteur de doctrine, il publie abondamment en droit des contrats, puis s’intéresse à la codification et à la lexicographie. Il s’exprime en usant de nombreux procédés d’écriture. Il écrit souvent pour influencer l’orientation du droit ; ses propositions reçoivent un accueil tantôt favorable, tantôt critique. Son oeuvre est empreinte de principes et de droit comparé et manifeste sa volonté de constituer une solide doctrine. Il a un attachement singulier à la doctrine française, qui lui sert de source d’inspiration et exerce une indéniable influence sur sa pensée.

Abstract: The insolvency of Lehman Brothers International (Europe) ('LBIE') gave rise to the decision of the UK Supreme Court handed down on 29 February 2012, in what has come to be known as the 'client money application'. The key issue on which the Supreme Court had to decide was the determination of the money that should be pooled for distribution to Lehman Brothers' clients. A tight three to two majority interpreted the applicable client money rules as enabling clients whose money was not segregated to share in the client money pool ('CMP') together with clients whose money was segregated. The Supreme Court thus adopted a solution that grants protection to all clients, without distinguishing between clients with mere contractual claims and clients with property rights. This decision raises important questions about the general functioning of client accounts and about the distinction between contract law and property law. In this article, these questions are discussed from a comparative civil law viewpoint. Resumé: La procédure d'insolvabilité de Lehman Brothers International (Europe) a été l'occasion pour la Cour Suprême du Royaune Uni de se prononcer dans une décision rendue le 29 février 2012, sur ce qu'on a appelé la 'client money application'. La question clé soumise à la Cour consistait à déterminer quels fonds devaient être regroupés dans un 'pool' pour les distribuer aux clients de Lehman Brothers. Une majorité serrée de trois contre deux a interprété les règles applicables aux fonds appartenant aux clients ('client money rules') dans ce sens qu'elles permettent aux clients dont les fonds n'avaient pas été ségrégués, de partager les fonds de clients regroupés dans un 'pool' avec les clients dont les fonds avaient été ségrégués. La Cour Suprême a donc adopté une solution qui garantit la protection de l'ensemble des clients, sans faire de distinction entre les clients ayant un droit purement contractual et les clients titulaires de droits de propriété. Cette décision soulève des questions importantes relatives au fonctionnement général des comptes de clients et à la distinction entre le droit des contrats et le droit de la propriété. Le présent article traite ces questions du point de vue du droit civil comparé.

Abstract: This article discusses the validity of so-called knock-for-knock clauses, by which parties to offshore oil and gas or maritime contracts agree that each of them will cover its own losses regardless of who caused them. The issue of validity of such clauses and of the liability exclusions they contain is analysed in a comparative perspective between the law of their tradition of origin (common law, especially UK law) and Nordic civil law, where such agreements are also frequently used, namely in the context of oil extraction activities in the North Sea. Based on an assessment of the different criteria used to promote or dismiss knock-for-knock clauses in case law and academic literature, the article reaches the conclusion that the question of whether knock-for-knock clauses should be held valid depends on whose interests are being considered, and that further research is warranted on the efficiency of mechanisms supposed to replace the deterrence effect of tort or contractual liability. Résumé: Le présent article traite de la validité des clauses dites knock-for-knock, par lesquelles les parties à des contrats en matière de production d´énergie offshore et de droit maritime conviennent que chacune des parties supportera les dommages qu´elle subit sans tenir compte de qui les a causés. La question de la validité de telles clauses et des exclusions de responsabilité qu´elles contiennent est analysée dans une perspective de droit comparé entre le droit de leur tradition d´origine (le droit commun, plus particulièrement le droit anglais) et le droit civil nordique, dans lequel de telles clauses sont également fréquemment employées, en particulier en relation avec les activités d ´extraction pétrolière dans la Mer du Nord. Sur la base d´une discussion des différents arguments avancés en faveur ou contre les clauses knock-for-knock, l´article parvient à la conclusion que la question de leur validité peut recevoir différentes réponses en fonction des acteurs dont les intérêts sont considérés. De surcroît, des recherches approfondies concernant l’efficacité de mesures contractuelles de droit public de sécurité et de prévention des accidents sont nécessaires afin de déterminer si l’effet de dissuasion visé par la responsabilité délictuelle ou contractuelle peut être atteint par d´autres moyens. Zusammenfassung: Dieser Artikel diskutiert die Gültigkeit von sogenannten Knockfor-Knock-Klauseln, durch die Parteien zu Offshore-Öl- und Gas- oder Seeverkehrsverträgen zustimmen, dass jeder von ihnen seine eigenen Verluste abdecken wird, unabhängig davon, wer sie verursacht hat. Die Frage der Gültigkeit solcher Klauseln und die darin enthaltenen Haftungsausschlüsse wird in einer vergleichenden Perspektive zwischen dem Gesetz ihrer Herkunft (Common Law, insbesondere dem britischen Recht) und dem nordischen Zivilrecht analysiert, wobei auch solche Vereinbarungen häufig verwendet werden im Rahmen der Ölförderung in der Nordsee. Auf der Grundlage einer Einschätzung der verschiedenen Kriterien, die zur Förderung oder Entlassung von Knock-for-Knock-Klauseln in der Rechtsprechung und der akademischen Literatur verwendet werden, kommt der Artikel zu dem Schluss, dass die Frage, ob Knock-for-Knock Klauseln gültig gehalten werden sollte, davon abhängt, wessen Interessen werden berücksichtigt, und dass weitere Untersuchungen über die Effizienz von Mechanismen, die die Abschreckungseffekte der unerlaubten Handlung oder der vertraglichen Haftung ersetzen sollen, gerechtfertigt sind.

Le contrat de vente de biens constituant un levier du commerce transfrontière dans l'Union, le législateur européen en régit par conséquent certains aspects. La directive 1999/44/CE réformée par la directive (UE) 2019/771 et la directive 2011/83/UE comportent ainsi des règles communes aux Etats membres, propres à la vente. Le choix de l'étude spécifique de ces règles tient d'une part, à ce que, économiquement, il s'agisse du contrat le plus courant sur le marché intérieur et d'autre part, à ce que, juridiquement, la vente reste l'archétype du contrat en droit de l'UE, servant ainsi de prémices et de modèles à la législation européenne sur les contrats de consommation
The contract for the sale of goods constitutes a lever for cross-border trade in the Union, the European legislator therefore governs certain aspects. Directive 1999/44/EC reformed by Directive (EU) 2019/771 and Directive 2011/83/EU thus include rules common to Member States, specific to sales. The choice of the specific study of these rules is due on the one hand to the fact that, economically, it is the most common contract on the internal market and on the other hand, to the fact that, legally, the sale remains the archetype of the contract in EU law, thus serving as premises and models for European legislation on consumer contracts

Les objectifs, le contenu et le champ d'application de l'obligation de mise en concurrence applicable aux contrats de services publics locaux, divergent selon les systemes juridiques et selon la nature des contrats de services publics locaux (droit communautaire des marches publics, droit francais des marches publics et des delegations de service public, droit anglais des contrats des autorites locales). En droit communautaire et en droit francais, la mise en concurrence peut etre formelle (consistant principalement en une obligation de publicite prealable) ou etendue (procedure d'appel d'offres). En droit anglais, le systeme du + compulsory competitive tendering; equivaut a une procedure obligatoire d'appel d'offres qui a pour objet de mettre en concurrence des regies locales avec les entreprises privees. En droit communautaire, la mise en concurrence obligatoire ne concerne, pour l'instant, que les marches publics et les concessions de travaux, alors qu'en droit francais, son champ d'application couvre non seulement les marches publics mais egalement les delegations de service public. En droit interne anglais, la mise en concurrence obligatoire ne s'applique qu'a certains marches publics des autorites locales. Il est propose d'harmoniser le contenu de l'obligation de mise en concurrence dans les trois systemes juridiques etudies en degageant des points de convergence et de generaliser son application a l'ensemble des contrats de services publics locaux
The objectives, contents and scope of compulsory competitive tendering in relation to bidding for local public service contracts, differ from one legal system to the other and from one type of local public services contracts to the other (i. E. Ec public procurement law, the french law of public procurement and public services 'delegations', english local government contract law). Under both ec law and french law, competitive tendering can be formal (consisting mainly of the requirement for publication of a prior notice) or wide-ranging (open bid procedure). Under english law, so-called 'compulsory competitive tendering'is equivalent to a compulsory open bid procedure and is intended to put direct service organisations or direct labour organisations in competition with private companies. Under ec law, competitive tendering now only applies in relation to public procurement contracts and public works concessions, whilst under french law, its scope covers not only public procurement contracts but also public services 'delegations'. Under english law, compulsory competitive tendering only applies to local public procurement contracts. It is proposed that the requirements of compulsory competitive tendering in these three legal systems are harmonized through emphasing their similarities and by generalising the application of compulsory competitive tendering to all local public services contracts

Nul ne peut s'enrichir aux depens d'autmi. L'enrichissement sans cause fut reconnu en fiance en tant que source autonome d'obligations en 1892 (arret boudier}. Son evolution technique en droit francais connut un essor considerable au debut du xxeme siecle. Apres la derniere these de francois gore en 1949, plus aucun travail ne fut consacre sur le probleme des obligations nees d'un enrichissement injuste. A la meme epoque, les autres droits continentaux, principalement ceux d'inspiration germanique, connurent un renouveau du mecanisme interdisant de s'enrichir aux depens d'autmi. Une distinction fondamentale, reposant sur la nature des choses, permit de sepa, rer les enrichissements nes par prestation de ceux nes sans prestation. Outre son caractere fonc, tionnel, cette distinction s'evertue a attribuer des definitions differentes aux elements constitutifs de l'enrichissement injuste dont notamment celui de "cause". La tentative d'introduire en droit francais la distinction entre les enrichissements nes par prestation et ceux nes sans prestation, en meme temps que d'accorder une image plus moderne a l'institution, constitue l'objectif essentiel de cet essai
Enrichment without cause was recognized in france as an autonomous source of obligations in 1892 (case boudier). Its technical evolution in french law had a significant rise at the beginning of 20th century. After the last thesis from francois gore in 1949, no more essays were dedicated to the problem of unjust enrichment. At that period, though the other continental laws, mainly those of germanic inspiration, this mechanism, which does not allow somebody to get rich at the expense of others, sprang back to life. A fundamental distinction, based on the nature of things, made it possible to separate the benefits conferred with payment from benefits acquired "in any other manner". Besides its functional aspect, this distinction strives to attach different definitions to the constitutive elements of unjust enrichment, especially that of "cause". The attempt to intro, duce the distinction between benefits conferred with payment and benefits acquired "in any other manner" in french law, and at the same time to bring this institution up-to-date, is the essential purpose of our essay

La résiliation unilatérale du contrat existe dans le système juridique français ainsi que dans celui des Émirats Arabes, lorsqu'un texte le prévoit ou que les parties ont inséré une clause de résiliation. De plus, la jurisprudence française a consacré ce droit pour le contrat à durée indéterminée. Elle a admis aussi la résiliation unilatérale du contrat à durée déterminée en cas d'urgence ou d'une situation devenue intolérable, et parfois en cas de comportement grave. Ce n’est qu’en 1998 que la Cour de cassation française a consacré, par l'intermédiaire de l'arrêt « Tocqueville », le droit de résiliation unilatérale du contrat quand l'une des parties a eu un comportement grave. Cet arrêt a été confirmé par d'autres plus récents. Cette nouvelle solution n'est pas admise aux Emirats Arabes bien que le texte juridique appliqué est proche de celui appliqué en France, et malgré les avantages économiques de cette solution apportée par la Cour de cassation française
The right, for one contracting party to break a contract is provided in French law and in the UAE (United Arab Emirates) law, by a legal act or a termination clause. Furthermore, French courts have ruled that the right to break a contract could apply to a contract concluded for an unspecified period and also to a contract concluded for a specific period in case of emergency or when the situation has become unbearable given the bad behaviour of one of the contracting parties. In 1998, the French Court of Cassation established, in the Tocqueville case, a unilateral right to break a contract when one contracting party had a harmful behaviour. This sentence was confirmed by many others as well. This new solution is not yet admitted by the UAE law despite of a quite similar legislation and the economical benefits brought by the decision of the French Court of Cassation

Désormais, l’administration recourt au procédé contractuel pour mener à bien ses missions dans des branches de l’action publique. Cependant, tous les contrats de l'administration ne sont pas des contrats administratifs. Ces derniers reposent sur le principe de l'inégalité entre l'administration et le particulier. Ils sont soumis à un régime exorbitant qui relève du juge administratif, tandis que le contrat privé de l'administration, qui repose sur l'égalité des parties, relève d'un juge judiciaire et est soumis aux règles du droit privé. Il est donc nécessaire de bien distinguer les contrats administratifs afin de bien connaître la juridiction compétente, les règles et les procédures applicables. En Thaïlande, on appliquait, pour tous les contrats de l'administration, publics comme privés les règles de droit privé. La notion de contrat administratif n'est reconnue qu'à partir de la création de la juridiction administrative en 1999. Il existe donc une difficulté d'identification du contrat que ne connaît pas le droit français où le système du dualisme de juridictions est implanté depuis longtemps. Les principes du contrat administratif y sont plus développés, plus clairs grâce aux décisions du Conseil d'État et aux textes législatifs. Dans cette recherche, le droit français sert de révélateur pour tenter de cerner les critères qui rendent possibles l'identification et, par voie de conséquence, l'exécution du contrat administratif en droit Thaïlandais
Nowadays, the administration resort to contractual process in order to successfully complete its missions for different kind of public action. Nevertheless, not all contract of the administration are administrative contracts. The latter are based on the principle of inequality between the administration and private individuals. It is subject to an exorbitant regime which come under the administrative judge, while the civil contract of the administration is based on the equality of party. It is then necessary to distinguish the different contracts in order to know the relevant jurisdiction, the applicable rules and procedures. In Thailand, we used to apply, for every contracts of the administration, administrative and civil, the rules of civil law. The concept of administrative contract has been recognized only since the creation of the Administrative Court in 1999. There is therefore, a difficulty for identifying contracts, which is not known in French law, where the dualism of jurisdictions system is implanted for a long time. The principle of the administrative contract are more developed and clearer thanks to the Council of State's decisions and legislative texts. In this research, the French law is used as a paradigm for trying to grasp the criterion that make possible the identification, and thereby, the execution of the administrative contract in Thailand

A l'heure où l'informatique et la numérisation ont considérablement étendu le périmètre du droit d'auteur en remettant en cause sa légitimité, la question cruciale qui se pose est de savoir quelle est la position de l'auteur dans le système du droit d'auteur dans son ensemble. Le droit contractuel d'auteur est appelé à déterminer d'une manière plus précise cette place de l'auteur dans le système. Le droit d'auteur contractuel est, en effet, un instrument important susceptible de garantir un juste équilibre des intérêts opposé, tout en assurant une protection efficace de l'auteur, partie considérée comme la plus faible du contrat. Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de cette thèse est d'examiner les règles générales allemandes, françaises et helléniques qui régissent les contrats d'exploitation des droits d'auteur. Cette étude de droit comparé permettra de mettre en évidence notamment les convergences des trois législations étudiées afin de faciliter une harmonisation européenne dans l'avenir. Fondée essentiellement sur le traitement de manière approfondie d'une question jusqu'à présent peu étudiée, cette étude vise à susciter un approfondissement de la réflexion dans ce domaine
The explosion of digitised information has strongly questioned the existence of the copyright system. We are at present in a highly transitional state and the crucial question that arises is what should be the author's position in the copyright system in general. The contractual copyright law is therefore called to determine in a more precise way this position of the author into the system. The contractual copyright law is, indeed, an important instrument susceptible to guarantee an equitable balance of the opposing interests, while assuring an effective protection of the author, who is considered as the weakest party of the contract. In this context, the objective of this thesis is to examine the German, French and Hellenic main rules which govern the copyright contracts of exploitation. This comparative analysis will allow us to bring to light the convergences of these three legislations in order to facilitate a European harmonization in the near future. Based essentially on a detailed treatment of this question, which was until now rarely explored, this study aims at arousing a deeper reflection in this domain

En pratique, de nombreux obstacles peuvent empêcher le déroulement naturel du contrat. Lorsque ces obstacles n'ont qu'un caractère provisoire, le droit contemporain offre au contractant une solution temporaire : la suspension du contrat. Cependant, jusqu'à nos jours, cette solution du droit n'est pas soumise à un régime juridique unitaire. La suspension se dissimule dans diverses techniques juridiques, traditionnelles ou modernes. Le droit comparé français chinois à l'égard de la suspension permet d'identifier clairement l'ensemble de ces techniques, d'en envisager une nouvelle compréhension et de proposer une systématisation du phénomène complexe de suspension. Notre étude a révélé plusieurs constatations importantes. Pour un contractant, la suspension n'est pas uniquement une solution permettant de sanctionner l'inexécution temporaire de son cocontractant, elle peut également servir à justifier son inexécution légitime. En outre, la suspension peut être utilisée non seulement en cas d'inexécution du contrat, mais aussi en cas de risque d'inexécution. Enfin, l'objet visé par la suspension peut être non seulement la prestation contractuelle, mais aussi les travaux préparatoires à celle-ci
In practice several obstacles may prevent the natural progress of the contract. When those obstacles are not permanent in nature, modern law offers the contracting party a temporary solution : suspension of the contract. However, up until now, that legal solution has not been subject to a unitary legal system. Suspension is concealed by a range of traditional and modern legal techniques. Sino-French comparative law in relation to suspension makes it possible to clearly identify all these techniques, to envisage a new understanding and to offer a systematization of the complex phenomenon of suspension. Our study has revealed several important findings. For a contracting party, suspension is not merely a way to enable the sanctioning of temporary breach by the other contracting party; it can also be used to prove his legitimate breach. In addition, suspension can be used, not only in the event of breach of contract, but also in the event of the risk of breach. Lastly, the object affected by the suspension may not only be the contractual arrangement, but also the work leading up to it

L’inexécution du contrat est une question qui présente le plus grand intérêt et les nombreuses recherches menées sur ce thème sont là pour le souligner. Mais l’étude comparée de l’inexécution du contrat de droit privé et du contrat administratif restait à mener. L’autonomie du droit administratif incite à penser qu’elle ne peut aboutir qu’au constat d’une nette opposition entre l’inexécution du contrat de droit privé et l’inexécution du contrat administratif. C’est pourtant le constat inverse qui s’impose. Non seulement les notions d’inexécution sont identiques mais encore leurs régimes se révèlent convergents. La comparaison des régimes nécessitait de délaisser le terrain sur lequel elle est traditionnellement effectuée, celui des droits communs des contrats. Il importait d’étendre l’analyse au domaine des contrats parce que les droits communs ne présentent pas toujours le degré de généralité qui devrait être le leur. Une étude menée à partir de contrats comparables fait apparaître une grande convergence de leur régime juridique. Cela révèle que le droit administratif et le droit privé prennent en considération certaines caractéristiques des contrats totalement indépendantes de leur nature publique ou privée et leur attachent un régime juridique largement identique.

Le contrat est juste parce que les parties l'ont voulu. Cette idée qui a longtemps prévalu en droit des contrats y est encore bien présente. Avec les mutations économiques, sociales, environnementales et technologiques observées, elle s'est émoussée au profit d'un interventionnisme protecteur, la volonté n'étant plus à même d'assurer exclusivement la sauvegarde des intérêts contractuels. Aujourd'hui, le volontarisme et le protectionnisme ne suffisent plus à assurer la sauvegarde de tous les intérêts contractuels en présence. Il fallait donc à nouveau repenser autrement le contrat. Pour le doyen Carbonnier, « seul le civisme contractuel (la conformité du contrat à l'ordre public et aux bonnes mœurs) représente une exigence absolument générale de validité, le minimum de conformisme social requis de tous les contractants». L'idée de civisme, consubstantielle à la notion de contrat, se révèle alors progressivement en la matière, dans les droits nationaux comme dans les regroupements étatiques tel le droit européen et de l'OHADA. Bien qu'implicite, le civisme contractuel est affirmé dans les sources de ces ordres juridiques et son contenu hétérogène est identifiable. Par ailleurs, le civisme contractuel a vocation à s'appliquer à tous les contrats de droit privé; à toutes les phases contractuelles, quand bien même il serait plus manifeste lors de l'exécution du contrat. Il s'impose aux contractants et aux interprètes tels le juge et l'arbitre; et contribue non seulement à l'accroissement de leurs pouvoirs, mais également à la sécurisation du lien contractuel. Ainsi, le civisme contractuel ne saurait être limité, comme l'entrevoyait son illustre géniteur le doyen Carbonnier, à une condition extrinsèque de validité du contrat tenant à son contenu. Il s'agit d'un principe général du droit des contrats, complémentaire des principes actuels à l'instar du libéralisme et du solidarisme contractuels, et dont la nécessaire consécration textuelle peut être relativisée. La violation des droits et obligations que véhicule le civisme contractuel est sanctionnée selon que l'intérêt en cause est général ou particulier, l'idée étant de maintenir le contrat tant que son exécution reste possible, ou d'accélérer sa disparition lorsqu'il est établi que son maintien risque de porter atteinte aux intérêts contractuels en présence
The "contract" is just because both parties wanted it. This idea has long prevailed in contract law and is still very present. With the observed economic, social, environmental and technological transformations, it is blunted in favour of a protective interventionism, the will no longer being to ensure exclusively the protection of the contractual interests. Today, voluntarism and protectionism are not enough to ensure the safety of all contractual interests. It is therefore necessary to think otherwise of a contract. According to Dean Carbonnier, «on/y the contractual citizenship (contract compliance ta public order and morality) represents an absolutely general validity requirement, the minimum social conformity required of al! contractors». The idea of citizenship, consubstantial with the notion of contract, reveals itself gradually on the matter, under national law, as in the state groupings such as the European law and OHADA. Though implicit, contractual citizenship is stated in the sources of these legal systems and its heterogeneous content is identifiable and recognizable. Moreover, the contractual citizenship authority to apply to all contracts of private law; to all contractual phases, even though it would be more evident during the execution of the contract. It binds the contracting parties and interpreters such the judge and arbitrator, and contribute" not only to help increasing their powers, but also to the security and reassurance of contractual relationship. Thus, the contractual citizenship could not be limited, as foreseen by the illustrious sire Dean Carbonnier, to an extrinsic condition of validity of the contract relating to the content. It is about a general principle of contract law, complementary to the existing principles like liberalism and contractual solidarity, and whose necessary textual dedication can be relativized. The violation of rights and obligations which conveys the contractual citizenship is sanctioned according to whether the interest in question is general or private, the idea being to maintain the contract so long as its execution remains possible, or to accelerate its disappearance when established that its maintenance likely infringe or affect the contractual persons involved

Traditionnellement, le droit des contrats de tradition romaniste a eu, pour l’essentiel, sa source dans la loi et notamment dans le Code civil. Ainsi les contractants ont disposé d’une grande liberté d’action juridique, car la plupart des lois régissant les contrats présentaient un caractère supplétif de la volonté individuelle. Cependant, cette primauté du législatif a été limitée par la promulgation des Constitutions d’après-guerre. En effet et incontestablement, les droits de l’homme sont à la mode, et cette vogue laisse son empreinte dans le droit des contrats. Désormais, il n’est plus possible au législateur de porter atteinte à certains principes ayant valeur constitutionnelle. De plus, ce système permet au juge constitutionnel contemporain d’annuler des dispositions législatives portant atteinte à des tels impératifs. De même, les gardiens des nouvelles constitutions s’octroient le pouvoir d’indiquer l’interprétation que les juges ordinaires doivent retenir des textes législatifs. De cette façon le juge constitutionnel devient un acteur important du droit des contrats dans la famille romaniste. Il émerge ainsi un évènement qui marque une nouvelle étape dans le développement du droit privé des contrats : sa constitutionnalisation. Or ce nouvel épisode donne lieu au débat sur une éventuelle remise en cause de l’ordre contractuel civiliste
Traditionally, the law of contracts of Romani tradition has basically had its source in the law and in particular in the Civil Code. Thus the contracting parties had a great deal of legal discretion, since most of the laws governing contracts had a residual character of the individual will. However, this primacy of the legislature has been limited by the promulgation of the post-war Constitutions. Indeed and incontestably, human rights are the fashion, and this vogue leaves its imprint in the law of contracts. From now on, it is no longer possible for the legislator to violate certain principles having constitutional value. Moreover, this system allows the contemporary constitutional judge to annul statutory provisions that violate such imperatives. Similarly, the guardians of the new constitutions give themselves the power to indicate the interpretation that ordinary judges must adopt of the legislative texts. In this way the constitutional judge becomes an important actor of contract law in the Romanist family. Thus, an event marks a new stage in the development of private contract law: its constitutionalization. This new episode gives rise to the debate on a possible questioning of the contractual civil order

Chapter 8, “Open Banking, Open Data, and Open Finance: Lessons from the European Union,” by Douglas W. Arner, Kerry Holdings Professor in Law, Hong Kong University, Ross P. Buckley, KMPG Law and King & Wood Mallesons Chair of Disruptive Innovation, UNSW Sydney, and Dirk A. Zetzsche, Professor of Law, Holder of the ADA Chair, Faculté de Droit, d’Économie et de Finance (FDEF), University of Luxembourg, compares three approaches to open banking. China does not require banks to share data with fintechs, but Alibaba and Tencent have developed two ecosystems that facilitate data-sharing between these BigTechs and the banks they own. These ecosystems are private credit score systems that use social media and purchasing behavior. The Chinese government is now adopting its own social credit score system that will probably use these private scoring systems with other data. High social credit scores could lead to discounts and rewards. Low scores could lead to bans on acquiring plane and train tickets, property, and loans. In contrast, the European Union and India have or expect to adopt data protection and data-sharing laws. Yet the scope varies in the types of sharable data and categories of firms covered. The European Union’s approach covers only payments, while India’s lack of legacy infrastructure has proven advantageous in building a successful, new payments system. Pursuing its principle of “data empowerment,” India ambitiously plans to expand beyond financial inclusion to healthcare and educational services. The authors thematically analyze these different approaches.

coal accounted for 30.3% of total global energy consumption in 2011, the highest share since 1969 (BP 2012a). Since coal on a per unit energy basis is the most prolific of the fossil fuels in terms of CO2 emissions, this fact alone underscores the magnitude of the challenge we face in addressing the climate issue. Emissions of CO2 from oil and natural gas, expressed on a per unit energy basis, amount to approximately 78% and 54% of those from coal. In 2010, 43% of global CO2 emissions were derived from coal, 36% from oil, and 20% from natural gas. China was responsible for 49.3% of total coal consumed worldwide in 2011. The United States (13.5%), India (7.9%), and Japan (3.2%) ranked 2 through 4. Consumption in the Asian Pacific region amounted to 71.2% of the global total in 2011, as compared to 14.3% in North America (the United States, Canada, and Mexico) and 13.4% in Europe and Eurasia (including the Russian Federation and Ukraine). Coal accounted for 70% of total energy use in China in 2011 (65.5% in 2013), as compared to 22% in the United States. Use of coal increased in China by 9.7% in 2011 relative to 2010. In contrast, consumption in the United States declined by 0.46% over the same period. BP (2012b) projects that demand for coal in OECD countries will decrease by 0.8% per year between 2011 and 2030. The projected falloff in OECD countries is offset by growth of 1.9% per year over the same time interval in non- OECD countries. China, in the BP projection, remains the world’s largest consumer of coal in 2030 (52% of total global consumption). The growth rate in China is expected to drop, though, from 9% per year over the decade 2000 to 2010, to 3.5% between 2010 and 2020, falling further to 0.4% between 2020 and 2030. The trend, as indicated in the BP analysis, reflects the assumption of a shift to less coal- intensive economic activities, combined with an improvement in overall energy efficiency. India is projected to surpass the United States in terms of total demand for coal by 2024.

Electrohydrodynamic jet (E-jet) printing is a recent technique for high resolution additive micromanufacturing. With high resolution comes sensitivity to small disturbances, which has kept this technique from reaching its industrial potential. Closed loop control of E-jet printing can overcome these disturbances, but it requires an improved understanding of ink droplet spreading on the substrate and a physical model to predict printed feature locations and geometries from process inputs and disturbances. This manuscript examines a model of ink droplet spreading that uses assumptions that are important to the e-jet process. Our model leverages previous energy balance models that were derived for larger length scale droplets. At the smaller length scale, we find that viscous losses are a significant portion of the energy budget and must be accounted for; this is in contrast to models at length scales two orders of magnitude larger. Our model predicts the droplet height, base radius and contact angle in time from an initial volume and E-jet printing control parameters. The model is validated with published droplet spreading data and new measurements of E-jet printed droplets of diameter 8 μm. The viscous friction calculated in the new model is found to be significant compared to surface energy.

The breakup process of threads from laminar operating rotary atomizer (LamRot) is in the scope of this investigation. A similarity trail is used to investigate the influence of the thread deformation within a cross-wind flow on the thread breakup process. The threads emerge from laminar open channel flow while the liquid viscosity, the flow rate, the pipe inclination towards the gravity as well as the cross-wind velocity is varied. The breakup length and drop size distribution are analyzed by a back-light photography setup. The results thus obtained are compared with results of previous examination by Schröder [1] and Mescher [2]. It is found that the breakup length decreases and that the drop size grows with rising cross-wind intensity, while the width of the drop size distribution increases. At the same operating conditions, the breakup length for laminar open channel flow is smaller compared to completely filled capillaries. In contrast to this observation, the drop size distribution remains nearly unchanged. The critical velocity for the transition from axisymmetric to wind-induced thread breakup was found to be smaller than for completely filled capillaries.

This study focuses on the fundamental of solidification of commercial grey cast iron as a function of the externally applied cooling rate. Grey cast iron powders were prepared using the drop-tube method, which is a good analogue for commercial production via high pressure gas atomization. The as-solidified droplets were collected and sieved into size ranges from > 850 μm to < 53 μm diameter, with estimated cooling rates of 500 K s−1 to 75,000 K s−1, with each sieve fraction being prepared for metallographic characterization. The microstructure and phase composition of the powders were analyzed using XRD, optical and scanning electron microscopy, with the results being compared against a control sample subject to slow cooling in the drop-tube crucible; which has typical grey cast iron microstructure with extensive flake graphite in a largely ferrite matrix. In contrast, flake graphite was absent in virtually all the drop-tube samples, even in those with the most modest cooling rates. Microstructural analysis revealed that as the cooling rate increased there was less fragmentation of the primary austenite/ferrite dendrites and the volume fraction of primary dendritic material increased. Hence, as the particle fractions get smaller (D < 106 μm) there is a distinct microstructural evidence of a martensite phase which is related to its better mechanical properties (microhardness) as the sample sizes decrease.

Abstract Being part of the lower completion, viscosity-based autonomous inflow control technologies utilize viscosity contrasts to distinguish between wanted and unwanted reservoir fluids. Since the first installation on the Norwegian Troll field in 2008, such technologies have proven extremely successful in preventing excessive inflow of unwanted gas in oil wells. They can also stop water in oil wells, provided that the viscosity contrast between oil and water is sufficient to give a meaningful operational envelope. It is, however, important to fully understand the limitations of viscosity-based technologies when used to control water. In general, the viscosity-based technologies do not depend on viscosity alone, but rather on the Reynolds number, which in turn depends on velocity. In other words, the performance of these technologies is a function of the well's local inflow rate, which will change over time. If the local oil rate is high, the Reynolds number is also high, which may be interpreted as low-viscosity water, inadvertently causing the technology to choke back the oil flow instead. Furthermore, if one device closes inside a well compartment with multiple devices, it may lead to higher oil rate through the other devices and set up a chain reaction, such that they all end up closing or choking, thereby imposing a large pressure drop across the lower completion in that compartment.The Reynolds number does not depend on viscosity and velocity alone, but also on fluid density. For this reason, suppliers of viscosity-based technologies sometimes emphasize that their technology is also density-based. This can be misleading because technologies that depend exclusively on density, do not suffer the same disadvantages. The working principle of density-based technologies is typically insensitive to flow rate, viscosity and Reynolds number, which means that they can stop inflow of water even in light-oil wells with small or non-existing viscosity contrast. At least one of the density-based technologies can close and reopen at any pre-defined phase fraction of unwanted fluid. Furthermore, the density-based technologies allow high flow capacity and low pressure drop in open position combined with high choking efficiency in closed position. This allows choking of watered-out zones without the risk of excessive and premature choking of oil from the same zones.In a constructed case study, the performance of density-based and viscosity-based technologies is compared for a given well compartment with multiple inflow control devices. For the viscosity-based technologies, it is illustrated how the risk of the above-mentioned chain reaction increases with decreasing local productivity, and how the operational envelope of each device might become too limited if the viscosity contrast is small and the geological uncertainty large.

Abstract NASA is leading the design and development of a next-generation CO2 removal system, the Four Bed Carbon Dioxide Scrubber (4BCO2), and intends to use the International Space Station (ISS) as its testbed. A key component of the system is the blower that provides the airflow through the CO2 sorbent beds. To improve performance and reliability, magnetic levitation (magnetic bearings) will be used in lieu of more conventional bearings (e.g. ball bearings or air bearings) to improve resistance to contaminants and enable extensibility with regards to blower speed, pressure rise and mass flow rate. The blower will pull air from the ISS through an adsorbing desiccant bed and push it through a CO2 sorbent bed and desorbing desiccant bed. The 4BCO2 blower features an overhung permanent magnet motor, a centrally located five-axis, active magnetic bearing system, backup bearings, and an overhung centrifugal impeller in a very compact package. Magnetic bearings are a natural choice for this application due to low power consumption, low transmitted vibration and oil free operation. This paper describes the design considerations and design selections for the blower system with a focus on the magnetic bearings. Magnetic FEA of the actuator/sensor system, rotordynamics/controls analysis, and backup bearing drop simulations are discussed in detail. It is expected that the successful implementation of magnetic bearings for this space application will encourage the more widespread adoption in other space applications (e.g., fluid pumps, reaction wheels) that challenge conventional bearing technologies.

Abstract This paper is a follow up to GT2022-82293, which discusses the design validation of an innovative turboexpander-generator (TEG) used for natural gas pressure letdown (PLD). This paper presents the field performance data of the 280kW machine and compares it to predictions. The TEG has a flanged housing that is directly mounted on a pipeline. The high-speed motor is supported by active magnetic bearings (AMB) in the hydrocarbon environment without lubrication. The paper discusses power performance of the impeller and compares it to the power prediction from a mean line aerodynamic analysis presented previously. Additionally, this paper compares magnetic bearing dynamic controls and transfer functions measured in air to those with gas flow in the pipeline; the effect of gas flow on the closed-loop dynamics is discussed. The authors review the thrust balancing design and the axial control current as a function of gas flow. The magnetic current is linearly related to load, and thus gives a good approximation of aerodynamic load vs flow. This paper also presents the results of a non-linear auxiliary back-up bearing high-speed rotor drop simulation and compares it to measured rotor drop data. The drop testing was conducted as part of the design verification of the prototype unit, and the results are discussed in depth in GT2022-82293.

Flow characteristics of nitrogen flows in the three different microchannels (hydraulic diameter Dh ranging 30–3000 μm) have been investigated numerically considering of the effect of compressibility and viscosity heating. It indicated that pressure drop at inlet and outlet is nonlinear with Reynolds number. Transition Re is as low as about 1200 for microchannels with Dh = 300 μm. To incompressible flow, Dh, has no effect on friction factor f. However, L/Dh has great effect on f, and f increases with the decrease of L/Dh. It was found from numerical results that fRe can be expressed as a function of Mach number. By compared with the experimental results, the function has been proved right. When pressure drop at inlet and outlet is over 10kPa, the effect of compressibility could not be neglected. This implies that the effect of compressibility in microchannels can be described better by pressure drop at inlet and outlet than Ma, which is in contrast to the practice in the conventional scale. At last, the viscosity heating effect was simply analyzed. It was found that the effect of viscosity heating increases with the increase of Re and decrease of size.

Abstract The interest in static micromixers has increased in recent years due in part to their compact design, high area-to-volume ratio, and the absence of moving parts. The passive mixers rely mainly on the flow energy provided by the pumping system. These advantages give passive mixers an apparent edge over conventional active mixers. On the other contrary, the microflow in the static mixers typically occurs in a laminar regime at a low Reynolds number, which leads to a low mixing performance. The mixing is mainly dependent on the diffusion and the impinging of two opposite streams. To obtain a better mixing efficiency, a porous structure could be installed in the mixer’s microchannel. However, a higher pressure across the mixer is to be expected. This paper introduces an innovative mixing enhancement method based on a triply periodic minimal surfaces (TPMSs) porous structure using additive manufacturing (AM) processing. The AM technology presents great potential to develop and optimize various porous matrices that could be used in advanced micro and nano-devices. Gyroid matrix has the capability to provide a better mixing performance at a moderate pressure drop compared to other TPMSs structures. Therefore, in this study, a Gyroid structure is placed in the downstream channel, aiming to boost the mixing performance. A three-dimensional mathematical model that considers conservation of mass, momentum, and species has been derived and implemented to simulate the effect of the proposed structure on the mixing index, pressure drop, and performance index. The latter is introduced as an optimization term to ensure that the optimal configuration will provide high mixing at a relatively low-pressure drop. A parametric study highlighting the impact of Reynolds and Schmidt numbers on the mixing efficiency has been conducted. The results compare the mixing index, pressure drop, and performance index of a micromixer filled with a 20% porosity Gyroid matrix with an identical plain mixer. The results indicate that the Gyroid porous structure significantly improves the mixing efficiency by almost 172%, especially at higher Reynolds numbers (Re = 100 and 500). The penalty, however, is a higher pressure drop. Therefore, installing these structures requires careful consideration during the design and fabrication stage to ensure optimal performance. In addition, the results suggest that the impact of the Schmidt number on the mixing index decreases with increasing Reynolds number. The effect is negligible at Re = 500. The proposed structure could be used to enhance the mixing performance of micromixers in chemical or pharmaceutical applications.

Intravascular stents play a major role in restoring the patency in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. However restenosis occurs in an artery after certain period of time. In order to obtain the consequences of various problems associated with the implantation of stent in a multiple blocked artery, an analysis is done at the blockage of artery downstream the stented region. The present paper analyzes blood flow downstream of partially blocked stented artery at different levels of blockages. The blockage rate is taken as thirty, fifty and sixty percentage of the stented artery. Velocity, flow rate and pressure drop at the blocked artery are simulated using the CFD software. The analysis illustrates an increment in velocity and pressure drop at the blockage with increase in velocity, pressure and mass flow rate at the inlet. The maximum velocity of blood in stented arteries at high percentage of blockage is more when compared to the lower ones. Due to the increase in pressure at inlet, the mass flow rate increased at the blockage downstream stented artery. The values for pressure obtained at blockage are decreasing which are in contrast to the velocity and pressure drop values at the blockage. The pressure drop at the blockage analyzes the blood pressure level in the artery which can be used for future optimizations and modifications during and after the stent implantation.

Abstract The Hele-Shaw cell has been well used for various flow studies because it can simplify analyzing the flow of interest to two-dimensional creeping one. The Hele-Shaw cell consists of two parallel flat plates with a very small gap between them. When a working fluid is injected through this narrow gap, two-dimensional Stokes flow is generated with an extremely low Reynolds number and negligible flow velocity normal to the plates. Applications of Hele-Shaw cell devices include experimental studies of drop coalescence, Stokes flow, and confining cells to a 2D plane, and they usually depend on cameras to capture phenomena of interest from the experiment. The quality of the collected images largely depends on the optical quality of the Hele-Shaw cell. Therefore, it is favorable to reduce the degree of light attenuation through Hele-Shaw cells. Previously we fabricated a Hele-Shaw cell using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and soft lithography, which are common in microfluidic fabrication, to study drop coalescence with high-speed imaging. It was found that the frame rate of high-speed imaging was limited by light intensity, which was affected by light attenuation through PDMS, and thus the very initial stage of the neck growth during coalescence was not captured. To overcome this limitation, an advanced fabrication method of the Hele-Shaw cell has been developed to incorporate a glass observation window in the PDMS part of the cell. The previous and newly developed Hele-Shaw cell devices were compared in terms of local intensity and contrast, and improvement in image quality was confirmed. Our method has the following advantages. First, the thickness of the PDMS layers is controllable and thus the attenuation of light intensity can be reduced. Second, the glass-based observation window can enable clearer images with reduced image defects caused by PDMS. Therefore, the suggested microfluidics-based fabrication method of the Hele-Shaw cell has the potential to increase the resolution of high-speed imaging and to reduce the difficulty of post image processing.

Purpose/Background Overdose deaths in the U.S. from opioids have dramatically increased since the COVID-19 pandemic. Although medicated-assisted treatment (MAT) programs are widely available for sufferers of opiate addiction, many drop out of treatment prematurely. Twelve-step programs are considered a valuable part of treatment, but few studies have examined the effect of combining these approaches. We aimed to compare abstinence rates among patients receiving MAT who were referred to 12-step programs to those only receiving MAT. Methods In this prospective study, a cohort of participants from a MAT clinic agreeing to attend a 12-step program was compared to 15 controls selected from a database before project implementation. Eligible participants were diagnosed with OUD, receiving buprenorphine (opiate agonist), and at least 18. Participants were provided with temporary sponsors to attend Narcotics Anonymous, Alcoholics Anonymous, and Medication-Assisted Recovery meetings together. The primary endpoint was the change in positive opiate urine drug screens over 6 months between participants and controls. Results Between March 29, 2021, and April 16, 2021, 166 patients were scheduled at the clinic. Of those scheduled, 146 were established patients, and 123 were scheduled for face-to-face visits. Of these, 64 appeared for the appointment, 6 were screened, and 3 were enrolled. None of the participants attended a 12-step meeting. Enrollment barriers included excluding new patients and those attending virtual visits, the high percentage of patients who missed appointments, and lack of staff referrals. The low incidence of referrals was due to time constraints by both staff and patients. Implications for Nursing Practice Low enrollment limited our ability to determine whether combining medication management with a 12-step program improves abstinence. Failure to keep appointments is common among patients with OUD, and virtual meetings are becoming more prevalent post-COVID. Although these factors are unlikely to be controllable, developing strategies to expedite the enrollment process for staff and patients could hasten recruitment.

Historically, Charpy test results have been used for assessing linepipe steels for fitness-for-service or new pipeline design, and the linepipe steels should be chosen such that the brittle-to-ductile transition temperature of the steel is below the minimum design service temperature. The transition temperature is typically much different for crack initiation versus crack propagation. This study focused on the transition temperature for fracture initiation which is important for liquid as well as high-energy lines. However, in recent studies, different behavior between vintage and newer steels has been noticed for the fracture initiation transition temperature relative to Charpy data. Even the fracture surface appearance in the Charpy test is much different for vintage steels than for newer steels. To investigate the above issues, the objectives of the current project were set to: a) determine if the fracture initiation transition temperature for new linepipe steels is similar to that in older steels, and how to predict it better if Charpy data are insufficient; and b) understand if the Charpy energy requirement for API 5L PSL-2 linepipe is always adequate to ensure ductile fracture initiation at the Charpy test temperature. In this project, the transition temperature behaviors of three linepipe steels from the Charpy test data, results from drop-weight tests to determine the nil-ductility temperature or DWT-NDT, and findings from more sophisticated fracture tests such as single-edge-notched tension [SEN(T)] that is representative of surface-cracked pipe behavior, and compact tension [C(T)] specimen tests that are representative of through-wall-cracked pipe behavior were determined. The report summarizes the key findings of the project for newer steels and attempts to contrast fracture initiation behavior in vintage versus newer linepipe steels.

In this study we have investigated the role of biogas solutions to support increased resource efficiency on the island Gotland, including recovery and redistribution of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) within the agricultural sector. First, we analyzed the potential for expanding energy and nutrient recovery from organic residues using biogas solutions. Our findings suggest that the biogas production could expand to 165 GWh, from the current 36 GWh (2020), with manure accounting for a potential 110 GWh biogas annually if all were digested. Comparing the nutrients contained in organic feedstock with the crop nutrient demand on Gotland showed that for N the demand is 2.4 times higher than the supply. In contrast, the calculations showed a 137 tonnes P surplus, with distinct excess areas in the center and southern part of the island. We then compared scenarios with different numbers (3 - 15) of biogas plants with respect to efficient nutrient redistribution and transport costs. Spatial constraints for new plants, e.g. need for roads with a certain capacity and permit issues, were accounted for by adding local information to a national data set. We identified 104 potential locations (1 km$^2$ grid cells) and used an optimization model to identify the most suitable locations for minimized transport costs. Optimal (meeting the crop demand with no excess) redistribution of all nutrients contained in the feedstock, as raw digestate from biogas plants, would result in an export of 127 tonnes of P from the island. The model results indicated that if all potential feedstock would be digested in three additional biogas plants and nutrients redistributed for optimal reuse, the total transport cost would be 2.6 million SEK annually, excluding the costs for nutrient export from the island (3.7 million SEK). If instead 10 or 15 smaller plants would be built, the transport cost would drop to 1.8 million SEK, with the same amount of P being exported. Comparing the scenarios with different number of biogas plants (3 - 15), showed that some locations are more suitable than others in terms of distance to feedstock and to fields with fertilizer demands. Finally, a preliminary analysis of the amount of crop residues indicated that this type of feedstock could add a substantial amount of biogas production, but more extensive analyses are needed to assess the feasibility to realize part of that potential.

Banco de la República provides a comprehensive overview of Colombia’s finan¬cial infrastructure in its Payment Systems Report, which is an important product of the work it does to oversee that infrastructure. The figures published in this edition of the report are for the year 2020, a pandemic period in which the con¬tainment measures designed and adopted to alleviate the strain on the health system led to a sharp reduction in economic activity and consumption in Colom¬bia, as was the case in most countries. At the start of the pandemic, the Board of Directors of Banco de la República adopted decisions that were necessary to supply the market with ample liquid¬ity in pesos and US dollars to guarantee market stability, protect the payment system and preserve the supply of credit. The pronounced growth in mone¬tary aggregates reflected an increased preference for liquidity, which Banco de la República addressed at the right time. These decisions were implemented through operations that were cleared and settled via the financial infrastructure. The second section of this report, following the introduction, offers an analysis of how the various financial infrastructures in Colombia have evolved and per¬formed. One of the highlights is the large-value payment system (CUD), which registered more momentum in 2020 than during the previous year, mainly be¬cause of an increase in average daily remunerated deposits made with Banco de la República by the General Directorate of Public Credit and the National Treasury (DGCPTN), as well as more activity in the sell/buy-back market with sovereign debt. Consequently, with more activity in the CUD, the Central Securi¬ties Depository (DCV) experienced an added impetus sparked by an increase in the money market for bonds and securities placed on the primary market by the national government. The value of operations cleared and settled through the Colombian Central Counterparty (CRCC) continues to grow, propelled largely by peso/dollar non-deliverable forward (NDF) contracts. With respect to the CRCC, it is important to note this clearing house has been in charge of managing risks and clearing and settling operations in the peso/dollar spot market since the end of last year, following its merger with the Foreign Exchange Clearing House of Colombia (CCDC). Since the final quarter of 2020, the CRCC has also been re¬sponsible for clearing and settlement in the equities market, which was former¬ly done by the Colombian Stock Exchange (BVC). The third section of this report provides an all-inclusive view of payments in the market for goods and services; namely, transactions carried out by members of the public and non-financial institutions. During the pandemic, inter- and intra-bank electronic funds transfers, which originate mostly with companies, increased in both the number and value of transactions with respect to 2019. However, debit and credit card payments, which are made largely by private citizens, declined compared to 2019. The incidence of payment by check contin¬ue to drop, exhibiting quite a pronounced downward trend during the past last year. To supplement to the information on electronic funds transfers, section three includes a segment (Box 4) characterizing the population with savings and checking accounts, based on data from a survey by Banco de la República con-cerning the perception of the use of payment instruments in 2019. There also is segment (Box 2) on the growth in transactions with a mobile wallet provided by a company specialized in electronic deposits and payments (Sedpe). It shows the number of users and the value of their transactions have increased since the wallet was introduced in late 2017, particularly during the pandemic. In addition, there is a diagnosis of the effects of the pandemic on the payment patterns of the population, based on data related to the use of cash in circu¬lation, payments with electronic instruments, and consumption and consumer confidence. The conclusion is that the collapse in the consumer confidence in¬dex and the drop in private consumption led to changes in the public’s pay¬ment patterns. Credit and debit card purchases were down, while payments for goods and services through electronic funds transfers increased. These findings, coupled with the considerable increase in cash in circulation, might indicate a possible precautionary cash hoarding by individuals and more use of cash as a payment instrument. There is also a segment (in Focus 3) on the major changes introduced in regulations on the retail-value payment system in Colombia, as provided for in Decree 1692 of December 2020. The fourth section of this report refers to the important innovations and tech¬nological changes that have occurred in the retail-value payment system. Four themes are highlighted in this respect. The first is a key point in building the financial infrastructure for instant payments. It involves of the design and im¬plementation of overlay schemes, a technological development that allows the various participants in the payment chain to communicate openly. The result is a high degree of interoperability among the different payment service providers. The second topic explores developments in the international debate on central bank digital currency (CBDC). The purpose is to understand how it could impact the retail-value payment system and the use of cash if it were to be issued. The third topic is related to new forms of payment initiation, such as QR codes, bio¬metrics or near field communication (NFC) technology. These seemingly small changes can have a major impact on the user’s experience with the retail-value payment system. The fourth theme is the growth in payments via mobile tele¬phone and the internet. The report ends in section five with a review of two papers on applied research done at Banco de la República in 2020. The first analyzes the extent of the CRCC’s capital, acknowledging the relevant role this infrastructure has acquired in pro¬viding clearing and settlement services for various financial markets in Colom¬bia. The capital requirements defined for central counterparties in some jurisdic¬tions are explored, and the risks to be hedged are identified from the standpoint of the service these type of institutions offer to the market and those associated with their corporate activity. The CRCC’s capital levels are analyzed in light of what has been observed in the European Union’s regulations, and the conclusion is that the CRCC has a scheme of security rings very similar to those applied internationally and the extent of its capital exceeds what is stipulated in Colombian regulations, being sufficient to hedge other risks. The second study presents an algorithm used to identify and quantify the liquidity sources that CUD’s participants use under normal conditions to meet their daily obligations in the local financial market. This algorithm can be used as a tool to monitor intraday liquidity. Leonardo Villar Gómez Governor

1. Macroeconomic Summary In December, headline inflation (13.1%) and the average of the core inflation measures (10.3%) continued to trend upward, posting higher rates than those estimated by the Central Bank's technical staff and surpassing the market average. Inflation expectations for all terms exceeded the 3.0% target. In that month, every major group in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) registered higher-than-estimated increases, and the diffusion indicators continued to show generalized price hikes. Accumulated exchange rate pressures on prices, indexation to high inflation rates, and several food supply shocks would explain, in part, the acceleration in inflation. All of this is in a context of significant surplus demand, a tight labor market, and inflation expectations at different terms that exceed the 3.0% target. Compared to the October edition of the Monetary Policy Report, the forecast path for headline and core inflation (excluding food and regulated items: EFR) increased (Graphs 1.1 and 1.2), reflecting heightened accumulated exchange rate pressures, price indexation to a higher inflation rate (CPI and the producer price index: PPI), and the rise in labor costs attributed to a larger-than-estimated adjustment in the minimum wage. Nevertheless, headline inflation is expected to begin to ease by early 2023, although from a higher level than had been estimated in October. This would be supported initially by the slowdown forecast for the food CPI due to a high base of comparison, the end anticipated for the shocks that have affected the prices of these products, and the estimated improvement in external and domestic supply in this sector. In turn, the deterioration in real household income because of high inflation and the end of the effects of pent-up demand, plus tighter external and domestic financial conditions would contribute to diluting surplus demand in 2023 and reducing inflation. By the end of 2023, both headline and core (EFR) inflation would reach 8.7% and would be 3.5% and 3.8%, respectively, by December 2024. These forecasts are subject to a great deal of uncertainty, especially concerning the future behavior of international financial conditions, the evolution of the exchange rate, the pace of adjustment in domestic demand, the extent of indexation of nominal contracts, and the decisions taken regarding the domestic price of fuel and electricity. In the third quarter, economic activity surprised again on the upside and the growth projection for 2022 rose to 8.0% (previously 7.9%). However, it declined to 0.2% for 2023 (previously 0.5%). With this, surplus demand continues to be significant and is still expected to weaken during the current year. Annual economic growth in the third quarter (7.1 % SCA)1 was higher than estimated in October (6.4 % SCA), given stronger domestic demand specifically because of higher-than-expected investment. Private consumption fell from the high level witnessed a quarter earlier and net exports registered a more negative contribution than anticipated. For the fourth quarter, economic activity indicators suggest that gross domestic product (GDP) would have remained high and at a level similar to that observed in the third quarter, with an annual variation of 4.1%. Domestic demand would have slowed in annual terms, although at levels that would have remained above those for output, mainly because of considerable private consumption. Investment would have declined slightly to a value like the average observed in 2019. The real trade deficit would have decreased due to a drop in imports that was more pronounced than the estimated decline in exports. On the forecast horizon, consumption is expected to decline from current elevated levels, partly because of tighter domestic financial conditions and a deterioration in real income due to high inflation. Investment would also weaken and return to levels below those seen before the pandemic. In real terms, the trade deficit would narrow due to a lower momentum projection for domestic demand and higher cumulative real depreciation. In sum, economic growth for all of 2022, 2023, and 2024 would stand at 8.0%, 0.2% and 1.0%, respectively (Graph 1.3). Surplus demand remains high (as measured by the output gap) and is expected to decline in 2023 and could turn negative in 2024 (Graph 1.4). Although the macroeconomic forecast includes a marked slowdown in the economy, an even greater adjustment in domestic absorption cannot be ruled out due to the cumulative effects of tighter external and domestic financial conditions, among other reasons. These estimates continue to be subject to a high degree of uncertainty, which is associated with factors such as global political tensions, changes in international interest rates and their effects on external demand, global risk aversion, the effects of the approved tax reform, the possible impact of reforms announced for this year (pension, health, and labor reforms, among others), and future measures regarding hydrocarbon production. In 2022, the current account deficit would have been high (6.3 % of GDP), but it would be corrected significantly in 2023 (to 3.9 % of GDP) given the expected slowdown in domestic demand. Despite favorable terms of trade, the high external imbalance that would occur during 2022 would be largely due to domestic demand growth, cost pressures associated with high freight rates, higher external debt service payments, and good performance in terms of the profits of foreign companies.2 By 2023, the adjustment in domestic demand would be reflected in a smaller current account deficit especially due to fewer imports, a global moderation in prices and cost pressures, and a reduction in profits remitted abroad by companies with foreign direct investment (FDI) focused on the local market. Despite this anticipated correction in the external imbalance, its level as a percentage of GDP would remain high in the context of tight financial conditions. In the world's main economies, inflation forecasts and expectations point to a reduction by 2023, but at levels that still exceed their central banks' targets. The path anticipated for the Federal Reserve (Fed) interest rate increased and the forecast for global growth continues to be moderate. In the fourth quarter of 2022, logistics costs and international prices for some foods, oil and energy declined from elevated levels, bringing downward pressure to bear on global inflation. Meanwhile, the higher cost of financing, the loss of real income due to high levels of global inflation, and the persistence of the war in Ukraine, among other factors, have contributed to the reduction in global economic growth forecasts. In the United States, inflation turned out to be lower than estimated and the members of the Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) reduced the growth forecast for 2023. Nevertheless, the actual level of inflation in that country, its forecasts, and expectations exceed the target. Also, the labor market remains tight, and fiscal policy is still expansionary. In this environment, the Fed raised the expected path for policy interest rates and, with this, the market average estimates higher levels for 2023 than those forecast in October. In the region's emerging economies, country risk premia declined during the quarter and the currencies of those countries appreciated against the US dollar. Considering all the above, for the current year, the Central Bank's technical staff increased the path estimated for the Fed's interest rate, reduced the forecast for growth in the country's external demand, lowered the expected path of oil prices, and kept the country’s risk premium assumption high, but at somewhat lower levels than those anticipated in the previous Monetary Policy Report. Moreover, accumulated inflationary pressures originating from the behavior of the exchange rate would continue to be important. External financial conditions facing the economy have improved recently and could be associated with a more favorable international context for the Colombian economy. So far this year, there has been a reduction in long-term bond interest rates in the markets of developed countries and an increase in the prices of risky assets, such as stocks. This would be associated with a faster-than-expected reduction in inflation in the United States and Europe, which would allow for a less restrictive course for monetary policy in those regions. In this context, the risks of a global recession have been reduced and the global appetite for risk has increased. Consequently, the risk premium continues to decline, the Colombian peso has appreciated significantly, and TES interest rates have decreased. Should this trend consolidate, exchange rate inflationary pressures could be less than what was incorporated into the macroeconomic forecast. Uncertainty about external forecasts and their impact on the country remains high, given the unpredictable course of the war in Ukraine, geopolitical tensions, local uncertainty, and the extensive financing needs of the Colombian government and the economy. High inflation with forecasts and expectations above 3.0%, coupled with surplus demand and a tight labor market are compatible with a contractionary stance on monetary policy that is conducive to the macroeconomic adjustment needed to mitigate the risk of de-anchoring inflation expectations and to ensure that inflation converges to the target. Compared to the forecasts in the October edition of the Monetary Policy Report, domestic demand has been more dynamic, with a higher observed level of output exceeding the productive capacity of the economy. In this context of surplus demand, headline and core inflation continued to trend upward and posted surprising increases. Observed and expected international interest rates increased, the country’s risk premia lessened (but remains at high levels), and accumulated exchange rate pressures are still significant. The technical staff's inflation forecast for 2023 increased and inflation expectations remain well above 3.0%. All in all, the risk of inflation expectations becoming unanchored persists, which would accentuate the generalized indexation process and push inflation even further away from the target. This macroeconomic context requires consolidating a contractionary monetary policy stance that aims to meet the inflation target within the forecast horizon and bring the economy's output to levels closer to its potential. 1.2 Monetary Policy Decision At its meetings in December 2022 and January 2023, Banco de la República’s Board of Directors (BDBR) agreed to continue the process of normalizing monetary policy. In December, the BDBR decided by a majority vote to increase the monetary policy interest rate by 100 basis points (bps) and in its January meeting by 75 bps, bringing it to 12.75% (Graph 1.5). 1/ Seasonally and calendar adjusted. 2/ In the current account aggregate, the pressures for a higher external deficit come from those companies with FDI that are focused on the domestic market. In contrast, profits in the mining and energy sectors are more than offset by the external revenue they generate through exports. Box 1 - Electricity Rates: Recent Developments and Indexation. Author: Édgar Caicedo García, Pablo Montealegre Moreno and Álex Fernando Pérez Libreros Box 2 - Indicators of Household Indebtedness. Author: Camilo Gómez y Juan Sebastián Mariño