Готові списки джерел за темами / China Coast defenses

Добірка наукової літератури з теми "China Coast defenses"

Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 4 червня 2021

Оновлено: 19 лютого 2022

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Статті в журналах з теми "China Coast defenses":

Kuai, Yu, Jianfeng Tao, Zaiyang Zhou, Stefan Aarninkhof, and Zheng Bing Wang. "Sediment Characteristics and Intertidal Beach Slopes along the Jiangsu Coast, China." Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9, no. 3 (March 22, 2021): 347. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jmse9030347.

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Tidal flats play an important role in promoting coastal biodiversity, defense against flooding, land reclamation and recreation. Many coastal tidal flats, especially the tide-dominant ones, are muddy. However, the number of studies on the profile shape and surficial sediment distribution of muddy tidal flats is small compared to sandy beaches. Based on high spatial-resolution measurements along the tide-dominant Jiangsu Coast, China, we analyzed the morphology and sediment characteristics of the unvegetated intertidal flats along the Jiangsu Coast. The Jiangsu Coast can be divided into an eroding northern part (north coast) and an accreting southern part (south coast). The beach slope of the north coast shows a southward flattening trend, apart from some outliers related to rocky parts of the coastline. We found alternating very fine and coarse sediment (depending on the local clay content) for different locations along the north coast, which can be explained from consolidation and armoring-induced erosion resistance. In the south coast, we found gradual coarsening of bed surface sediment and gradual flattening of beach slopes to the south. This seemingly unexpected pattern is explained by the flood-dominant current causing landward sediment transport, larger tidal range in the south part, sheltering effect of the Radial Sand Ridges, and contribution of different sediment sources, viz. the Abandoned Yellow River Delta and the Radial Sand Ridges. In the cross-shore direction, the sediment grain size decreases landward. Waves are only of secondary importance for the sediment dynamics at the unvegetated tidal flats along the Jiangsu Coast.

Debora, Amy. "Konsistensi Indonesia sebagai Kekuatan Menengah: Studi Kasus Respon Deterrence di Natuna." Jurnal Sentris 2, no. 2 (August 19, 2020): 14–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.26593/sentris.v2i2.4150.14-30.

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As Jakarta is working to resolve the South China Sea (SCS) territorial dispute through its role as an honest broker, Beijing seems to lead the SCS conflict right into the foremost defense of the Republic of Indonesia. This is indicated by the China Coast Guard (CCG) aggressive actions in guarding illegal fishing in Natuna Sea. The conflict escalation raises the question of whether Natuna will enter into the SCS territorial dispute. However, these concerns did not occur due to the appropriate response of Jakarta in maintaining the stability of the region without undermining its defense of its territorial sovereignty. Significantly strengthening the defense in Natuna does not create a security dilemma for ASEAN member countries as it is done in conjunction with the border diplomacy effort. This shows the success of border diplomacy as indirect deterrence against China. This paper will be divided into 4 sections, first the author will give an overview of the SCS conflict and the threats to maritime security in Natuna. Next will be described the concept of ‘middlepowermanship’ according to Cooper, Higgot and Nossal who states that the middle power is reflected from the characteristics of foreign policy. This paper finds that the response reflects the Indonesia’s consistency as a middle power. Proved by Indonesia’s niche diplomacy under Jokowi administration, as well as the role of Jakarta as coalition builder for ASEAN.

Thomas, Raju G. C. "India's Nuclear and Space Programs: Defense or Development?" World Politics 38, no. 2 (January 1986): 315–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2010240.

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Are the Indian nuclear and space programs driven primarily by defense or development motives? What are India's economic and technological capabilities in these fields?Defense motives are strong, but are offset by the potential consequences of programs of nuclear weapons and delivery systems that could produce less rather than more security by provoking counter-reactions in Pakistan and China. The underlying development motives are equally strong, but the programs may not be cost-efficient in the short run. Ultimately, the justification for these programs is based on a dual argument: strategic circumstances justify the maintenance of the nuclear weapons option through development of civilian nuclear energy and space programs irrespective of cost or efficiency, while civilian needs in nuclear energy and space-based telecommunications and meteorological systems provide the defense sector with nuclear weapons and delivery systems options. Although at present neither may seem economically justifiable independently of the other, together they provide a reinforcing defense-development justification.

Parnell, John A., Zhang Long, and Don Lester. "Competitive strategy, capabilities and uncertainty in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in China and the United States." Management Decision 53, no. 2 (March 16, 2015): 402–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/md-04-2014-0222.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate linkages among competitive strategy, strategic capabilities, environmental uncertainty, and organizational performance in small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs) in China and the USA. Design/methodology/approach – In China, a survey was administered to managers of SMEs in Shanghai and Guangzhou. In the USA, a survey was administered to managers of SMEs in three major cities. Competitive strategy, capabilities, uncertainty, and performance were measured by previously validated scales. Findings – Findings support the integrity Miles and Snow generic strategic typology. Performance satisfaction was significantly lower in firms employing a reactor strategy as opposed to those employing prospector, defender, or analyzer strategies. Additional support was found for the concept of strategic clarity, as businesses reporting moderate strategic clarity had lower levels of satisfaction with performance than those reporting either a single strategy or a combination emphasis on three equal strategies. Practical implications – Chinese SMEs tend to prefer cost-based approaches to their local markets. A differentiation market approach is challenging in most local Chinese economies due to the low wages of most jobs in an economy that is still largely centrally planned. In the USA, more disposable income leads to more market opportunities. While this situation is gradually changing in China, it is not at a point where SMEs feel comfortable pursuing totally differentiated strategies. Originality/value – Several distinctions in competitive strategy, capabilities, and environmental uncertainty between China and the USA are recognized by analysis. Analyzers and defenders in Chinese SMEs tend to follow industry prospectors with lower prices and/or superior service. They might change strategies after gaining a foothold in the market. Performance for SMEs with low strategic clarity often depends on established guanxi with governmental agencies or stated-owned enterprises, a situation very different from that in the USA.

Zanidis, Themistoklis. "The World Defense Expenditure 2019 and trends in the Covid19 era." HAPSc Policy Briefs Series 1, no. 1 (June 30, 2020): 140. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/hapscpbs.24959.

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This paper focuses on the recent publication of the SIPRI Institute on global defense spending for 2019. The latter is on the rise for 5th consecutive year, climbing to the highest point since 1988, the Cold War era. This fact has multiple interpretations. The most important construe apropos the geopolitical competition, from hegemonic competition between the United States and China to regional ones, can constitute perils to international security with unpredictable and catastrophic consequences for global peace, economy and trade. The recent crisis over the Covid-19 pandemic has expanded the breach between the West and China, raising skepticism or even suspicious on both sides. Relations between the two powers, the United States and China, have deteriorated, threatening global stability while states are unable to find a commonplace for a successful and definitive fight against the pandemic.The unstable geopolitical environment has experienced the burden of the pandemic crisis due to Covid-19. The restrictive measures taken by governments to intercept the pandemic may be the reasoning for restraining defense spending world widely. This prospect can be a future reality if we take into account the cost caused to national and global economy by the protracted lockdown. Therefore, governments may be compelled to increase spending on the welfare state (health infrastructure, support for the lower classes, support for sectors of the economy most affected by the pandemic such as transportation and tourism) by cutting the defense budget. The latter consists a critical indicator of national sovereignty and its fully understandable the fact that is exceptionally difficult for states to make unforced military budget cuts. However, because of the recent extremely critical situations experienced by humanity as a whole, governments should consider limiting their defense spending, which will be monitored closely by the United Nations for a limited time and focus on dealing with the economic and social effects of the lockdown.

Feng, Danqing, Caihuan Ke, Changyi Lu, and Shaojing Li. "Antifouling activity of marine sessile organisms from China against barnacle settlement." Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 91, no. 5 (February 1, 2011): 1073–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0025315410002195.

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The antifouling activity of a series of hexane, ethyl acetate, ethanol and aqueous extracts from 11 species of marine sessile organisms collected from the south-east coast of China was investigated. Settlement inhibition of cyprid larvae of the barnacleBalanus albicostatuswas used to evaluate their antifouling efficacy. Screening of the 44 extracts showed antifouling activity in 90.9% of the hexane extracts followed by 90.9% of the ethyl acetate, 72.7% of the ethanol and 36.4% of the aqueous extracts. The hexane extracts ofTubularia mesembryanthemum, Notarcus leachii cirrosusandStyela canopus, the ethyl acetate extracts ofBugula neritinaandN. leachii cirrosus,and the ethanol extracts of B. neritinaandAnthopleura sp.were the most active in inhibiting the settlement ofB. albicostatus, with EC50values all below 50 μg/ml. At least one of the four extracts of each tested species exhibited antifouling activity, suggesting that all 11 marine sessile organisms contained antifouling substances and they may have evolved chemical defences against biofouling on their surfaces.

He, Jie, and Xin Sheng Zhao. "Study Influence on Water and Sediment in Sandbank-Lagoon Harbor." Advanced Materials Research 1065-1069 (December 2014): 518–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.1065-1069.518.

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Sandbank-lagoons are generally natural harbors for their good defense of wave, deep water near the coast and little source of sediments. Taking Bohe harbor locating on the sandbank-lagoon in South China as the example, water-sediment regime in the harbor block has been studied in this paper. It is shown that wave-induced long-shore current has a significant impact on the sediment movements in the planned harbor block and its back-silting is controlled by SW flow and wave power, and the training dike can trap sediment into the harbor block. And so in the harbor block planned around the west side of Bohe bay mouth not only can shelter the entrance of the lagoon and control wave-induced long-shore current, but also improve environment for back-silting.

A.K., Zulhisyam, Lee S.W., and Nur Afikah M.D. "A Review: Caring Practices of Songbird, Red-Whiskered Bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus)." Journal of Tropical Resources and Sustainable Science (JTRSS) 4, no. 1 (August 8, 2021): 22–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.47253/jtrss.v4i1.581.

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Pycnonotus jocosus is known as red-whiskered bulbul or known by local Malaysian as songbird or burung candik. Burung candik is one of the favourite pet birds’. Generally, it comes from Bangladesh, southern China, India, Nepal, north Peninsular Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Animal Pest Alert: Red-whiskered Bulbul). Burung candik is favoured because of their ability in singing in east-coast region of Malaysia specifically. In this research, the caring practices are observed. All the result were recorded and documented through interview and experiment research. The caring practices concerned are housing and cage, bathing and grooming, singing feature and diet and feeding. The results showed that one cage equipped with one bird for comfort and to avoid fighting. The birds were needed to be bathed once in a week at least according to the bird’s willingness. General singing functions are to attract the mate and territorial defense. Feed given were insects, fruits and pellet.

Banks, David E. "Fields of Practice: Symbolic Binding and the Qing Defense of Sinocentric Diplomacy." International Studies Quarterly 63, no. 3 (July 17, 2019): 546–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/isq/sqz054.

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AbstractThe practice turn in IR offers new ways to understand how diplomats can creatively engage with their environment and one another. Yet, sometimes their diplomatic practices limit their ability to achieve agreements. This article focuses on how and why domestic practices conflict with international practices, and why states sometimes might feel constrained into engaging in practices that harm their international position. Drawing on field theory, I introduce a causal mechanism I call symbolic binding that explains why regimes may become so bound by their domestic practices of legitimation that they incur considerable international cost. Symbolic binding occurs when the symbolic practices needed to generate domestic legitimacy intersect and conflict with practices from the diplomatic field, when domestic audiences are observing the diplomatic interaction, and when regimes have limited access to alternative forms of political capital. I demonstrate the logic of this mechanism by analyzing the antagonistic diplomacy that occurred between Britain and China from the late eighteenth until the late nineteenth century. I show that the root of this diplomatic conflict can be linked to the incompatibility of both states’ diplomatic practices and show how the Qing regime's need to maintain domestic legitimacy constrained it into steadfastly adhering to diplomatic practices that were incompatible with that of encroaching European powers.

Yang, Xiaoping. "Managing Leadership in the Indo-Pacific: The United States’ South Asia Strategy Revisited." China Quarterly of International Strategic Studies 03, no. 04 (January 2017): 463–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2377740017500294.

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The United States’ South Asia strategy has been based on the calculation of its overall national security priorities. In practice, when U.S. priorities are at odds with those of other regional powers, Washington tends to adopt a “no-expectations” psychological approach toward its regional partners to avoid disappointment, a technical “de-hyphenation strategy” to improve policy efficiency, and practical cost-benefit analysis to evaluate the effectiveness of its South Asia strategy. However, Washington often has to come to terms with the realities on the ground with regard to its leadership role in South Asia. For the time being, Washington has articulated its strategic objective in South Asia, that is, a regional balance of power in favor of the United States vis-a-vis its perceived competitor, China. Therefore, it has conducted conditional cooperation with Pakistan and Afghanistan on land, and committed support for India on security issues in the Indian Ocean, so as to hedge against China’s growing presence in South Asia. The enhancement of U.S.-India defense and security cooperation has fueled China’s suspicion of India’s intention to join the U.S.-led coalition against it. By the logic of balance of power, the United States will continue to regard India as a strategic counterweight to China, which is likely to increase the possibility of strategic tensions and conflicts between China and India that may finally entangle the United States.

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Дисертації з теми "China Coast defenses":

Huang, An-Hao. "The Maritime strategy of China in the Asia-Pacific region : origins,development and impact /." Connect to thesis, 2009. http://repository.unimelb.edu.au/10187/6718.

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Lin, Weikai. "Ming dai de jiang hai lian fang Chang Jiang jiang hai jiao hui shui yu fang wei de jian gou yu bei yu /." Yilan Xian Luodong Zhen : Ming shi yan jiu xiao zu, 2006. http://catalog.hathitrust.org/api/volumes/oclc/124057091.html.

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Siu, Kwok-kin Anthony, and 蕭國健. "Chinese piracy and coastal defence in the eighteen and early nineteen centuries with an emphasis on the Canton Delta." Thesis, The University of Hong Kong (Pokfulam, Hong Kong), 1999. http://hub.hku.hk/bib/B42575035.

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袁展聰. "舊規制新戰爭: 嘉慶. 道光年間廣東海防研究= Old military system vs. new naval warfare: a research on coastal defense of Guangdong during the Jiaqing-Daoguang era /袁展聰". HKBU Institutional Repository, 2016. https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_oa/354.

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After the capture of Taiwan, the Qing Court devoted its energy to securing China's northern border. While fending off the invasion of Russia and Dzungar, Emperors Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong exposed the Southeast maritime frontier to pirates and the British merchants who continued to harass Guangdong during the Jiaqing-Daoguang era. With the support of the Tây Sơn dynasty, pirates in the South China Sea formed an alliance that controlled the major waterways of Guangdong. The discovery of new routes to the East opened new markets for European countries. England seized the opportunity to attack Macao Bocca twice, to break into Tigris and eventually to wage the Opium War. Responding to the growing threat towards her coastal defense, the Qing government dispatched several Viceroys of Liangguang (Guangdong and Guangxi) and Guangdong Commanders in Chief to launch a range of counter measures. In both wars, official used the strategic of coastal defense, in order to cut off the supplement from inland against the pirates and the United Kingdom. Although the pirates and the United Kingdom were different enemies, Qing government used the same method that was not accidental. In the early Qing, coastal defense was managed by the provincial government. Therefore, the development of coastal defense was affected by the quantity of provincial government's resource. Because of the Qing government strictly controlled provincial government's finance; Guangdong's coastal defense was a passive and conservative system. In the context of globalization, Guangdong's coastal defense was challenged by pirates and the United Kingdom. At that time, Navy of Guangdong was weaker than its opponent. As a result, Viceroys of Liangguang (Guangdong and Guangxi) and Guangdong Commanders in Chief insisted to defense the coast line. They believed the opponents would be starved in the sea, however, the result was totally different. Why officials used the same method to deal with pirates and the United Kingdom will be explored in this article, so as to reflect the situation of Guangdong's coastal defense in Jiaqing and Daoguang's era = 自收復台灣後，東南海洋一直處於和平狀態，反觀在北方國境，俄羅斯及準噶爾部卻嚴重威脅清朝的國防。經過康、雍、乾三朝的努力，清廷終於解決北部的邊防問題。但此一形勢在嘉慶、道光年間產生變化，廣東海防卻要面對兩大強敵──海盜與英國。藉着越南西山政權的幫助，廣東海盜乘勢崛興，控制航道，專注於打劫往來船隻，更組成強大的聯盟。而西方國家亦積極東來尋找市場、商品，英國亦為其中之一。為改變與中國貿易的情況，英國曾兩次試圖入侵澳門、強闖虎門，更發動鴉片戰爭，令廣東海防面臨嚴重威脅。在迎戰海盜、英國的過程中，清廷先後委任多名兩廣總督、水師提督，試圖阻止這些強敵。為方便研究，本文選擇當中的重要人物，觀察他們的應敵之道。嘉慶十年（1805），海盜組成大聯盟，勢力如日方中，而那彥成、吳熊光、百齡正是於此時出任兩廣總督。道光十四年（1834）發生律盧卑事件，清廷又先後以關天培、林則徐南下廣東，積極改善虎門防務，防止英國進犯。在兩場戰爭中，當時的官員都堅持嚴守海岸的戰略，以封鎖政策截斷內地物資供應，對抗海盜及英國。面對不同的敵人，清廷使用相同方法並非偶然。海防在清代前期由地方自行管理，所以發展受到地方資源多寡的影響。由於清廷嚴格限制地方財政，加上受地形影響，廣東海防只能維持被動和保守的體制。在全球化的背景下，海盜及英國乘時而起挑戰廣東海防。當時廣東水師實力不及對手，所以兩廣總督、水師提督都固守海岸防線，期望將對手困死海上，但是效果卻是截然不同。本文將探討為何有關官員使用相同方法，應對海盜、英國的入侵的原因，從而反映嘉慶、道光年間廣東海防的情況。

Lee, Jae-hyung. "China and the Asia-Pacific region : geostrategic relations and a return to a naval dimension." Title page, abstract and table of contents only, 2002. http://web4.library.adelaide.edu.au/theses/09PH/09phl4782.pdf.

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Bibliography: leaves 285-314. Introduction -- Ch. 1. Sea power and the world -- Ch. 2. Chinese sea power and the century of humiliation -- Ch. 3. China's emerging sea power in the PRC period -- Ch. 4. China's expanding maritime sphere of influence int he Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean -- Ch. 5. Southeast Asia: gateway to China's maritime expansion -- Ch. 6. Russia and India: China's immediate competitors -- Ch. 7. Japan and the Republic of Korea (ROK): China's competitive neighbours -- Ch. 8. The United States: China's strategic competitor -- Conclusion "The thesis examines China's geostrategic relations with Asia-Pacific countries with special reference to its naval ambitions toward the region. The thesis concentrates especially on the People's Republic of China (PRC)'s apparent intention to expand its maritime influence into the Western Pacific and the Indian Ocean by putting pressure on the security of sea lines of communication (SLOCs) from the Gulf to the nations of East Asia via the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal, the Straits of Malacca and Singapore, the South China Sea, and the Taiwan Strait." -- ABSTRACT

Книги з теми "China Coast defenses":

Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Progress of procurement reforms : report to the Chairman, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington 20013): The Office, 1999.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: U.S. participation in peacekeeping operations : report to the Chairman, Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1992.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Status of U.S. contributions and arrears : report to the Chairman, Committee on International Relations, House of Representatives. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington 20013): The Office, 1999.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: How assessed contributions for peacekeeping operations are calculated : report to Congressional requesters. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1994.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Financial issues and U.S. arrears : briefing report to Congressional requesters. Washington, D.C. (P.O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 1998.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Limitations in leading missions requiring force to restore peace : report to Congressional committees. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1997.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Targeted strategies could help boost U.S. representation : report to congressional requesters. Washington, D.C: U.S. General Accounting Office, 2001.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Planning for headquarters renovation is reasonable, United States needs to decide whether to support work : report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, U.S. Senate. Washington, D.C. (P.0. Box 37050 Washington 20013): U.S. General Accounting Office, 2001.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Personnel compensation and pension issues : report to Congressional requesters. Washington, D.C: The Office, 1987.

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Office, General Accounting. United Nations: Reform initiatives have strengthened operations, but overall objectives have not yet been achieved : report to congressional requesters. Washington, D.C. (P. O. Box 37050, Washington, D.C. 20013): The Office, 2000.

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Частини книг з теми "China Coast defenses":

Frankel, Francine R. "India-China War, 1962." In When Nehru Looked East, 243–78. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190064341.003.0008.

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Opposing perspectives among key policymakers account for India’s failure to prepare for the possibility of an attack by China to enforce its claim lines on the northern border. Prime Minister Nehru, influenced by Zhou Enlai’s assurances that China would never cross the McMahon Line, was reinforced by Defense Minister Krishna Menon’s belief that China, as a communist state, would never invade. They turned aside recommendations from the COAS, K. S. Thimayya, that India had to build up its forces to meet a potential Chinese attack. The war exposed Asianism as an illusion and nonalignment as unrealistic for a weak military power.

Bhattacharyya, Rajib. "Relationship Between Military Expenditure, Economic Growth, and Social Expenditure in India, China, and Bangladesh." In Handbook of Research on Military Expenditure on Economic and Political Resources, 285–306. IGI Global, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-4778-5.ch016.

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One of the most debated phenomena of recent times in the global scenario is whether there really exists a true opportunity cost of a sequential increase in global military expenditure across the world. The existing literature on the relationship between military expenditure and economic growth confirms that three kinds of linkages may be plausible: positive, negative, and no significant linkages. The chapter focuses on contradictions and conflicts between military expenditure and social expenditure such as health and education. The chapter also attempts to examine both the long-run and short-run relationship between defense expenditure (DE), health expenditure (HE), educational expenditure (EE), and economic growth (changes in GDP). Here the autoregressive distributed lag approach (ARDL) and error correction model (ECM) technique have been applied to examine the long- and short-run causality among the variables. The study observes that there exists no significant long-term relationship between economic growth, defense expenditure, health expenditure, and educational expenditure in India and China, but Bangladesh does have one.

Cox, Adam B., and Cristina M. Rodríguez. "The Diplomatic Origins of Immigration Law." In The President and Immigration Law, 17–46. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190694364.003.0002.

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This chapter explores the origins of immigration law in the United States. Until the late nineteenth century Congress created few rules to govern immigration, beyond setting a uniform rule for naturalization. Instead, presidents facilitated immigration through the negotiation of commercial treaties that ensured reciprocal protections for foreign nationals in the United States and Americans abroad—first with nations in Europe, and later with China during the California Gold Rush. State and local governments simultaneously acted as de facto regulators through the use of their inspection and taxation powers. In the 1880s, however, circumstances changed. In response to growing resentment of Chinese immigration on the West Coast and pressure from eastern seaboard states struggling to manage immigrant flows, Congress finally enacted significant legislation, passing the Chinese Exclusion Acts and beginning the American experiment with immigration restriction. By the close of the twentieth century, foreign affairs and national defense were no longer necessary contexts for the assertion of broad presidential leadership or power. Presidents continued to rely on their foreign affairs powers to significant effect through World War II, and diplomacy remains relevant to immigration policy today. But the rise of the administrative state and the President’s role in steering an ever-expanding bureaucracy ultimately became the preeminent source of executive authority to control immigration law.

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Demetri, Kathyrn J., Terry L. Schulz, and Bryan N. Friedman. "AP1000® Plant Adaptation To European Markets." In 2014 22nd International Conference on Nuclear Engineering. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, 2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/icone22-31057.

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The AP1000® plant is an 1100-MWe pressurized water reactor (PWR) with passive safety features and extensive plant simplifications that enhance construction, operation, maintenance and safety. One of the key design approaches in the AP1000 plant is to use passive features to mitigate design basis accidents. Active defense-in-depth (DiD) features provide investment protection, reduce the demands on the passive features and support the PRA. The passive features are classified as safety-related in the US. The active defense-in-depth features are classified as non-safety (with supplemental requirements) in the US. The AP1000 design has incorporated a standardization approach, which together with the level of safety achieved by the passive safety features, results in a plant design that can be applied to different geographical regions with varying regulatory standards and utility expectations without major changes. While the first deployments of the AP1000 plant are ongoing in China and the United States, Westinghouse has remained active in also pursuing European opportunities for the AP1000 plant. In particular, Westinghouse has cooperated for almost two decades with European utilities to ensure adaptation of the AP1000 plant to the European market. This cooperation has resulted in progress towards AP1000 plant deployment in European countries. The AP1000 plant is recognized worldwide and has been reviewed by regulators around the world, including China, the United Kingdom (UK), Canada as well as the US. The AP1000 PWR is the only Generation III+ reactor design to obtain final design approval from the United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission (US NRC) and interim approval from UK regulatory authorities as part of the Generic Design Assessment (GDA) process. It is the only technology to be licensed for construction in the United States in more than 30 years, and the only Generation III+ technology worldwide to receive an operating license, as well as construction approval in China. The AP1000 plant has been independently assessed and confirmed to meet the requirements of the European Utilities Requirements (EUR) document and the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) Advanced Light Water Reactor Utility Requirements Document (URD). The AP1000 plant has also been successfully assessed against multiple European industry guidelines such as the WENRA safety objectives, the IAEA safety standards, the ENSREG stress tests and the UK Weightman Report. In support of multiple ongoing request for proposal (RFP) and pre-RFP activities in European countries, Westinghouse has focused design effort and customer interactions in several European countries to adapt the AP1000 plant to European requirements. Review of the AP1000 plant design with regulators around the world, European Standards compliance activities, and continued cooperation and interaction with European Utilities provide confidence that the AP1000 plant can be successfully licensed and deployed in Europe. The AP1000 50Hz standard plant design (also referred to as European Passive Standard or EPS) is the resulting adaptation of the AP1000 60 Hz US standard plant design to European market needs and requirements, addressing both customer input from such programs as the European Passive Plant (EPP) program in addition to regulatory and Utility needs identified though RFP and pre-RFP activities. The AP1000 50Hz standard plant design retains the overall AP1000 plant design (safe, simple, standard), the use of proven components and its cost, safety and operability advantages, while incorporating some changes to adapt to the European environment. This paper will discuss some of the key changes that have been incorporated into the AP1000 50Hz plant design as necessary to adapt to the European market and demonstrate that the vast majority of the standard AP1000 plant design being built in China and the US is not impacted.