Статті в журналах: "Wild radish"

1

Ferrell, Jason A., Brent A. Sellers, Gregory E. MacDonald, and Pratap Devkota. "Wild Radish: Biology and Control." EDIS 2020, no. 3 (October 29, 2020): 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.32473/edis-wg215-2020.

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Wild radish is one of the most common and problematic pasture weeds in the Florida Panhandle. It is found throughout the state and can be a serious pest in other crops including peanut, corn, and winter vegetables. This publication provides information concerning the biology and growth of wild radish, the problems associated with its presence in wheat and other small grains as well as cover crops, and methods for control and management. Previous version: Ferrell, J., and G. MacDonald. 2005. “Wild Radish--Biology and Control”. EDIS 2005 (11). https://journals.flvc.org/edis/article/view/115117.

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2

Eslami, Seyed V., Gurjeet S. Gill, Bill Bellotti, and Glenn McDonald. "Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) interference in wheat." Weed Science 54, no. 4 (August 2006): 749–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-05-180r2.1.

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Wild radish is a major weed of field crops in southern Australia. The effects of various densities of wild radish and wheat on the growth and reproductive output of each other were investigated in field studies in 2003 and 2004. The experiments were established as a factorial combination of wheat (0, 100, 200, and 400 plants m−2) and wild radish (0, 15, 30, and 60 plants m−2) densities. The effect of wild radish density on wheat yield loss and wild radish seed production were described with a rectangular hyperbola model. The presence of wild radish in wheat reduced aboveground dry matter, leaf-area index (LAI), and grain yield of wheat, and the magnitude of this reduction was dependent on weed density. Increasing the density of wheat substantially reduced the adverse effects of wild radish on wheat. As crop density increased, wild radish dry matter, LAI, and seed production per unit area decreased. The maximum seed production of wild radish was achieved at its highest density (60 plants m−2), and was 43,300 and 61,200 seeds m−2for the first and second year, respectively. The results indicated that higher densities of wheat were able to suppress seed production of this weed species. From a practical viewpoint, this study shows that increased wheat density in the range of 200 to 400 wheat plants m−2can reduce wild radish seed production and also give some reduction in crop yield loss, and could be an important component of an integrated weed management program.

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3

Simard, Marie-Josée, and Anne Légère. "Synchrony of flowering between canola and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 52, no. 6 (December 2004): 905–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-03-145r.

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Many conditions need to be satisfied for gene flow to occur between a transgenic crop and its weedy relatives. Flowering overlap is one essential requirement for hybrid formation. Hybridization can occur between canola and its wild relative, wild radish. We studied the effects of wild radish plant density and date of emergence, canola (glyphosate resistant) planting dates, presence of other weeds, and presence of a wheat crop on the synchrony of flowering between wild radish and canola (as a crop and volunteer). Four field experiments were conducted from 2000 to 2002 in St-David de Lévis, Québec. Flowering periods of wild radish emerging after glyphosate application overlapped with early-, intermediate-, and late-seeded canola 14, 26, and 55%, respectively, of the total flowering time. Flowering periods of early-emerging wild radish and canola volunteers in uncropped treatments overlapped from mid-June until the end of July, ranging from 26 to 81% of the total flowering time. Flowering periods of wild radish and canola volunteers emerging synchronously on May 30 or June 5 as weeds in wheat overlapped 88 and 42%, respectively, of their total flowering time. For later emergence dates, few flowers or seeds were produced by both species because of wheat competition. Wild radish density in canola and wild radish and canola volunteer densities in wheat did not affect the mean flowering dates of wild radish or canola. Increasing wild radish density in uncropped plots (pure or weedy stands) hastened wild radish flowering. Our results show that if hybridization is to happen, it will be most likely with uncontrolled early-emerging weeds in crops or on roadsides, field margins, and uncultivated areas, stressing the need to control the early flush of weeds, weedy relatives, and crop volunteers in noncrop areas.

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4

Malik, Mayank S., Jason K. Norsworthy, A. Stanley Culpepper, Melissa B. Riley, and William Bridges. "Use of Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) and Rye Cover Crops for Weed Suppression in Sweet Corn." Weed Science 56, no. 4 (August 2008): 588–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-08-002.1.

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Field experiments were conducted near Blackville, SC, and Tifton, GA, in 2004 and 2005, to evaluate the effect of wild radish and rye cover crops on weed control and sweet corn yield when used in conjunction with lower-than-recommended herbicide rates. Cover crop treatments included wild radish, rye, and no cover crop, alone and in conjunction with half and full rates of atrazine (0.84 and 1.68 kg ai ha−1) plusS-metolachlor (0.44 and 0.87 kg ai ha−1) applied before sweet corn emergence. Florida pusley, large crabgrass, spreading dayflower, ivyleaf morningglory, and wild radish infested the test sites. Wild radish and rye cover crops without herbicides reduced total weed density by 35 and 50%, respectively, at 4 wk after planting (WAP). Wild radish in conjunction with the full rate of atrazine plusS-metolachlor controlled Florida pusley, large crabgrass, and ivyleaf morningglory better than rye or no cover crop treated with a full herbicide rate in 2004 at Blackville. In 2005, at Blackville, weed control in sweet corn following wild radish cover crop plots alone was not different from that following rye. Wild radish or rye in conjunction with a half or full rate of atrazine andS-metolachlor controlled > 95% Florida pusley, wild radish, and large crabgrass in sweet corn at Tifton during both years. Ten glucosinolates, potential allelopathic compounds, were identified in wild radish, including glucoiberin, progoitrin, glucoraphanin, glucoraphenin, glucosinalbin, gluconapin, glucotropaeolin, glucoerucin, glucobrassicin, and gluconasturtin. Sweet corn yields at Blackville and Tifton following wild radish or rye cover crops were similar between the half and full rates of atrazine plusS-metolachlor. Sweet corn in wild radish or rye cover crop plots without herbicides produced less-marketable ears than herbicide-treated plots, indicating that a combination of cover crops and herbicides are required to optimize yields and to obtain desirable weed control.

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5

Kavalappara, Saritha R., David G. Riley, Paulo S. G. Cremonez, Jermaine D. Perier, and Sudeep Bag. "Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) Is a Potential Reservoir Host of Cucurbit Chlorotic Yellows Virus." Viruses 14, no. 3 (March 13, 2022): 593. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/v14030593.

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Cucurbit chlorotic yellows virus (CCYV) belongs to the genus Crinivirus and is part of a complex of whitefly-transmitted viruses that cause yellowing disease in cucurbits. In the southeastern USA, heavy incidences of CCYV have been observed on all cucurbits grown in the fall. CCYV was detected from wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.), a common weed that grows in the southeastern USA by high-throughput sequencing as well as RT-PCR. CCYV sequence from wild radish was 99.90% and 99.95%, identical to RNA 1 and RNA 2 of cucurbit isolates of CCYV from the region. Transmission assays using whiteflies demonstrated that wild radish is a good host for CCYV. Whiteflies were also able to acquire CCYV from wild radish and transmit the virus to cucurbit hosts, which developed typical symptoms associated with CCYV. Using quantitative PCR, the titer of CCYV in wild radish was also estimated to be on par with that of cucurbit hosts of the virus. Whitefly bioassays revealed that wild radish is an acceptable feeding and reproductive host plant. These results indicate that wild radish could serve as a reservoir host for CCYV in the USA and other parts of the world where similar conditions exist.

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6

Ban, Takuya, Nobuo Kobayashi, Hiroshi Hontani, Masayuki Kadowaki, and Shingo Matsumoto. "Domestication and Utilization of Japanese Wild Radish." Horticultural Research (Japan) 8, no. 4 (2009): 413–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2503/hrj.8.413.

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7

Schroeder, Jill. "Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) Control in Soft Red Winter Wheat (Triticum aestivum)." Weed Science 37, no. 1 (January 1989): 112–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0043174500055946.

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Field experiments were conducted at two locations in Georgia to evaluate wild radish control and soft red winter wheat tolerance of herbicides applied February 1 (one- to five-tiller stage) or March 1 (three- to seven-tiller stage). Bromoxynil controlled wild radish with no wheat grain or forage yield reductions in any experiment. Thiameturon controlled wild radish when applied at rates >0.02 kg/ha on March 1. Metribuzin, dimethylamine salt of 2,4-D, and dimethylamine salt of MCPA provided late-season control of wild radish. February 1 treatments of metribuzin reduced wheat stands at Plains. The difference was attributed to environmental conditions, wheat tiller number at application, and possibly to differences in soil fertility at planting. Metribuzin, thiameturon, dimethylamine salt of dicamba, MCPA, and 2,4-D reduced wheat forage yield at Tifton. Dicamba did not control wild radish and reduced grain yield when applied at a rate of 0.3 kg ai/ha on March 1.

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8

Walsh, Michael J., Peter Newman, and Paul Chatfield. "Mesotrione: a new preemergence herbicide option for wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) control in wheat." Weed Technology 35, no. 6 (October 27, 2021): 924–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wet.2021.90.

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AbstractWild radish is the most problematic broadleaf weed in Australian grain production. The propensity of wild radish to evolve resistance to herbicides has led to high frequencies of multiple herbicide–resistant populations present in these grain production regions. The objective of this study was to evaluate the potential of mesotrione to selectively control wild radish in wheat. The initial dose response pot trials determined that at the highest mesotrione rate of 50 g ha−1 applied preemergence (PRE) was 30% more effective than when applied postemergence (POST) on wild radish. This same rate of mesotrione applied POST resulted in a 30% reduction in wheat biomass compared to 0% for the PRE application. Subsequent mesotrione PRE dose response trials identified a wheat selective rate range of >100 and <300 g ai ha−1 that provided greater than 85% wild radish control with less than 15% reduction in wheat growth. Field evaluations confirmed the efficacy of mesotrione at 100 to 150 g ai ha−1 in reducing wild radish populations by greater than 85% following PRE application and incorporation by wheat planting. Additionally, these field trials demonstrated the opportunity for season-long control of wild radish when mesotrione applied PRE was followed by bromoxynil applied POST. The sequential PRE application of mesotrione, a herbicide that inhibits p-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase, followed by POST application of bromoxynil, a herbicide that inhibits photosystem II, has the potential to provide 100% wild radish control with no effect on wheat growth.

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9

Code, GR, and TW Donaldson. "Effect of cultivation, sowing methods and herbicides on wild radish populations in wheat crops." Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 36, no. 4 (1996): 437. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ea9960437.

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The effect of different cultivation and sowing methods on wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) density in 4 successive wheat crops was measured in an experiment in north-eastern Victoria. The number of seasons taken for populations to decline below an estimated threshold for economic spraying of wild radish (5-10 plants/m2) was examined. Two herbicide applications in each crop in all but one treatment prevented or significantly reduced wild radish seed production during the experiment. Wheat sown after mouldboard ploughing (MBP) in the first season contained wild radish at 42 plants/m2, before spraying. Densities were significantly higher (P<0.05) when wheat was direct drilled (96 plants/m2), or sown after cultivation to 80 mm (116 plants/m2) or to 50 mm (202 plants/m2). MBP in the first season followed by cultivation to 80 mm or direct drilling in subsequent seasons resulted in wild radish populations below the threshold for economic spraying in the second crop. Cultivation to 80 mm before sowing in the first 2 years, followed by direct drilling in subsequent years resulted in a wild radish population of 6.9 plants/m2 in the third crop. This density was within the range estimated as the threshold for economic spraying. Wild radish densities on treatments cultivated to 50 or 80 mm before sowing, or direct drilled each year, had declined to within or below the threshold for economic spraying by the fourth crop.

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10

Weaver, S. E., and J. A. Ivany. "Economic thresholds for wild radish, wild oat, hemp-nettle and corn spurry in spring barley." Canadian Journal of Plant Science 78, no. 2 (April 1, 1998): 357–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.4141/p97-072.

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The yield response of spring barley (Hordeum vulgare L. 'Morrison') to a range of densities of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.), wild oat (Avena fatua L.), hemp-nettle (Galeopsis tetrahit L.), and corn spurry (Spergula arvensis L.) was investigated in field experiments on Prince Edward Island from 1991 through 1994. Barley yield was modelled as a function of both barley and weed density. In the absence of weed competition, barley seed yield, number of main shoots, number of heads, and thousand-kernel weight varied significantly during the 4 yr of the study. Increasing densities of wild radish and wild oat reduced the number of barley heads primarily by interfering with tillering, but wild oat also reduced barley thousand-kernel weight. Hemp-nettle and corn-spurry at densities up to 200 plants m−2 had little effect on barley yield, except in a year of low barley yield potential. Estimated economic thresholds for wild radish, wild oat, hemp-nettle and corn spurry at a barley population of 250 plants m−2 were 37, 45, 122 and 297 plants m−2, respectively, assuming a weed-free yield of 4 t ha−1, a crop price of $100 t−1, and weed control costs of $30 ha−1. Key words: Avena fatua, Galeopsis tetrahit, Hordeum vulgare, Raphanus raphanistrum, Spergula arvensis, yield loss, weed interference, economic threshold

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11

NORSWORTHY, JASON K. "Allelopathic Potential of Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)1." Weed Technology 17, no. 2 (April 2003): 307–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/0890-037x(2003)017[0307:apowrr]2.0.co;2.

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12

DARMENCY, H., E. LEFOL, and A. FLEURY. "Spontaneous hybridizations between oilseed rape and wild radish." Molecular Ecology 7, no. 11 (November 1998): 1467–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00464.x.

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13

Madhou, P., A. Wells, E. C. K. Pang, and T. W. Stevenson. "Genetic variation in populations of Western Australian wild radish." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 56, no. 10 (2005): 1079. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar04265.

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Raphanus raphanistrum L. (wild radish) is a major problematic weed worldwide. Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was used to estimate the degree of genetic diversity between and within 2 populations of wild radish (WARR 5 and WARR 6), found to exhibit multiple herbicide resistance compared with a susceptible population (WARR 7). It is believed that weed species with high degrees of genetic variation show potential for developing resistance to herbicides. Of the 13 RAPD primers screened, 9 primers generated 97 polymorphic bands concomitant with a high level of polymorphism (82%) between the wild radish populations, characteristics of an outbreeding species. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) showed a markedly higher proportion of diversity within populations (87%) as opposed to between populations (13%). Principal component analysis (PCA) further highlighted the large amount of variation between individuals within populations. Only one marker, OPC19–8, was found to be unique to the WARR 7 population but absent in WARR 5 and in most individuals of the WARR 6 populations. This marker may potentially be correlated with herbicide susceptibility. The 2 resistant wild radish populations were found to be closely related (0.7% dissimilar) to each other, whereas the susceptible population was genetically dissimilar to them by 2.3%. This higher level of dissimilarity between the susceptible and resistant populations may be explained by limited gene flow between them since the susceptible population is geographically located further away from the resistant populations. Hence, it may be concluded that the underlying genetic structure of the 3 wild radish populations seems to be similar despite WARR 6 and WARR 5 having been exposed to mixed herbicide usage for over 17 years.

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14

Letourneau, D. K., and J. A. Hagen. "Plant Fitness Assessment for Wild Relatives of Insect Resistant Bt-Crops." Journal of Botany 2012 (February 20, 2012): 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/389247.

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When field tests of transgenic plants are precluded by practical containment concerns, manipulative experiments can detect potential consequences of crop-wild gene flow. Using topical sprays of bacterial Bacillus thuringiensis larvicide (Bt) and larval additions, we measured fitness effects of reduced herbivory on Brassica rapa (wild mustard) and Raphanus sativus (wild radish). These species represent different life histories among the potential recipients of Bt transgenes from Bt cole crops in the US and Asia, for which rare spontaneous crosses are expected under high exposure. Protected wild radish and wild mustard seedlings had approximately half the herbivore damage of exposed plants and 55% lower seedling mortality, resulting in 27% greater reproductive success, 14-day longer life-spans, and 118% more seeds, on average. Seed addition experiments in microcosms and in situ indicated that wild radish was more likely to spread than wild mustard in coastal grasslands.

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15

Walsh, Michael J., and Stephen B. Powles. "Impact of crop-topping and swathing on the viable seed production of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Crop and Pasture Science 60, no. 7 (2009): 667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp08286.

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Crop-topping, the practice of applying non-selective herbicides at crop maturity, has proved to be an effective management technique in preventing the input of seed into the seedbank for some annual weed species of southern Australian crop production systems. However, the efficacy of this practice on the dominant broad-leaf weed of these systems, wild radish, is not well understood. These studies investigated the effect of crop-topping and swathing on the viable seed production of wild radish. Crop-topping with either glyphosate or sprayseed (paraquat 135 g/L + diquat 115 g/L) can provide large reductions of 80–90% in viable seed production of wild radish plants present in crops at the end of the growing season. However, the efficacy of this practice was found to be highly variable and therefore, cannot be relied upon to consistently produce these large reductions in seed numbers. Similarly, swathing also produced large reductions in viable seed production but results from this practice were even less consistent than crop-topping treatments. For all treatments, early application timings of growth stage 6.5 or earlier, were optimum for targeting wild radish seed production. However, these treatment timings also resulted in large crop yield losses of ~30%. To preserve at least 90% of crop yield, crop-topping and swathing treatments need to be delayed until wild radish growth stage 8.5, with expected reductions in seed numbers of up to 70%. However, in high-density infestations the need to preserve grain yield will be less important than preventing substantial inputs of wild radish seed into the seedbank.

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16

Grey, T. L., D. C. Bridges, P. L. Raymer, and J. W. Davis. "Imazethapyr Rate Responses for Wild Radish, Conventional Canola, and Imidazolinone-tolerant Canola." Plant Health Progress 7, no. 1 (January 2006): 8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/php-2006-1018-01-rs.

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Greenhouse experiments were conducted to determine dose responses to imazethapyr for imidazolinone-tolerant canola (Brassica napus) Pioneer 45A71, conventional canola Oscar, and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum). Two weeks after treatment, foliar injury was rated and plants were harvested to determine plant dry weight. Plant responses to herbicide treatments were analyzed by nonlinear regression procedures using a modified Mitscherlich plant growth model for visual injury and the negative exponential growth function for plant dry weight. Pioneer 45A71 was tolerant of all rates of imazethapyr (0.055 to 0.60 g ai/liter). In contrast, wild radish and Oscar were sensitive to imazethapyr with significant injury and approximately 50% reduction in dry plant weight at rates of 0.275 g ai/liter and greater. For the model, increased injury from herbicide treatment resulted in significantly different asymptotic maximum (βo) injury for all plant types. The dry weight for the non-treated control was 1.3, 0.8, and 1.5 g/plant for wild radish, Pioneer 45A71, and Oscar, respectively. For the models, β1 parameters indicated significant differences in response to imazethapyr treatment between the Pioneer 45A71, wild radish, and Oscar dry weights. Accepted for publication 3 July 2006. Published 18 October 2006.

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17

Malik, Mayank S., Jason K. Norsworthy, Melissa B. Riley, and William Bridges. "Temperature and Light Requirements for Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) Germination over a 12-Month Period following Maturation." Weed Science 58, no. 2 (June 2010): 136–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-09-109.1.

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Knowledge of the germination requirements of wild radish will help in determining the favorable conditions for germination and emergence and allow better management of this weed. Experiments were conducted during 2005 to 2006 and 2006 to 2007 to evaluate wild radish temperature and light requirements over a 12-mo period beginning in July on seeds placed on the soil surface and at a 10-cm depth. Germination response was influenced by temperature, light, duration of burial, and burial depth. Freshly harvested seeds (July) had no more than 18% germination whereas seeds allowed to after-ripen in the field for 3 to 6 mo (October to January) had up to 40% germination. The germination of wild radish retrieved from the soil surface was 1.2 to 1.5 times greater at alternating temperatures (2.5/17.5, 7.5/22.5, and 12.5/27.5 C) than at constant temperatures (10, 15, and 20 C) at 0, 3, and 6 mo after maturation. The light requirement for germination varied by time of year with no differences in germination between light and dark conditions for freshly harvested seeds. Far-red light inhibited germination of wild radish, indicating that wild radish may become sensitive to light following an after-ripening period.

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18

Marshall, Diane L. "Non-Random Mating in a Wild Radish, Raphanus sativus." Plant Species Biology 5, no. 1 (June 1990): 143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.1990.tb00199.x.

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Malik, Mayank S., Melissa B. Riley, Jason K. Norsworthy, and William Bridges. "Variation of Glucosinolates in Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) Accessions." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, no. 22 (November 24, 2010): 11626–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf102809b.

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20

Marshall, Diane L., and Norman C. Ellstrand. "Regulation of Mate Number in Fruits of Wild Radish." American Naturalist 133, no. 6 (June 1989): 751–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284951.

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21

Walsh, Michael J., Stephen B. Powles, Brett R. Beard, Ben T. Parkin, and Sally A. Porter. "Multiple-herbicide resistance across four modes of action in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 52, no. 1 (February 2004): 8–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-03-016r.

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Populations of wild radish were collected from two fields in the northern Western Australian wheatbelt, where typical herbicide-use patterns had been practiced for the previous 17 seasons within an intensive crop production program. The herbicide resistance status of these populations clearly established that there was multiple-herbicide resistance across many herbicides from at least four modes of action. One population exhibited multiple-herbicide resistance to the phytoene desaturase (PDS)–inhibiting herbicide diflufenican (3.0-fold), the auxin analog herbicide 2,4-D (2.2-fold), and the photosystem II–inhibiting herbicides metribuzin and atrazine. Another population was found to be multiply resistant to the acetolactate synthase–inhibiting herbicides, the PDS-inhibiting herbicide diflufenican (2.5-fold), and the auxin analog herbicide 2,4-D amine (2.4-fold). Therefore, each population has developed multiple-herbicide resistance across several modes of action. The multiple resistance status of these wild radish populations developed from conventional herbicide usage in intensive cropping rotations, indicating a dramatic challenge for the future control of wild radish.

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Goggin, Danica E., Scott Bringans, Jason Ito, and Stephen B. Powles. "Plasma membrane receptor-like kinases and transporters are associated with 2,4-D resistance in wild radish." Annals of Botany 125, no. 5 (October 24, 2019): 821–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcz173.

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Abstract Background and Aims Resistance to the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) appears to be due to a complex, multifaceted mechanism possibly involving enhanced constitutive plant defence and alterations in auxin signalling. Based on a previous gene expression analysis highlighting the plasma membrane as being important for 2,4-D resistance, this study aimed to identify the components of the leaf plasma membrane proteome that contribute to resistance. Methods Isobaric tagging of peptides was used to compare the plasma membrane proteomes of a 2,4-D-susceptible and a 2,4-D-resistant wild radish population under control and 2,4-D-treated conditions. Eight differentially abundant proteins were then targeted for quantification in the plasma membranes of 13 wild radish populations (two susceptible, 11 resistant) using multiple reaction monitoring. Key Results Two receptor-like kinases of unknown function (L-type lectin domain-containing receptor kinase IV.1-like and At1g51820-like) and the ATP-binding cassette transporter ABCB19, an auxin efflux transporter, were identified as being associated with auxinic herbicide resistance. The variability between wild radish populations suggests that the relative contributions of these candidates are different in the different populations. Conclusions To date, no receptor-like kinases have been reported to play a role in 2,4-D resistance. The lectin-domain-containing kinase may be involved in perception of 2,4-D at the plasma membrane, but its ability to bind 2,4-D and the identity of its signalling partner(s) need to be confirmed experimentally. ABCB19 is known to export auxinic compounds, but its role in 2,4-D resistance in wild radish appears to be relatively minor.

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Norsworthy, Jason K., Mayank S. Malik, Melissa B. Riley, and William Bridges. "Time of Emergence Affects Survival and Development of Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) in South Carolina." Weed Science 58, no. 4 (December 2010): 402–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/ws-d-10-00034.1.

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Field experiments were conducted from 2004 through 2006 at Pendleton and Clemson, SC, to determine the influence of seasonal emergence of wild radish on phenological development, survival, and seed and biomass production in a noncompetitive environment. The duration of four developmental phases, emergence to bolting, bolting to flowering, flowering to silique production, and silique production to maturity, were recorded following wild radish sowing at monthly intervals from October 2004 through September 2006. Seedling emergence occurred 2 to 4 wk after sowing. Mortality of seedlings that emerged from December through March was greater than that of seedlings that emerged in all other months. Wild radish that emerged from April through August completed its life cycle by summer or early autumn. Wild radish that emerged from September through November was able to survive the winter and complete its life cycle the following spring. The developmental phases most affected by time of emergence were emergence to bolting and bolting to flowering. The duration of emergence to bolting ranged from 249 to 479 growing degree days (GDD), and bolting to flowering from 270 to 373 GDD, depending on the month of emergence. The total life cycle of wild radish varied from a low of 1,267 GDD following June emergence to 1,503 GDD following November emergence. Multiple regression analysis revealed that emergence to bolting and silique production to maturity phases were dependent on accumulated heat units and photoperiod. Seed and biomass production were influenced by month of emergence. An average of 1,470 seeds plant−1was produced when emergence occurred in July and 10,170 seeds plant−1when emergence occurred in November. Plants that emerged in autumn exhibited minimal growth during the winter months, but conditions were conducive for growth in mid-March and April, with biomass production of 809 g plant−1at silique production.

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24

Karron, Jeffrey D., and Diane L. Marshall. "Fitness Consequences of Multiple Paternity in Wild Radish, Raphanus sativus." Evolution 44, no. 2 (March 1990): 260. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2409405.

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Marshall, Diane L., Michael W. Folsom, Colleen Hatfield, and Toby Bennett. "Does Interference Competition Among Pollen Grains Occur in Wild Radish." Evolution 50, no. 5 (October 1996): 1842. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2410741.

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Blackshaw, Robert E., Deirdre Lemerle, Rodney Mailer, and Ken R. Young. "Influence of wild radish on yield and quality of canola." Weed Science 50, no. 3 (May 2002): 344–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/0043-1745(2002)050[0344:iowroy]2.0.co;2.

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27

Charbonneau, Amanda, David Tack, Allison Lale, Josh Goldston, Mackenzie Caple, Emma Conner, Oz Barazani, Jotham Ziffer-Berger, Ian Dworkin, and Jeffrey K. Conner. "Weed evolution: Genetic differentiation among wild, weedy, and crop radish." Evolutionary Applications 11, no. 10 (September 29, 2018): 1964–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/eva.12699.

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28

McCutcheon, Gloria S., Alvin M. Simmons, and Jason K. Norsworthy. "Effect of Wild Radish on Preimaginal Development ofDiabrotica balteataandAgrotis ipsilon." Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 33, no. 2 (February 5, 2009): 119–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10440040802394950.

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29

Marshall, Diane L., and Norman C. Ellstrand. "Proximal Causes of Multiple Paternity in Wild Radish, Raphanus sativus." American Naturalist 126, no. 5 (November 1985): 596–605. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284441.

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30

Ellstrand, Norman C., and Diane L. Marshall. "Interpopulation Gene Flow by Pollen in Wild Radish, Raphanus sativus." American Naturalist 126, no. 5 (November 1985): 606–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/284442.

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31

Devlin, B., and Norman C. Ellstrand. "Male and Female Fertility Variation in Wild Radish, a Hermaphrodite." American Naturalist 136, no. 1 (July 1990): 87–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/285083.

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32

Goggin, Danica E., Hugh J. Beckie, Chad Sayer, and Stephen B. Powles. "No auxinic herbicide–resistance cost in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 67, no. 05 (August 14, 2019): 539–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2019.40.

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AbstractWild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) is a problematic and economically damaging dicotyledonous weed infesting crops in many regions of the world. Resistance to the auxinic herbicides 2,4-D and dicamba is widespread in Western Australian R. raphanistrum populations, with the resistance mechanism appearing to involve alterations in the physiological response to synthetic auxins and in plant defense. This study aimed to determine whether these alterations cause inhibition in plant growth or reproduction that could potentially be exploited to manage 2,4-D–resistant populations in cropping areas. Therefore, the morphology and seed production of resistant and susceptible populations were compared in an outdoor pot study, with plants grown in the presence and absence of competition by wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The susceptible and resistant R. raphanistrum populations were equally suppressed by wheat competition, with plant growth and seed production being decreased by approximately 50%. Although resistant populations produced less vegetative biomass than susceptible populations, there was no negative association between resistance and seed production. Therefore, it is unlikely that any nonherbicidal management practices will be more efficacious on 2,4-D–resistant than 2,4-D–susceptible R. raphanistrum populations.

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33

Yamane, Kyoko, Na Lü, and Ohmi Ohnishi. "Chloroplast DNA variations of cultivated radish and its wild relatives." Plant Science 168, no. 3 (March 2005): 627–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2004.09.022.

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34

Karron, Jeffrey D., and Diane L. Marshall. "FITNESS CONSEQUENCES OF MULTIPLE PATERNITY IN WILD RADISH, RAPHANUS SATIVUS." Evolution 44, no. 2 (March 1990): 260–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1990.tb05196.x.

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35

Marshall, Diane L., Michael W. Folsom Colleen Hatfield, and Toby Bennett. "DOES INTERFERENCE COMPETITION AMONG POLLEN GRAINS OCCUR IN WILD RADISH?" Evolution 50, no. 5 (October 1996): 1842–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb03570.x.

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36

Walsh, Michael J., and Stephen B. Powles. "High Seed Retention at Maturity of Annual Weeds Infesting Crop Fields Highlights the Potential for Harvest Weed Seed Control." Weed Technology 28, no. 3 (September 2014): 486–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/wt-d-13-00183.1.

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Seed production of annual weeds persisting through cropping phases replenishes/establishes viable seed banks from which these weeds will continue to interfere with crop production. Harvest weed seed control (HWSC) systems are now viewed as an effective means of interrupting this process by targeting mature weed seed, preventing seed bank inputs. However, the efficacy of these systems is directly related to the proportion of total seed production that the targeted weed species retains (seed retention) at crop maturity. This study determined the seed retention of the four dominant annual weeds of Australian cropping systems - annual ryegrass, wild radish, brome grass, and wild oat. Beginning at the first opportunity for wheat harvest and on a weekly basis for 28 d afterwards the proportion of total seed production retained above a 15 cm harvest cutting height was determined for these weed species present in wheat crops at nine locations across the Western Australian (WA) wheat-belt. Very high proportions of total seed production were retained at wheat crop maturity for annual ryegrass (85%), wild radish (99%), brome grass (77%), and wild oat (84%). Importantly, seed retention remained high for annual ryegrass and wild radish throughout the 28 d harvest period. At the end of this period, 63 and 79% of total seed production for annual ryegrass and wild radish respectively, was retained above harvest cutting height. However, seed retention for brome grass (41%) and wild oat (39%) was substantially lower after 28 d. High seed retention at crop maturity, as identified here, clearly indicates the potential for HWSC systems to reduce seed bank replenishment and diminish subsequent crop interference by the four most problematic species of Australian crops.

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37

Li, Xiaoman, Jinglei Wang, Yang Qiu, Haiping Wang, Peng Wang, Xiaohui Zhang, Caihua Li, et al. "SSR-Sequencing Reveals the Inter- and Intraspecific Genetic Variation and Phylogenetic Relationships among an Extensive Collection of Radish (Raphanus) Germplasm Resources." Biology 10, no. 12 (November 30, 2021): 1250. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology10121250.

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Raphanus has undergone a lengthy evolutionary process and has rich diversity. However, the inter- and intraspecific phylogenetic relationships and genetic diversity of this genus are not well understood. Through SSR-sequencing and multi-analysis of 939 wild, semi-wild and cultivated accessions, we discovered that the European wild radish (EWR) population is separated from cultivated radishes and has a higher genetic diversity. Frequent intraspecific genetic exchanges occurred in the whole cultivated radish (WCR) population; there was considerable genetic differentiation within the European cultivated radish (ECR) population, which could drive radish diversity formation. Among the ECR subpopulations, European primitive cultivated radishes (EPCRs) with higher genetic diversity are most closely related to the EWR population and exhibit a gene flow with rat-tail radishes (RTRs) and black radishes (BRs)/oil radishes (ORs). Among Asian cultivated radishes (ACRs), Chinese big radishes (CBRs) with a relatively high diversity are furthest from the EWR population, and most Japanese/Korean big radishes (JKBRs) are close to CBR accessions, except for a few old Japanese landraces that are closer to the EPCR. The CBR and JKBR accessions are independent of RTR accessions; however, phylogenetic analysis indicates that the RTR is sister to the clade of CBR (including JWR), which suggests that the RTR may share the most recent common ancestry with CBRs and JWRs. In addition, Japanese wild radishes (JWRs), (namely, R. sativus forma raphanistroides) are mainly scattered between CBRs and EPCRs in PCoA analysis. Moreover, JWRs have a strong gene exchange with the JKBR, OR and RTR subpopulations. American wild radishes (AWRs) are closely related to European wild and cultivated radishes, and have a gene flow with European small radishes (ESRs), suggesting that the AWR developed from natural hybridization between the EWR and the ESR. Overall, this demonstrates that Europe was the origin center of the radish, and that Europe, South Asia and East Asia appear to have been three independent domestication centers. The EPCR, AWR and JWR, as semi-wild populations, might have played indispensable transitional roles in radish evolution. Our study provides new perspectives into the origin, evolution and genetic diversity of Raphanus and facilitates the conservation and exploitation of radish germplasm resources.

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38

Sun, Ci, Michael B. Ashworth, Ken Flower, Martin M. Vila-Aiub, Roberto Lujan Rocha, and Hugh J. Beckie. "The adaptive value of flowering time in wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Weed Science 69, no. 2 (January 26, 2021): 203–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/wsc.2021.5.

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AbstractHarvest weed seed control (HWSC) is a weed management technique that intercepts and destroys weed seeds before they replenish the soil weed seedbank and can be used to control herbicide-resistant weeds in global cropping systems. Wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) is a problematic, globally distributed weed species that is considered highly susceptible to HWSC, as it retains much of its seed on the plant during grain harvest. However, previous studies have demonstrated that R. raphanistrum is capable of adapting its life cycle, in particular its flowering time, to allow individuals more time to mature and potentially shed seeds before harvest, thereby evading HWSC interception. This study compared the vegetative growth plus physiological and ecological fitness of an early-flowering R. raphanistrum biotype with an unselected genetically related biotype to determine whether physiological costs of early flowering exist when in competition with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Early flowering time adaptation in R. raphanistrum did not change the relative growth rate or competitive ability of R. raphanistrum. However, the height of first flower was reduced in the early flowering time–selected population, indicating that this population would retain more pods below the typical harvest cutting height (15 cm) used in HWSC. The presence of wheat competition (160 to 200 plants m−2) increased flowering height in the early flowering time–selected population, which would likely increase the susceptibility of early-flowering R. raphanistrum plants to HWSC. Overall, early-flowering adaption in R. raphanistrum is a possible strategy to escape being captured by the HWSC; however, increasing crop competition is likely to be an effective strategy to maintain the effectiveness of HWSC.

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Fontana, Lisiane Camponogara, Carlos Eduardo Schaedler, André Da Rosa Ulguim, Dirceu Agostinetto, and Cláudia De Oliveira. "Barley competitive ability in coexistence with black oat or wild radish." Científica 43, no. 1 (February 20, 2015): 22. http://dx.doi.org/10.15361/1984-5529.2015v43n1p22-29.

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40

Stanton, Maureen, and Helen J. Young. "Selecting for floral character associations in wild radish, Raphanus sativus L." Journal of Evolutionary Biology 7, no. 3 (May 1994): 271–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1420-9101.1994.7030271.x.

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41

Malik, Mayank S., Melissa B. Riley, Jason K. Norsworthy, and William Bridges. "Glucosinolate Profile Variation of Growth Stages of Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum)." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 58, no. 6 (March 24, 2010): 3309–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf100258c.

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42

Conner, J. K., D. Tjhio, S. H. Berlocher, and S. L. Rush. "Inheritance and Linkage Relationships of Nine Isozyme Loci in Wild Radish." Journal of Heredity 88, no. 1 (January 1, 1997): 60–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a023058.

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43

Young, H. J., and M. L. Stanton. "Influence of Environmental Quality on Pollen Competitive Ability in Wild Radish." Science 248, no. 4963 (June 29, 1990): 1631–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.248.4963.1631.

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44

Karron, J. D., D. L. Marshall, and D. M. Oliveras. "Numbers of sporophytic self-incompatibility alleles in populations of wild radish." Theoretical and Applied Genetics 79, no. 4 (April 1990): 457–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf00226152.

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45

Coutts, B. A., and R. A. C. Jones. "Viruses infecting canola (Bassica napus) in south-west Australia: incidence, distribution, spread, and infection reservoir in wild radish (Raphanus raphinistrum)." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 51, no. 7 (2000): 925. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar00014.

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Over 2 growing seasons, the incidences of infection with beet western yellows (BWYV), cauliflower mosaic (CaMV), and turnip mosaic (TuMV) viruses were determined in canola (Brassica napus) crops growing in the agricultural area of south-west Australia. Tissue blot immunoassay was used to detect BWYV and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to detect CaMV and TuMV. In 1998, BWYV was detected in 59% of 159 crops surveyed, whereas in 1999 it was found in 66% of 56 crops. Incidences within individual infected crops were 1–65% (1998) and 1–61% (1999). Infection occurred widely in high and medium rainfall zones, but was also readily detected in the low rainfall zone. In addition, BWYV was found in canola samples from 5 sites in New South Wales. Most cultivars tested (9 of 10) in the canola crop survey were infected with BWYV. No clear relationship was found between BWYV infection and any particular type of disease symptom. Overall, the incidence of BWYV at the crop edge was marginally greater than that inside the crop. CaMV was detected in 27% of 143 crops in 1998 but in only 2 of 47 in 1999. Incidences within individual infected crops were 1–17% in 1998 but only 1% in 1999. CaMV infected 6 of 10 cultivars and was present in high, medium, and low rainfall zones. Obvious chlorotic ringspot symptoms were associated with CaMV infection. TuMV was detected in 5% of 139 crops in 1998 but in only 1 of 47 from 1999. Incidences within the individual infected crops were 1–5% in 1998 and 1% in 1999; 3 of 10 cultivars were infected and it was found in high and medium rainfall zones. BWYV, CaMV, and TuMV were all found infecting wild radish (Raphanus raphinistrum). In general, incidences of BWYV were greater in wild radish than in canola. In 1998, BWYV was detected in wild radish at 9 of 12 sites sampled in 5 of 6 districts, with infection incidences up to 48%. In 1999, it was detected at all 10 sites sampled in 7 districts, with incidences up to 96%. Infected samples came from all rainfall zones, and from several different types of sites, some of which were distant from canola crops. Despite the presence of possible viral symptoms in wild radish, none was clearly associated with BWYV infection. In contrast, TuMV caused obvious mottle and ‘oak leaf’ patterns in wild radish plants. The finding of widespread virus infection in canola crops and a substantial virus reservoir in wild radish weeds is cause for concern to the canola industry.

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46

Walsh, Michael J., Karrie Stratford, Kent Stone, and Stephen B. Powles. "Synergistic Effects of Atrazine and Mesotrione on Susceptible and Resistant Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) Populations and the Potential for Overcoming Resistance to Triazine Herbicides." Weed Technology 26, no. 2 (June 2012): 341–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/wt-d-11-00132.1.

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The synergistic interaction between mesotrione, a hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD)-inhibiting herbicide, and atrazine, a photosystem II (PS II)-inhibiting herbicide, has been identified in the control of several weed species. A series of dose–response studies examined the synergistic effect of these herbicides on a susceptible (S) wild radish population. The potential for this interaction to overcome target-sitepsbA gene-based atrazine resistance in a resistant (R) wild radish population was also investigated. Control of S wild radish with atrazine was enhanced by up to 40% when low rates (1.0 to 1.5 g ha−1) of mesotrione were applied in combination. This synergistic response was demonstrated across a range of atrazine–mesotrione rate combinations on this S wild radish population. Further, the efficacy of 1.5 g ha−1mesotrione increased control of the R population by a further 60% when applied in combination with 400 g ha−1of atrazine. This result clearly demonstrated the synergistic interaction of these herbicides in overcoming the target-site resistance mechanism. The mechanism responsible for the observed synergistic interaction between mesotrione and atrazine remains unknown. However, it is speculated that an alternate atrazine binding site may be responsible. Regardless of the biochemical nature of this interaction, evidence from whole-plant bioassays clearly demonstrated that synergistic herbicide combinations improve herbicide efficiency, with lower application rates required to control weed populations. This, combined with the potential to overcomepsbA gene-based triazine resistance, and, thereby, regain the use of these herbicides, will result in more sustainable herbicide use.

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47

Menezes Jr., Ayres Oliveira, Adriana Yatie Mikami, André Keiiti Ide, and Maurício Ursi Ventura. "Feeding preferences of Microtheca punctigera (Achard) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) for some Brassicaceae plants in multiple-choice assays." Scientia Agricola 62, no. 1 (January 2005): 72–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0103-90162005000100014.

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Host plant feeding preference is important basic information for the development of insect management strategies. Multiple-choice feeding preference assays were conducted in the laboratory for the chrysomelid beetle, Microtheca punctigera (Achard). Feeding was assessed 72 h after onset of experiments. With one larva per Petri dish, food items comprised watercress, Nasturtium officinale L., arugula, Eruca sativa L., mustard, Brassica juncea Cosson, Chinese cabbage, B. pekinensis (Lour.) Rupr. and wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.). Feeding ranking preferences were Chinese cabbage, mustard, wild radish, arugula and watercress (7.97, 1.85, 0.98, 0.36 and 0.11 mm², respectively). Feeding on Chinese cabbage was 4.31 times more intense than on mustard. The same experiment was repeated with one adult per dish. Responses of males and females were quite similar. Feeding was higher on mustard (87.2 and 142.8 for males and females, respectively). Feeding on arugula (51.5 and 132.7) and Chinese cabbage (51.8 and 89.0) were intermediate. Watercress (22.96 and 39.3) and wild radish (12.03 and 28.4) were the least preferred host plants. In a third experiment, ten larvae per dish were used and spinach, Tetragonia expansa Murr., radish, Raphanus sativus L. and collard, B. oleracea var. acephala L., were also included. Daily larval frequencies on each food were also measured. Feeding was similar on Chinese cabbage and mustard (47.89 and 53.78, respectively). Number of insects was greater on mustard, Chinese cabbage and wild radish. Probable explanations for results and proposals for further investigations are discussed.

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48

O'Sullivan, Cathryn A., Kelley Whisson, Karen Treble, Margaret M. Roper, Shayne F. Micin, and Philip R. Ward. "Biological nitrification inhibition by weeds: wild radish, brome grass, wild oats and annual ryegrass decrease nitrification rates in their rhizospheres." Crop and Pasture Science 68, no. 8 (2017): 798. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/cp17243.

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This study investigated the ability of several plant species commonly occurring as weeds in Australian cropping systems to produce root exudates that inhibit nitrification via biological nitrification inhibition (BNI). Seedlings of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum), great brome grass (Bromus diandrus), wild oats (Avena fatua), annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) and Brachiaria humidicola (BNI-positive control) were grown in hydroponics, and the impact of their root exudates on NO3– production by Nitrosomonas europaea was measured in a pure-culture assay. A pot study (soil-based assay) was then conducted to confirm the ability of the weeds to inhibit nitrification in whole soils. All of the tested weeds slowed NO3– production by N. europaea in the pure-culture assay and significantly inhibited potential nitrification rates in soil-based assays. Root exudates produced by wild radish were the most inhibitory, slowing NO3– production by the pure culture of N. europaea by 53 ± 6.1% and completely inhibiting nitrification in the soil-based assay. The other weed species all had BNI capacities comparable to that of B. humidicola and significantly higher than that previously reported for wheat cv. Janz. This study demonstrates that several commonly occurring weed species have BNI capacity. By altering the N cycle, and retaining NH4+ in the soils in which they grow, these weeds may gain a competitive advantage over species (including crops) that prefer NO3–. Increasing our understanding of how weeds compete with crops for N may open avenues for novel weed-management strategies.

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49

Panetta, FD, DJ Gilbey, and MF D'Antuono. "Survival and fecundity of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) plants in relation to cropping, time of emergence and chemical control." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 39, no. 3 (1988): 385. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar9880385.

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During consecutive seasons, wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum L.) seedling emergence decreased exponentially with increasing time after the emergence of lupin crops. Initial survival of seedlings was markedly reduced by pre-emergence applications of simazine at 0.75 kg a.i. ha-1. In the absence of herbicide, however, the presence of a lupin crop did not have a negative effect upon early survival. Probabilities of reproduction of wild radish plants decreased with later emergence within treatments; no plants which emerged later than 21 days after crop emergence produced seeds. Seed production by wild radish was considerably higher when lupins were sown late. Regardless of sowing date, the application of triazine herbicides reduced the amount of seeds produced to the point where grain contamination was insignificant. However, the few plants which escaped herbicide treatment produced large numbers of seeds. Virtually no seeds were produced when additional post-emergence applications of simazine (0.375 kg a.i. ha-1) were made. It is argued that the major role of post-emergence application in this crop-weed system is to prevent reproduction by plants which escape the pre-emergence application, rather than to control late-emerging plants.

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50

Friesen, L. J. Shane, and Stephen B. Powles. "Physiological and Molecular Characterization of Atrazine Resistance in a Wild Radish (Raphanus raphanistrum) Population." Weed Technology 21, no. 4 (December 2007): 910–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1614/wt-07-008.1.

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This study documents the physiology and genetics of evolved atrazine resistance in a wild radish population from Western Australia. Plant response to atrazine treatment confirmed a high level of resistance in population WARR5. At 0.25 kg atrazine/ha, all plants from a susceptible population were killed, whereas resistant WARR5 was unaffected at the highest dose tested (4 kg atrazine/ha). Leaf photosynthesis in susceptible plants was inhibited after 1 kg atrazine/ha treatment, whereas leaf photosynthesis in WARR5 plants was unaffected. Furthermore, atrazine resistance was maternally inherited. Sequencing of apsbAgene fragment in resistant WARR5 and susceptible plants revealed a single point mutation resulting in a coding change from Ser264to Gly of the D1 protein in resistant plants. We are confident that this mutation is the basis of resistance to the photosystem II inhibitors in this wild radish population.

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