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Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 14 березня 2023

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1

Lu, Zi-Qing, Qin Han, Han Ye, Shuai Wang, Feng Xiao, and Fan Xiao. "Low dark current and high bandwidth evanescent wave coupled PIN photodetector array for 400 Gbit/s receiving system." Acta Physica Sinica 70, no. 20 (2021): 208501. http://dx.doi.org/10.7498/aps.70.20210781.

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Compared with surface and edge incident photodetectors, evanescent coupling photodetector (ECPD) has high bandwidth and high quantum efficiency, so it has a broad application prospect in the field of high-speed optical communication. The evanescent wave coupled photodetector is composed of a diluted waveguide, a single-mode ridge waveguide and a PIN photodiode. By directional evanescent wave coupling, the coupling efficiency of the incident light from the fiber to the absorption core of the photodetector is improved. In this paper, the structure design, experimental preparation and test results of an indium phosphorus based evanescent wave coupled photodetector array are introduced in detail. The test results show that the dark current of the evanescent wave coupled photodetector array is as low as 215 pA and 1.23 pA under –3 and 0 V bias, respectively. When the active area is 5 μm × 20 μm, the device still has a high responsivity of 0.5 A/W (without antireflection film). The high frequency performance of the detector is tested. The bandwidth of each detector is more than 25 GHz, and the total bandwidth is more than 400 GHz. Any optical device can be integrated. The detector array can be applied to the WDM receiving system of 400 Gbit/s and coherent receiving system of 200 Gbit/s.

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2

Taylor, R. B., P. E. Burrows, and S. R. Forrest. "An integrated, crystalline organic waveguide-coupled InGaAs photodetector." IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 9, no. 3 (March 1997): 365–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/68.556075.

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3

Ly-Gagnon, Dany-Sebastien, Krishna C. Balram, Justin S. White, Pierre Wahl, Mark L. Brongersma, and David A. B. Miller. "Routing and photodetection in subwavelength plasmonic slot waveguides." Nanophotonics 1, no. 1 (July 1, 2012): 9–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2012-0002.

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AbstractThe ability to manipulate light at deeply sub-wavelength scales opens a broad range of research possibilities and practical applications. In this paper, we go beyond recent demonstrations of active photonic devices coupled to planar plasmonic waveguides and demonstrate a photodetector linked to a two conductor metallic slot waveguide that supports a mode with a minute cross-sectional area of ∼λ2/100. We demonstrate propagation lengths of ∼10λ (at 850 nm), routing around 90° bends and integrated detection with a metal-semiconductor-metal (MSM) photodetector. We show polarization selective excitation of the slot mode and measure its propagation characteristics by studying the Fabry-Perot oscillations in the photocurrent spectra from the waveguide-coupled detector. Our results demonstrate the practicality of transferring one of the most successful microwave and RF waveguide technologies to the optical domain, opening up many opportunities in areas such as biosensing, information storage and communication.

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4

Hsu, Shih-Hsiang. "Reflectively Coupled Waveguide Photodetector for High Speed Optical Interconnection." Sensors 10, no. 12 (December 2, 2010): 10863–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s101210863.

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5

Ding, Yunhong, Zhao Cheng, Xiaolong Zhu, Kresten Yvind, Jianji Dong, Michael Galili, Hao Hu, N. Asger Mortensen, Sanshui Xiao, and Leif Katsuo Oxenløwe. "Ultra-compact integrated graphene plasmonic photodetector with bandwidth above 110 GHz." Nanophotonics 9, no. 2 (February 25, 2020): 317–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2019-0167.

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AbstractGraphene-based photodetectors, taking advantage of the high carrier mobility and broadband absorption in graphene, have recently seen rapid development. However, their performance with respect to responsivity and bandwidth is still limited by the weak light-graphene interaction and large resistance-capacitance product. Here, we demonstrate a waveguide-coupled integrated graphene plasmonic photodetector on a silicon-on-insulator platform. Benefiting from plasmon-enhanced graphene-light interaction and subwavelength confinement of the optical energy, a small-footprint graphene-plasmonic photodetector is achieved working at the telecommunication window, with a large a bandwidth beyond 110 GHz and a high intrinsic responsivity of 360 mA/W. Attributed to the unique electronic band structure of graphene and its ultra-broadband absorption, operational wavelength range extending beyond mid-infrared, and possibly further, can be anticipated. Our results show that the combination of graphene with plasmonic devices has great potential to realize ultra-compact, high-speed optoelectronic devices for graphene-based optical interconnects.

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6

Li, Hongqiang, Sai Zhang, Zhen Zhang, Shasha Zuo, Shanshan Zhang, Yaqiang Sun, Ding Zhao, and Zanyun Zhang. "Silicon Waveguide Integrated with Germanium Photodetector for a Photonic-Integrated FBG Interrogator." Nanomaterials 10, no. 9 (August 27, 2020): 1683. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano10091683.

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We report a vertically coupled germanium (Ge) waveguide detector integrated on silicon-on-insulator waveguides and an optimized device structure through the analysis of the optical field distribution and absorption efficiency of the device. The photodetector we designed is manufactured by IMEC, and the tests show that the device has good performance. This study theoretically and experimentally explains the structure of Ge PIN and the effect of the photodetector (PD) waveguide parameters on the performance of the device. Simulation and optimization of waveguide detectors with different structures are carried out. The device’s structure, quantum efficiency, spectral response, response current, changes with incident light strength, and dark current of PIN-type Ge waveguide detector are calculated. The test results show that approximately 90% of the light is absorbed by a Ge waveguide with 20 μm Ge length and 500 nm Ge thickness. The quantum efficiency of the PD can reach 90.63%. Under the reverse bias of 1 V, 2 V and 3 V, the detector’s average responsiveness in C-band reached 1.02 A/W, 1.09 A/W and 1.16 A/W and the response time is 200 ns. The dark current is only 3.7 nA at the reverse bias voltage of −1 V. The proposed silicon-based Ge PIN PD is beneficial to the integration of the detector array for photonic integrated arrayed waveguide grating (AWG)-based fiber Bragg grating (FBG) interrogators.

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7

Liu, Shao-Qing, Xiao-Hong Yang, Yu Liu, Bin Li, and Qin Han. "Design and fabrication of a high-performance evanescently coupled waveguide photodetector." Chinese Physics B 22, no. 10 (October 2013): 108503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1674-1056/22/10/108503.

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8

Fujikata, Junichi, Masataka Noguchi, Riku Katamawari, Kyosuke Inaba, Hideki Ono, Daisuke Shimura, Yosuke Onawa, Hiroki Yaegashi, and Yasuhiko Ishikawa. "High-performance Ge/Si electro-absorption optical modulator up to 85°C and its highly efficient photodetector operation." Optics Express 31, no. 6 (March 9, 2023): 10732. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.484380.

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We studied a high-speed Ge/Si electro-absorption optical modulator (EAM) evanescently coupled with a Si waveguide of a lateral p–n junction for a high-bandwidth optical interconnect over a wide range of temperatures from 25 °C to 85 °C. We demonstrated 56 Gbps high-speed operation at temperatures up to 85 °C. From the photoluminescence spectra, we confirmed that the bandgap energy dependence on temperature is relatively small, which is consistent with the shift in the operation wavelengths with increasing temperature for a Ge/Si EAM. We also demonstrated that the same device operates as a high-speed and high-efficiency Ge photodetector with the Franz-Keldysh (F-K) and avalanche-multiplication effects. These results demonstrate that the Ge/Si stacked structure is promising for both high-performance optical modulators and photodetectors integrated on Si platforms.

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9

Harris, Nicholas C., Tom Baehr-Jones, Andy Eu-Jin Lim, T. Y. Liow, G. Q. Lo, and Michael Hochberg. "Noise Characterization of a Waveguide-Coupled MSM Photodetector Exceeding Unity Quantum Efficiency." Journal of Lightwave Technology 31, no. 1 (January 2013): 23–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jlt.2012.2227940.

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10

Kapser, K., and P. P. Deimel. "Enhanced polarization‐dependent coupling between an optical waveguide and a laterally coupled photodetector." Journal of Applied Physics 70, no. 1 (July 1991): 13–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.350327.

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11

Soole, J. B. D., H. Schumacher, H. P. LeBlanc, R. Bhat, and M. A. Koza. "Butt‐coupled InGaAs metal‐semiconductor‐metal waveguide photodetector formed by selective area regrowth." Applied Physics Letters 56, no. 16 (April 16, 1990): 1518–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.103161.

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12

Chen, H. T., J. Verbist, P. Verheyen, P. De Heyn, G. Lepage, J. De Coster, P. Absil, et al. "High sensitivity 10Gb/s Si photonic receiver based on a low-voltage waveguide-coupled Ge avalanche photodetector." Optics Express 23, no. 2 (January 13, 2015): 815. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.23.000815.

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13

Hu, Xiao, Dingyi Wu, Daigao Chen, Lei Wang, Xi Xiao, and Shaohua Yu. "180 Gbit/s Si₃N₄-waveguide coupled germanium photodetector with improved quantum efficiency." Optics Letters 46, no. 24 (December 13, 2021): 6019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ol.438962.

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14

Peczek, Anna, Stefan Lischke, Daniel Steckler, Jesse Morgan, Andreas Beling, and Lars Zimmermann. "Versatile Germanium Photodiodes with 3dB Bandwidths from 110 GHz to 265 GHz." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 32 (October 9, 2022): 1170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02321170mtgabs.

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We demonstrate waveguide coupled germanium fin photodiodes for C- and O-band applications. By scaling the germanium (Ge) fin widths record 3dB-bandwidths reaching from 110GHz to 265GHz are achieved. The intrinsic, undoped germanium fins of the photodiodes are sandwiched in between two complementary in situ-doped silicon regions, circumventing ion-implantation into Ge. This reduces the impact of minority carrier diffusion, which is beneficial for the bandwidth [1,2]. In silicon photonics, waveguide integrated germanium photodiodes are a key asset. However, until 2020 optoelectrical bandwidth of foundry manufactured germanium photodiodes remained substantially below the 100GHz benchmark, typical values ranging up to approximately 70GHz [3,4,5]. All of these devices rely on ion-implantation into silicon and/or germanium. Discrete devices in InP technology, on the other hand, achieved 170GHz bandwidth and 0.27A/W responsivity already several years ago [6]. Having such performance available in silicon technology has been a major motivation for our work. The most recent germanium fin photodiodes show a 3dB-bandwidths of 240GHz (with internal responsivity of 0.45A/W) and 265GHz (with internal responsivity of 0.3A/W) both at 1550nm wavelength and 1mA photocurrent at 2V reverse bias [2]. These devices have been fabricated in IHP’s BiCMOS pilot line on 200mm silicon-on-insulator (SOI) wafers. These novel photodiodes do not rely on ion-implantation, but instead the undoped germanium is contacted by in situ-doped silicon offshoot, thus minimizing minority carrier diffusion effects. This novel technology approach allowed us to match or even surpass the state-of-the-art of III-V devices. By scaling the width of the germanium region, different combinations of bandwidths and responsivities can be realized. Certainly, broader fins will yield higher responsivities but on the expense of 3dB-bandwidths. In this paper, we present for the first time the responsivity and bandwidth at 1310nm and 1550nm, as well as dark current and capacitance of the high-speed germanium fin photodiodes. Several aspects important for high performance photodiodes will be discussed: (1) Optoelectrical 3dB-bandwidths and responsivities for various germanium fin widths. (2) Improved power handling capability of the photodiode at 1310nm and 1550nm. (3) Temperature dependent electrical behaviour for photodiodes with various germanium fin widths. Figure 1 shows STEM cross-sections (cut perpendicular to the light-incidence direction) of the 70GHz Ge photodiode integrated at IHP EPIC platform (left) and a novel germanium-fin photodiode with 3dB-bandwidth of 265GHz (right). Two major changes, the transition from Ge-stripe to germanium fin and from ion-implantation to in situ-doped silicon offshoot, eventually lead to record 3dB-bandwidths. [1] Lischke, S. et al., "Ge photodiode with −3-dB OE bandwidth of 110 GHz for PIC and ePIC platforms", In Proc. 2020 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 7.3.1–7.3.4, 2020. [2] Lischke, S., et al., "Ultra-fast germanium photodiode with 3-dB bandwidth of 265 GHz", Nat. Photon. 15, 925–931, 2021. [3] Chen, H., et al., " −1-V bias 67-GHz bandwidth Si-contacted germanium waveguide p-i-n photodetector for optical links at 56 Gbps and beyond", Opt. Express 24, 4622–4631, 2016. [4] Boeuf, F., et al., "A silicon photonics technology for 400-Gbit/s applications", In Proc. 2019 IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting (IEDM) 33.1.1–33.1.4, 2019. [5] Lischke, S., et al., "High bandwidth, high responsivity waveguide-coupled germanium p-i-n photodiode", Optics express, vol. 23, no. 21, pp. 27213–27220, 2015. [6] Rouvalis, E., et al., "170-GHz uni-traveling carrier photodiodes for InP-based photonic integrated circuits", Opt. Express 20, 20090–20095, 2012. Figure 1

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15

Guangwei Yuan, R. Pownall, P. Nikkel, C. Thangaraj, T. W. Chen, and K. L. Lear. "Characterization of CMOS compatible waveguide-coupled leaky-mode photodetectors." IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 18, no. 15 (August 2006): 1657–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lpt.2006.879527.

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16

Agashe, S. S., Kuen-Ting Shiu, and S. R. Forrest. "Integratable High Linearity Compact Waveguide Coupled Tapered InGaAsP Photodetectors." IEEE Journal of Quantum Electronics 43, no. 7 (July 2007): 597–606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/jqe.2007.897927.

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17

Feng, Shaoqi, Yu Geng, Kei May Lau, and Andrew W. Poon. "Epitaxial III-V-on-silicon waveguide butt-coupled photodetectors." Optics Letters 37, no. 19 (September 21, 2012): 4035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ol.37.004035.

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18

Gould, Michael, Tom Baehr-Jones, Ran Ding, and Michael Hochberg. "Bandwidth enhancement of waveguide-coupled photodetectors with inductive gain peaking." Optics Express 20, no. 7 (March 13, 2012): 7101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.20.007101.

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19

Wright, Ewan M., Raymond J. Hawkins, and Robert J. Deri. "Coupled-mode theory of vertically integrated impedance-matched waveguide/photodetectors." Optics Communications 117, no. 1-2 (May 1995): 170–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0030-4018(95)00105-h.

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20

Lischke, S., A. Peczek, J. S. Morgan, K. Sun, D. Steckler, Y. Yamamoto, F. Korndörfer, et al. "Ultra-fast germanium photodiode with 3-dB bandwidth of 265 GHz." Nature Photonics 15, no. 12 (November 18, 2021): 925–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41566-021-00893-w.

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AbstractOn a scalable silicon technology platform, we demonstrate photodetectors matching or even surpassing state-of-the-art III–V devices. As key components in high-speed optoelectronics, photodetectors with bandwidths greater than 100 GHz have been a topic of intense research for several decades. Solely InP-based detectors could satisfy the highest performance specifications. Devices based on other materials, such as germanium-on-silicon devices, used to lag behind in speed, but enabled complex photonic integrated circuits and co-integration with silicon electronics. Here we demonstrate waveguide-coupled germanium photodiodes with optoelectrical 3-dB bandwidths of 265 GHz and 240 GHz at a photocurrent of 1 mA. This outstanding performance is achieved by a novel device concept in which a germanium fin is sandwiched between complementary in situ-doped silicon layers. Our photodetectors show internal responsivities of 0.3 A W−1 (265 GHz) and 0.45 A W−1 (240 GHz) at a wavelength of 1,550 nm. The internal bandwidth–efficiency product of the latter device is 86 GHz. Low dark currents of 100–200 nA are obtained from these ultra-fast photodetectors.

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21

Zhang, Xian, Xiaoyue Liu, Lin Liu, Ya Han, Heyun Tan, Liu Liu, Zhongjin Lin, Siyuan Yu, Ruijun Wang, and Xinlun Cai. "Heterogeneous integration of III–V semiconductor lasers on thin-film lithium niobite platform by wafer bonding." Applied Physics Letters 122, no. 8 (February 20, 2023): 081103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0142077.

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Thin-film lithium niobate (TFLN) photonic integrated circuits (PICs) have emerged as a promising integrated photonics platform for the optical communication, microwave photonics, and sensing applications. In recent years, rapid progress has been made on the development of low-loss TFLN waveguides, high-speed modulators, and various passive components. However, the integration of laser sources on the TFLN photonics platform is still one of the main hurdles in the path toward fully integrated TFLN PICs. Here, we present the heterogeneous integration of InP-based semiconductor lasers on a TFLN PIC. The III–V epitaxial layer stack is adhesively bonded to a TFLN waveguide circuit. In the laser device, the light is coupled from the III–V gain section to the TFLN waveguide via a multi-section spot size converter. A waveguide-coupled output power above 1 mW is achieved for the device operating at room temperature. This heterogeneous integration approach can also be used to realize on-chip photodetectors based on the same epitaxial layer stack and the same process flow, thereby enabling large-volume, low-cost manufacturing of fully integrated III–V-on-lithium niobate systems for next-generation high-capacity communication applications.

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22

Koch, T. L., P. J. Corvini, W. T. Tsang, U. Koren, and B. I. Miller. "Wavelength selective interlayer directionally grating‐coupled InP/InGaAsP waveguide photodetection." Applied Physics Letters 51, no. 14 (October 5, 1987): 1060–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.98791.

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23

Deri, R. J., R. J. Hawkins, and E. C. M. Pennings. "Quenching of resonantly enhanced absorption by multimode interference in vertically coupled waveguide photodetectors." Optics Letters 17, no. 9 (May 1, 1992): 667. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ol.17.000667.

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24

Mai, Christian, Steffen Marschmeyer, Anna Peczek, Aleksandra Kroh, Josmy Jose, Sebastian Reiter, Inga Fischer, Christian Wenger, and Andreas Mai. "Integration Aspects of Plasmonic TiN-based Nano-Hole-Arrays on Ge Photodetectorsin a 200mm Wafer CMOS Compatible Silicon Technology." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 32 (October 9, 2022): 1174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02321174mtgabs.

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During the last decade optical sensor technologies have attracted increased attention for various applications. Plasmon-based optical sensor concepts for the detection of refractive index changes that rely on propagating surface-plasmon polaritons at metal-dielectric interfaces or on localized plasmons in metallic nanostructures prove their potential for these application due to their fast detection speed, high specificity and sensitivities [1, 2]. Combining plasmonic structures directly with optoelectronic devices could enable a high level of integration, however, it represents a significant technological challenge to develop an on-chip solution for these concepts including the integration of sensor and detector components. Previous works demonstrated first approaches mainly for the integration of refractive index sensor components on wafer level [3, 4]. In [5] and [6] a proof-of-concept of a fully integrated on-chip solution with high sensitivities was presented, which can be easily combined with microfluidics [7] for potential applications in biosensing. In this concept, a nanohole array (NHA) was structured in a 100 nm thick aluminum layer on top of a vertical PIN germanium photodetector (GePD) with an intrinsic germanium sheet of 480 nm. This sensor concept relies on extraordinary optical transmission through the NHA [8]: Light transmission is only possible for narrow wavelength ranges determined by the NHA geometry which determine the transmission peaks at the resonance wavelength of the NHA. Thus, the NHA acts as a high quality wavelength filter. Due to the change in the refractive index, a material under test (MUT) contacting directly the surface of the NHA, provokes a shift of the wavelength maximum, which can be detected by measuring the photocurrent spectra of the GePD. While responsivities and sensitivities of (0 V) = 0.075 A/W and = 1200 nm/RIU could be attained in this proof-of-concept device [6, 7], the semiconductor device layers were deposited using molecular beam epitaxy (MBE). Furthermore the vertical PIN GePD was realized by a mesa procedure to enable large areas for top illuminated operations. These techniques are unsuitable for an industrial CMOS fabrication process with high throughput. Therefore, the development of a CMOS compatible technology process with low costs and high yields is an important step towards large-scale fabrication of this sensor concept. In this work we present the progress for the realization of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) refractive index sensor in a 200 mm wafer Silicon based technology. One main challenge is the fabrication of a large area photodetector for top illuminated sensor devices. We developed a process, which is mainly based on the IHP electronic photonic integrated circuits (ePIC) technology [9]. This ePIC technology enables the production of waveguide coupled lateral PIN GePDs with high bandwidth and high responsivities [10]. However, these PDs are unsuitable for top illuminated applications because of their small germanium areas. Due to certain process conditions with respect to chemical mechanical polishing procedures there are limits for feasible large detector areas. Furthermore, large detector areas for lateral PIN GePDs would result in very low electric fields in the intrinsic zone where carriers are generated by photon absorption. Thus, very high voltages for reversed bias are necessary for sufficient carrier drifts. For the first time we have developed a modern detector design concept which is compatible to the IHP ePIC technology. This concept allows the realization of large area detectors of 1600µm² (40µm x 40µm) with optimized optical responsivities for top illuminated applications. The detector consists of several parallel connected lateral PIN GePDs. We designed different variations and varied Ge width and distance between neighboring GePDs in order to investigate process limits. The p- and n-doped regions were defined by dopant implantation using a photo resist mask. We used a finger-like design as implantation masks to enable one contact area for each p-doped and each n-doped region (Fig. 1). This contacting approach differs from the standard GePD offered in the IHP ePIC technology. We analyzed I-V characteristics in dependence of detector design and contacting scheme (Fig. 2). In addition, process adjustments for the optimization of the germanium quality were investigated to reduce dark currents and to improve optical responsivities (Fig.3). Titanium nitride (TiN) is very promising metallic alloy with respect to thickness homogeneity and low surface roughness. Therefore we used titanium nitride which was deposited by a sputtering process to develop plasmonic active NHA layers. Various process development runs were done to evaluate the NHA performance. Ellipsometry and atomic force microscope measurements were performed to characterize the quality of the TiN layer (Fig.4). Figure 1

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25

Ding, Q., S. Sant, and A. Schenk. "Electrostatic impacts of plasmonic structure on the performance of monolithically integrated hybrid III-V/Si waveguide-coupled photodetectors." OSA Continuum 4, no. 3 (March 8, 2021): 953. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/osac.406277.

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26

Wang, J., W. Y. Loh, K. T. Chua, H. Zang, Y. Z. Xiong, S. M. F. Tan, M. B. Yu, S. J. Lee, G. Q. Lo, and D. L. Kwong. "Low-Voltage High-Speed (18 GHz/1 V) Evanescent-Coupled Thin-Film-Ge Lateral PIN Photodetectors Integrated on Si Waveguide." IEEE Photonics Technology Letters 20, no. 17 (September 2008): 1485–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lpt.2008.928087.

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27

Lv, Qian-Qian, Han Ye, Dong-Dong Yin, Xiao-Hong Yang, and Qin Han. "An Array Consisting of 10 High-Speed Side-Illuminated Evanescently Coupled Waveguide Photodetectors Each with a Bandwidth of 20 GHz." Chinese Physics Letters 32, no. 12 (December 2015): 128503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0256-307x/32/12/128503.

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28

Roelkens, G., D. Van Thourhout, R. Baets, R. Nötzel, and M. Smit. "Laser emission and photodetection in an InP/InGaAsP layer integrated on and coupled to a Silicon-on-Insulator waveguide circuit." Optics Express 14, no. 18 (2006): 8154. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/oe.14.008154.

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29

Barzaghi, Andrea, Virginia Falcone, Stefano Calcaterra, Raffaele Giani, Andrea Ballabio, Giovanni Isella, Daniel Chrastina, Michele Ortolani, Michele Virgilio, and Jacopo Frigerio. "Germanium Quantum Wells for Non-Linear Integrated Photonics." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 32 (October 9, 2022): 1176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02321176mtgabs.

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In recent years, mid-infrared integrated photonics has raised an increasing interest due to the envisioned applications in molecular sensing, environmental monitoring and security. The Silicon-on-insulator (SOI) based technology, operating at wavelengths λ < 3.2 μm has already reached a significant technology readiness level. By leveraging the maturity of the SOI technology and taking advantage of the high index contrast between Si and SiO2 many functionalities such as low loss waveguiding, modulation and frequency comb generation have already been demonstrated. However, the wavelength range is limited by the absorption of the SiO2 layer. Many material platforms, such as III-V semiconductors, halides and chalcogenides are under investigation to fill this gap. Of particular interest is the Ge-rich SiGe-on-Si material platform, thanks to its compatibility to already existing foundry processes and its wide transparency at the wavelengths of interest. Nevertheless, key functionalities such as wavelength conversion, photodetection and high-speed modulation are still missing. A viable way to achieve such advanced functionalities is the exploitation of intersubband transitions (ISBTs) in hole-doped Ge/SiGe quantum wells (QWs). In particular, ISBTs in can be leveraged to engineer an artificial second-order optical nonlinearity in group IV materials, where it is normally absent for symmetry reasons. In this work, we exploit ISBTs in asymmetric coupled Ge/SiGe (ACQWs) (see Fig.1) to achieve highly efficient second harmonic generation at mid-infrared frequencies. The ACQW has been designed with an advanced semi-empirical first neighbor sp3d5s* tight-binding model, which has been used to calculate the second-order nonlinear susceptibility χ(2) (see fig 1b). The ACQW has been then grown by Low-Energy Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (LEPECVD) and structurally characterized by x-ray diffraction (XRD) and high-resolution scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) . For the optical measurements, samples were cut in a 2 mm single-pass surface-plasmon waveguide with the side facets shaped to 70° with respect to the growth plane and the top facet close to the ACQWs region coated by a Ti/Au layer. Then the samples (cooled at 10 K) have been pumped with a CW quantum cascade laser emitting at λ =10.3 μm. The light coming out from the samples have been then filtered and collected by an MCT detector. The second harmonic emission has been recorded as a function of the input power (see fig. 1c) and a c(2) = 6x104 pm/V has been extracted from the measurement, a two orders of magnitude improvement with respect to the best nonlinear crystals. Finally, the possibility to integrate ACQWs in waveguides has been theoretically investigated. Since artificial nonlinearities based on ISBTs involve real quantum states, as opposite to the virtual quantum states employed in standard nonlinear crystals, significative optical absorption at the pump and at the second harmonic wavelengths must be considered. Therefore, the length of the ACQW waveguide must be carefully designed in order to limit the optical losses. By solving the coupled wave equations with optical absorption at the pump and second harmonic wavelengths, we show that high conversion efficiencies around ≈ 10% can be achieved with waveguide integrated ACQWs for an optimal waveguide length of a ≈200 μm. The integration scheme, shown in fig 2a, consists in a stack of ACQW integrated in a waveguide containing a periodic corrugation, which is necessary to achieve quasi-phase matching between the pump and the second harmonic. Input and output coupling of the light is achieved through adiabatic tapers by integrating the ACQW stack on a Si0.3Ge0.7 waveguide, where the light is injected and from which it is collected and measured. The pump and the second harmonic mode are fairly overlapped in the ACQW region, as shown in fig 2b and 2c, where the distribution of the first TM mode has been simulated using the Lumerical software package. In conclusion, Ge/SiGe ACQW are very promising to expand the functionalities available in MIR integrated photonic circuits, especially in the important spectral region up to 10 μm. In particular, the experimental data obtained from the material characterization, as well as the preliminary studies of waveguide integration show that Ge/SiGe ACQW has the potential to realize highly efficient integrated wavelength converters. Acknowledgments: This work has been supported by Fondazione Cariplo, grant n° 2020-4427. Figure 1

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30

Wang, J., W. Y. Loh, K. T. Chua, H. Zang, Y. Z. Xiong, T. H. Loh, M. B. Yu, S. J. Lee, Guo-Qiang Lo, and D. L. Kwong. "Evanescent-Coupled Ge p-i-n Photodetectors on Si-Waveguide With SEG-Ge and Comparative Study of Lateral and Vertical p-i-n Configurations." IEEE Electron Device Letters 29, no. 5 (May 2008): 445–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/led.2008.920277.

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31

Zhao, Hanru, Meixin Feng, Jianxun Liu, Xiujian Sun, Tao Tao, Qian Sun, and Hui Yang. "Unidirectional emission of GaN-on-Si microring laser and its on-chip integration." Nanophotonics, January 3, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2022-0577.

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Abstract GaN-based microring lasers grown on Si are promising candidates for compact and efficient light sources in Si-based optoelectronic integration and optical interconnect due to their small footprints, low mode volume, low power consumption, and high modulation rate. However, the high symmetry of circular microcavity leads to isotropic emission, which not only reduces the light collection efficiency, but also affects other adjacent devices during data transmission. In this study, the unidirectional lasing emission of room-temperature current-injected GaN-based microring laser was realized by coating metal Ag on the microring sidewall and integrating a direct coupled waveguide. The light was efficaciously confined in the cavity and only emitted from the waveguide, which avoided optical signal crosstalk with other adjacent devices. Furthermore, we integrated a microdisk at the other end of the waveguide as a photodetector, which could effectively detect the output power of the microring laser from the direct coupled waveguide. Therefore, a preliminary on-chip integration of GaN-based microring laser, waveguide and photodetector on Si substrate was successfully demonstrated for the first time, opening up a new way for on-chip integration and optical interconnect on a GaN-on-Si platform.

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32

Pang, Yaqing, zhi Liu, Yupeng Zhu, Xiangquan Liu, Diandian Zhang, Chaoqun Niu, Mingming Li, Jun Zheng, Yuhua Zuo, and Buwen Cheng. "High-performance waveguide-coupled lateral Ge/Si avalanche photodetector." Optics Letters, August 5, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/ol.466206.

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33

Edelstein, Shahar, S. R. K. Chaitanya Indukuri, Noa Mazurski, and Uriel Levy. "Waveguide-integrated mid-IR photodetector and all-optical modulator based on interlayer excitons absorption in a WS₂/HfS₂ heterostructure." Nanophotonics, August 22, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/nanoph-2022-0203.

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Abstract Novel 2D van der Waals semiconductors facilitate the formation of heterostructures and thus support bandgap engineering for atomically thin modern photonic applications. When these heterostructures form a type II band structure, interlayer excitons (ILEs) are formed as a result of the ultrafast charge transfer between the layers. Here, we present for the first time a waveguide-coupled, mid-IR photodetector and modulator based on the ILE absorption. The device consists of a heterostructure of a single layer of tungsten disulfide (WS2) and a few layers of hafnium disulfide (HfS2) integrated to a silicon waveguide on a sapphire substrate. We measure broadband mid-IR photodetection (3.8–5.5 µm) with responsivity in the order of tens of µA/W and with no significant effect on the waveguide’s transmission. Additionally, we demonstrate waveguide-integrated, mid-IR, all-optical modulation by controlling the ILE population with the interband transition of the individual layers of the heterostructure.

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34

Ohashi, Keishi, and Junichi Fujikata. "Photodetector Using Surface-Plasmon Antenna for Optical Interconnect." MRS Proceedings 1145 (2008). http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/proc-1145-mm01-05.

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AbstractWe used a surface-plasmon antenna to obtain small photodetectors for LSI on-chip optical interconnection by using near-field light generated by the antenna. Such near-field devices are not constrained by the diffraction limit and they offer an approach to integrated nanoscale photonic devices. A small semiconductor structure is located near the antenna to absorb the near-field light. This structure can be made as small as the Schottky depletion layer, so the separation between electrodes can be reduced to almost the size of the near-field region. We have demonstrated a “Si nano-photodiode” or plasmon photodiode that uses the near-field localized in a subwavelength region, which is usually relatively large in size because of the long absorption length for Si (˜10 μm at a wavelength of ˜800 nm). The Si nano-photodiode has a fast impulse response with a full-width at half-maximum of ˜20 ps even when the bias voltage is small (˜1 V or less). We demonstrated an on-chip optical interconnect chip to operate circuitry in an LSI chip by using waveguide-coupled Si nano-photodiodes.

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35

Wang, W., S. Lee, A. Jen, P. Reinhall, and D. Nuckley. "Development of an Electro-Optic Scanner for Potential Endoscope Application." Journal of Medical Devices 3, no. 2 (June 1, 2009). http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3136846.

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Technological advancements in endoscopy design are in current development due to the increased demand for minimally invasive medical procedures. One such advancement is reducing the overall size of the endoscope system while maintaining the resolution and field-of-view (FOV). Reduction of size results in less tissue damage and trauma during operation as well as faster recovery times for patients. Additionally, areas that are inaccessible by today's endoscope designs will be possible to examine. Current endoscopes use either a bundle of optical fibers (optical waveguides) and/or one or more cameras having an array of detectors to capture an image. Thus, the diameter of these devices employed for remote imaging cannot be reduced to smaller than the image size. Even if one ignores additional optical fibers used for illumination of a region of interest, the scope diameter is therefore limited by the individual pixel size of a camera or by the diameter of optical fibers used to acquire the image. Therefore, it is apparent to achieve scopes with less than 3 mm overall diameter using current technologies, resolution and/or FOV must be sacrificed by having fewer pixel elements. All commercially available scopes suffer from this fundamental tradeoff between high image quality and small size. More recently, our research has been working on developing a 2-D electro-optic scanner potentially be implemented for clinical endoscopic imaging application. The proposed optical device has several unique advantages. Electro-optical scanning offers a sensitive, facile, accurate, and superb quality method to capture images of physical and biological tissues. In addition, the minute physical size of the imaging system has a much needed advantage over conventional imaging systems. The proposed design is based on the fact that the propagation direction of a light beam can be changed when the index of refraction of an electro-optic medium is altered by the application of an external electric field. The basic design of the system consists of a thin film electro-optic polymer waveguide with built-in cascaded prisms structure for horizontal beam deflection and an electro-optic grating structure for vertical beam deflection. The cascaded prisms are combined with the electro-optic polymer to create a voltage-controlled horizontal beam deflection. A grating coupler, a structure that is commonly used as light coupling device for dielectric waveguide, is combined with the EO polymer to create the vertical controlled beam deflection. A collimated light beam coupled into the waveguide by a mechanical coupler via an optical fiber cascaded down these two deflection stages. When the beam exits, the emitted light beam is displaced along two orthogonal directions in a raster pattern. A photodetector array integrated in the same substrate captured the reflected intensity. The scanned imaged is then analyzed and reconstruct based on the received signal.

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36

Rezaie, Farnood K., Chris J. Fredericksen, Walter R. Buchwald, Justin W. Cleary, Evan M. Smith, Imen Rezadad, Janardan Nath, et al. "Planar integrated plasmonic mid-IR spectrometer." MRS Proceedings 1510 (2013). http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/opl.2013.355.

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ABSTRACTA compact spectrometer-on-a-chip featuring a plasmonic molecular interaction region has been conceived, designed, modeled, and partially fabricated. The silicon-on-insulator (SOI) system is the chosen platform for the integration. The low loss of both silicon and SiO2 between 3 and 4 μm wavelengths enables silicon waveguides on SiO2 as the basis for molecular sensors at these wavelengths. Important characteristic molecular vibrations occur in this range, namely the bond stretching modes C-H (Alkynes), O-H (monomeric alcohols, phenols) and N-H (Amines), as well as CO double bonds, NH2, and CN. The device consists of a broad-band infrared LED, photonic waveguides, photon-to-plasmon transformers, a molecular interaction region, dispersive structures, and detectors. Photonic waveguide modes are adiabatically converted into SPPs on a neighboring metal surface by a tapered waveguide. The plasmonic interaction region enhances optical intensity, which allows a reduction of the overall device size without a reduction of the interaction length, in comparison to ordinary optical methods. After the SPPs propagate through the interaction region, they are converted back into photonic waveguide modes by a second taper. The dispersing region consists of a series of micro-ring resonators with photodetectors coupled to each resonator. Design parameters were optimized via electro-dynamic simulations. Fabrication was performed using a combination of photo- and electron-beam-lithography together with standard silicon processing techniques.

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37

Xue, Ying, Yu Han, Yi Wang, Jie LI, Jingyi Wang, Zunyue Zhang, Xinlun Cai, Hon Tsang, and Kei May Lau. "High speed and low dark current Si-waveguide coupled III-V photodetectors selectively grown on SOI." Optica, September 26, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/optica.468129.

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