Дисертації з теми "Urban water resources"

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning and Dept. of Civil Engineering, 1987.
Bibliography: leaves 169-170.
by Francisco Javier Martin Carrasco.
M.C.P.

Since the end of federal funds from the Water Resources Planning Act of 1964, it has been largely the responsibility of the states to plan for their water resources. This study will report on the current status of state water planning, suggest some variables that may have an influence on a state's decision to prepare a state water plan, and test the variables through statistical analysis. Some of the variables that are suggested as having some influence on state water planning are precipitation, population density, large metropolitan areas, median per capita income (as a measure of state affluence), and percent of land irrigated. Among these, it is only precipitation that has a clearly significant correlation to the preparation of a state water plan. It is concluded that no single variable is an accurate predictor of state behavior, but that a combination of variables act together to influence state behavior.

From the Proceedings of the 1989 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association and the Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science - April 15, 1989, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, Nevada
Bottom sediments from several urban lakes located in the Phoenix metropolitan area were collected and analyzed for organic priority pollutants. The lakes selected for analysis were broadly representative of the diversity of lake characteristics found in the Phoenix area. That is, lakes were sampled that had different types of primary water sources and that were located in watersheds of differing degrees of urbanization. Preliminary results indicate that only nine of the 114 listed organic priority pollutants were found in measurable quantities in the sediments of the lakes surveyed. The pollutants detected were either phthalate esters or volatile or semi-volatile halogenated compounds. None of the pollutants were common to all the lakes sampled. Dibutyl phthalate was detected in three of the six lakes. A larger database is being developed and will be necessary to determine whether a statistical correlation exists between watershed characteristics and feedwater, and organic composition of lake sediments.

Physically decentralised water management systems may contribute to improving the sustainability of urban water management. Any shift toward decentralised systems needs to consider not just physical system design but also social values, knowledge frames, and organisations, and their interconnections to the physical technology. Four cases of recent Australian urban water management improvement projects were researched using qualitative methods. Three cases were of decentralised water management innovation. The other was of a centralised system, although decentralised options had been considered. These cases were studied to identify institutional barriers and enablers for the uptake of decentralised systems, and to better understand how emerging environmental engineering knowledge might be applied to overcome an implementation gap for decentralised urban water technologies. Analysis of each case focused on the institutional elements of urban water management, namely: the values, knowledge frames and organisational structures. These elements were identified through in-depth interviews, document review, and an on-line survey. The alignment of these elements was identified as being a significant contributor to the stability of centralised systems, or to change toward decentralised systems. A new organisational home for innovative knowledge was found to be common to each case where decentralised innovation occurred. ??Institutional entrepreneurs??, strong stakeholder engagement, and inter-organisational networks were all found to be linked to the creation of shared meaning and legitimacy for organisational and technological change. Existing planning frameworks focus on expert justification for change rather than institutional support for change. Institutional factors include shared understandings, values and organisational frameworks, and the alignment of each factor. Principles for, and examples of, appropriate organisational design for enabling and managing decentralised technological innovation for urban water management are proposed. This research contributes to the understanding of the institutional basis and dynamics of urban water management, particularly in relation to physical centralisation and decentralisation of urban water management technologies and, to a lesser extent, in relation to user involvement in urban water management. Understanding of factors that contribute to enabling and constraining decentralised technologies is extended to include institutional and organisational factors. New and practical pathways for change for the implementation of decentralised urban water systems are provided.

From the Proceedings of the 1987 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association, Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science and the Arizona Hydrological Society - April 18, 1987, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, Arizona

From the Proceedings of the 1988 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association and the Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science - April 16, 1988, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona
A preliminary survey of several urban lakes in the Phoenix metropolitan area was undertaken to assess the degree of accumulation of priority pollutant metals and petroleum -based hydrocarbons in these impoundments. Three sediment samples were collected from each lake along a transect (from a probable point of stormwater addition to the opposite shore), and were composited on an equal weight basis prior to analysis. Total petroleum hydrocarbon concentrations ranged from 30 to 8000 mg /kg dry weight. The concentration ranges (mg /kg dry weight) of total metals were: arsenic 7-26, copper 25-2800, chromium 14-55, nickel 5-40, lead < 1-138, selenium < 0.5-1.1, and zinc 33-239. Silver and cadmium were undetectable (< 5.0 and < 0.5 mg /kg, respectively). Factors that may be associated with the magnitude of accumulation in urban lakes include lake age, primary source of influent, reception of stormwater runoff, mechanical aeration of the water, and direct chemical addition.

Khartoum State in Sudan is subject to the erratic and intense rainfall during the short rainy season and dryness and heat throughout the rest of the year. High intensity rainstorms with a short duration have become more frequent in the area during the last two decades resulting in cities inundation and flash floods in the rural parts. On the other hand, the dry season means hot weather in the urban parts and water shortage in the rural part. Rural areas are dependent on the runoff water brought about by the seasonal streams as a source of water. For this study, Khartoum City Center and Seleit area were taken to investigate the application of water harvesting in the urban and rural areas, respectively. Accordingly, the hydrological characteristics and the specification of the potential water harvesting sites and systems were examined. For Khartoum City Center, characteristics of the drainage system were examined using ArcGIS platform. It is found that the drainage system covers 42% of the area with total capacity of 24000 m3. Daily rainfall data for urban meteorological station were used to calculate the probability and the return period of the rainfall, as well as the potential runoff. Rainfall probability of occurrence was calculated applying Gumbel distribution method for extreme events that were arranged according to the Peak-over-Threshold method. The potential runoff that could be generated from a certain rainfall was calculated using the Natural Resources Conservation Services method provided by the United States Department of Agriculture (US-NRCS). Accordingly, the curve number was calculated depending on the land use/land cover and the hydrological soil group. Consequently, the weighted curve number is found to be 94%, indicating dominant imperviousness. 13.1 mm rainfall depth produces runoff volume equal to the drainage system capacity with return period of one year; whereas more than four folds the drainage system capacity is produced by 30 mm rainfall depth that is considered the threshold for raising flood hazard. Six potential sites for roof rainwater harvesting were selected. Accordingly, it is found that, the application of roof water harvesting in 18% and 72% of the commercial and business district buildings can accommodate the runoff resulting from the 13.1 and 30 mm rainfall depth, respectively. Hence, impounding rainstorm water would help managing the urban runoff water, and consequently, the stored water could be used for making more green areas that will enhance the urban environment. Three watersheds of ephemeral streams (wadi), namely Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit, and Wadi El Kabbashi make up Seleit area. Distinct maps were prepared in ArcMap for the calculation of the potential runoff and the specification of the appropriate water harvesting sites and systems. The Wadis watersheds areas are found to be 540, 344 and 42 km2 for Wadi El Kangar, Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kabbashi, respectively. Daily rainfall data of rural meteorological station were classified into three groups representing the soil dry (AMCI), moderate (AMCII), and wet (AMCIII) moisture conditions; the respective CNI, CNII, and CNIII values were calculated accordingly. The weighted CN values indicate high runoff potential within the three soil moisture conditions. Accordingly, the rainfall thresholds for runoff generation for AMCI, AMCII and AMCIII conditions are found to be respectively 18.3 mm, 9.1 mm and 4.4 mm for Wadi El Kabbashi and 22 mm, 11 mm and 5 mm for both Wadi El Seleit and Wadi El Kangar. El Kangar dam subwatershed was used for calibrating the potential runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Since the Wadis are ungauged, Google Earth and GIS platforms were used to calculate geometrically the volume of the dam reservoir water for three years. This volume was compared to the annual runoff calculated by the NRCS method. Consideration to different factors was made to locate the potential water harvesting sites. Accordingly, water harvesting systems for fodder and crop plantation; sand storage surface or subsurface dams; or groundwater recharge, were specified. The socio-economic study revealed that the financial capacity, if any, of the villagers is very limited. Thus, the financial source for the construction of the suggested potential water harvesting or the rehabilitation of the existing ones is questionable. Hence, other potential financial sources are needed to help executing water harvesting projects in the region, e.g. Khartoum State Government. Applying water harvesting in Seleit area is found to be promising. Improving the livelihood of the villagers by applying runoff water harvesting could assure better water accessibility, better income generation from farms production, and allocation of time for other activities, e.g. education. This would be reflected in reduced migration to nearby cities and stabilized market supply of agricultural and animal products. Therefore, the development of the rural part is of great benefit to the development of Khartoum State, as long as the interdependency and mutual benefit between the rural and urban areas, represented by the local food and labor market, remain exist.

Urban developments directly modify significant areas of the earth's surface. This modification greatly affects the components of the hydrological cycle and consequently the process of erosion and sedimentation. The removal of vegetation and the increase in impervious cover leads to a decrease in infiltration and hence an increase in surface runoff The urban population acts as a driving force which changes the landscape and the hydrological cycle of the area, while increasing the demand for natural and water related environments. For the population living in the immediate vicinity, these environments provide a recreational facility, a refuge for wild life and also open space and vegetation to mitigate air and noise pollution. Therefore planners and engineers should adopt less artificial measures to arrest the deterioration of urban streams and their corridors. In this context natural urban waterway design is finding increasing favour with the engineering profession, the public, and planners. The Natural Urban Waterway Design method aims to design a stable channel which looks natural, consisting of meanders, pools and riffles ·with bank stability provided by suitable riparian vegetation which also provides diverse habitats for flora and fauna. The regime relationships originally developed for irrigation channels in India have been shown to be suitable for application to natural streams. These empirical relationships are not universal, because their applicability depends on the climatic, geologic and vegetation characteristics of the catchment, and must be calibrated so as to account for the catchment geological and hydrological characteristics before using them in a design method. Two creeks within the Brisbane City Council area, Australia, were selected as part of the study. Both streams have fairly stable natural cross-sections and are located within catchments whose degree of urbanisation is quite low. Historical information was available for these creeks in the form of aerial photographs. The detailed crosssections and flood frequency information which was used were the result of recent flood studies undertaken by the Brisbane City Council, Australia. In this study regime type relationships for mobile sand bed and gravel bed streams in a sub-tropical humid type climate are derived. The variations of hydraulic characteristics such as width, depth, area, slope and velocity with bankfull discharge are compared with the regime relationships presented in the published literature. The gravel bed stream data showed good agreement with the published literature for gravel bed streams. The sand bed stream, on the otherhand, showed similar slopes to the trend lines for sand bed streams, but the data occupies a much higher position than the published studies for such beds. The difference in position is discussed. Bankfull discharges and their probabilities of occurrence were derived for these creeks. It is found that the sand bed stream has a lower average recurrence interval of bankfull discharge compared to the gravel bed stream. The effect of bank vegetation on the channel parameters is also discussed. In this study regime equations were calibrated to account for the geological, hydrological and vegetational characteristics of the streams. The results demonstrates the viability of using the regime relationships for the prediction of stable channel properties for natural urban waterway design. Useful recommendations that can be used in the design of such streams are also provided in the conclusions.

From the Proceedings of the 1985 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Association and the Hydrology Section - Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science - April 27, 1985, Las Vegas, Nevada
Hydrologic and hydraulic design procedures developed by the Pima County Department of Transportation and Flood Control District were proposed for use by the Department of Transportation, Engineering Division of the City of Tucson, Arizona. These procedures were evaluated with respect to their reasonableness of approach and in comparison with other methods and existing data used to derive similar methodology and standards. The proposed criteria/methodology were found to be consistent with procedures used in other cities in the Southwest, and with the current state of the art in urban hydrology and hydraulic engineering practices and procedures. However, locally derived rainfall intensity -duration relationships were found to be superior to regionally based relationships, and minor modifications were suggested for channel design procedures.

Stream and watershed restoration projects have become increasingly common throughout the U.S., and the need for systematic post-project monitoring and assessment is apparent. This study describes three stream and watershed ecological restoration projects and the monitoring and evaluation methods employed or planned to evaluate project successes or failures. The stream and watershed restoration and evaluation methods described in this paper may be applicable to projects of similar types and scales. Rivers and streams serve a variety of purposes, including water supply, wildlife habitat, energy generation, transportation and recreational opportunities. Streams are dynamic, complex systems that not only include the active channel, but also adjacent floodplains and riparian vegetation along their margins. A natural stream system remains stable while transporting varying amounts of streamflow and sediment produced in its watershed, maintaining a state of “dynamic equilibrium.” (Strahler 1957, Hack 1960). When in-stream flow, floodplain morphology, sediment characteristics, or riparian vegetation are altered, this can affect the dynamic equilibrium that exists among these stream features, causing unstable stream and floodplain conditions. This can cause the stream to adjust to a new equilibrium state. This shift may occur over a long time and result in significant changes to water quality and stream habitat. Land-use changes in a watershed, stream channelization, installation of culverts, removal or alteration of streambank vegetation, water impoundments and other activities can dramatically alter ecological balance. As a result, large adjustments in channel morphology, such as excessive bank erosion and/or channel incision, can occur. A new equilibrium may eventually be reached, but not before the associated aquatic and terrestrial environment are severely impaired. Stream restoration is the re-establishment of the general structure, function and self-sustaining characteristics of stream systems that existed prior to disturbance (Doll et al. 2003). It is a holistic approach that requires an understanding of all physical and biological processes in the stream system and its watershed. Restoration can include a broad range of activities, such as the removal or discontinuation of watershed disturbances that are contributing to stream instability; installation of control structures; planting of riparian vegetation to improve streambank stability and provide habitat; and the redesign of unstable or degraded streams into properly functioning channels and associated floodplains. Kauffman et al. (1997) define ecological restoration as the reestablishment of physical, chemical and biological processes and associated linkages which have been damaged by human actions.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 2000.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 35-37).
Internationally, analysts have increased their technical sophistication and geographical scope of water issues and water-management policies. They have determined the impacts of water quality and demand upon ecological systems, and they have framed policies for the management of watersheds. I examine a subset of these issues in relation to the Hong Kong-Guangdong region as part of a Hong-Kong/Pearl River Delta studio in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning. The study site is a basin, and, as such, it is comprised of a number of catchments. The water sources are mainly in the Guangdong region, while the water demand is spread across the region. This leads to an imbalance in water supply and demand and to the need for a cross-agency, cross-border integrated approach, with joint consideration by all governmental units of environmental, land-use, and water issues. I focus on three important issues: (1) governance of water allocation, (2) environmental pollution, and (3) cross-border management. I make the following two key recommendations for coordinated action: * Hong Kong should consider providing funding for investments in wastewater treatment in the Pearl River Delta. Hong Kong has invested substantially in its own wastewater treatment systems. Well-structured expenditure on wastewater treatment in the Pearl River Delta will have a much greater impact on water quality than a similar level of expenditure aimed at further improving Hong Kong's extensive system of wastewater treatment. " To solve the complex environmental problems, the Hong Kong government should consider cooperating with local governments in the Pearl River Delta, and not just the provincial government. As a first step to improving the effectiveness of the Environmental Protection Liaison Group, local environmental bureaus should be represented.
by Mark D. Bailey.
M.C.P.

The municipal and public officials in Beaufort/Jasper, South Carolina (SC) and Effingham/Chatham, Georgia (GA) counties in the lower Savannah River Basin (LSRB) are faced with a dilemma of supplying potable water on an equitable basis to their communities from the surface and groundwater that has been partially polluted and/or is not sustainable. State regulatory agencies have implemented strategies to protect the regional water resources from further degradation of ecosystems, but these remedies are not addressing a crucial issue. The potable water issue is more critical than simply affecting to protect the local ecosystem. Hence, the thesis question is:

Can current strategies, by the South Carolina Department of Health and Environmental Control (SCDHEC) and the Georgia Environmental Division (GAEPD), secure potable water sources from the lower Savannah River Basin in the region, potentially provide effective, efficient, and equitable results?

Economic development and demographic changes have equally impacted the surface and groundwater. Groundwater was the primary source of potable water in predevelopment (prior to industrial revolution) and even post development era, but gradually became unsustainable. The alternative surface water source has also been polluted by the industrial and domestic wastewater treatment plant discharges. Surface water contains natural organic compounds, and even that has been overwhelmed by the added pollutants in wastewater treatment plant effluent. This has further increased formation of potential carcinogenic disinfection and disinfection byproducts in potable water. The carcinogen removal process has become expensive, but the potential risk for contamination remains problematic.

To answer the research question, interviews and surveys were conducted. The population for this research consists of municipal and public officials and water treatment professionals. The samples were selected due to their expertise and responsibility to supply safe drinking water to their communities. Collected data analyzed using Microsfot Excel to arrange in matrixes, and explained in simple narratives. The results were summarized and recommendations were made.

Most of the subjects agreed that water resources are not sustainable at current usage rate in the region. Groundwater is not sustainable and surface water quality has deteriorated due to organic pollutants in the industrial and domestic wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents. The cost of producing safe drinking water from partially or potentially polluted surface water is higher than the cost of processing groundwater. The cost of desalination of seawater or brackish well water is even higher than ground or surface water treatment.

Seawater desalination is not a cost effective option now. However, conflicting interests regarding the switch over to seawater desalination as long as surface water treatment operating cost remains lower than the seawater desalination, surface water will remain a sustainable source.

Although seawater desalination is a more sustainable strategy to produce potable water in the Low Country Region. Surface water treatment is less expensive and in turn, local professionals view it as the best option. This I believe is a limited short term viewpoint, which does not address longterm sustainability issues. Efforts regulatory agencies and utilities, to produce safe drinking water from surface water will continue in the Lower Savannah River Basin (LSRB).

Redevelopment of the Granite Run Mall, a nearly 100% impervious 34 ha site in Media, Pennsylvania, required upgrading the site’s 40-year old stormwater control measures (SCMs) to comply with local modern ordinances. With its headwaters adjacent to the site, Chrome Run has received the mall’s stormwater runoff for decades with deleterious effects on all levels of stream functions. Thus, the mall’s redevelopment was an ideal opportunity to examine the effectiveness of current stormwater practices and validate the approach of focusing SCM implementation in headwaters. Specifically the study aimed to determine if the damage to the receiving waters could be reversed by conducting a 3 year long Before-After-Control-Impact study. To these ends in the summer of 2016, a rigorous monitoring program was established in Chrome Run along with three control streams. Areas of investigation included hydrology, hydraulics, geomorphology, biology, and numerous physicochemical parameters. This thesis details the materials and methods employed in addition to an analysis of the pre-redevelopment data to establish the baseline conditions along Chrome Run and quantify the stream’s impairment.

Potential impacts of climate change on the water resources of the Pacific Northwest of the United States include earlier peak runoff, reduced summer flows, and increased winter flooding. An increase in impervious surfaces, accompanied by urban development, is known to decrease infiltration and increase surface runoff. Alterations of flow amount and pathways can alter water quality through dilution or flushing effects. I used the United States Environmental Protection Agency's Better Assessment Science Integrating Point and Nonpoint Sources (BASINS) modeling system to investigate the relative importance of future climate change and land use change in determining the quantity and quality of freshwater resources in north western Oregon's Tualatin River Basin. The basin was chosen for this study because it is rapidly urbanizing and representative of other low-elevation basins in the region. BASINS models were calibrated and validated using historic flow and water quality data from 1991 to 2006. The goodness-of-fit for the calibrated hydrology, suspended sediment, and orthophosphate models was high, with coefficients of determination ranging from 0.72 to 0.93 in the calibration period. The calibrated models were run under a range of eight downscaled climate change, two regional land use change, and four combined scenarios. Results included average increases in winter flows of ten percent, decreases in summer flows of thirty-seven percent, and increases in fifth percentile flows of up to eighty percent as a result of climate change in the Tualatin River Basin. For land use change, the results included an increase in annual flows of twenty-one percent for the development-oriented scenario and a decrease of sixteen percent for the conservation-oriented scenario, with amplified changes at the sub-basin scale, including more than doubled winter flow. For combined scenarios of climate change and urban development, there is a projected increase in winter flows of up to seventy-one percent and decrease in summer flows of up to forty-eight percent. Changes in suspended sediment and orthophosphate loading broadly tracked hydrological changes, with winter increases and summer decreases. The results are relevant to regional planners interested in the long-term response of water resources to climate change and land use change at the basin scale.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 1992.
Title as it appears in the June 1990 MIT Graduate List: A case for a "watershed approach" to water resources management.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 157-161).
by Judith L. Boshoven.
M.C.P.

By the dawn of the twenty-first century the City of Atlanta was facing a crisis of water quantity and water quality. It was involved in two-decades worth of litigation with the states of Alabama and Florida over access to surface waters that originate within Georgia, a legal dispute that threatened to severely reduce the city’ ability to provide water to its growing metropolitan population. In addition, city officials were in the beginning stages of a four-billion dollar, court-ordered program of improvements to its wastewater infrastructure that was intended to reduce the amount of pollution that spewed into its local rivers and streams. This dissertation examines the origins of these water-related problems by exploring the challenges that Atlanta’s public officials, engineers, and activists faced in planning and implementing an effective environmental policy, with particular emphasis placed on the era of post-World War II metropolitan development. Specifically, it focuses on the city’s historical efforts to achieve the comprehensive management of the area’s water resources, the technological systems adopted and solutions proposed, and the political and social milieu that facilitated or hampered these endeavors. Comprehensive water resources management was a neglected and delayed policy approach that was undertaken in the City of Atlanta only after overt threats of federal intervention. This study argues that although the area’s mid-century regional planners advocated for intergovernmental cooperation in order to manage Atlanta’s limited water supplies, their recommendations were undermined by fragmented local governance, timid political leadership, and public indifference. It further suggests that Atlanta’s water supply managers, through increases in the scale and scope of their operations and a reluctance to increase customer rates, facilitated and encouraged greater water consumption, which, in turn, placed intense burdens on both the natural hydraulic cycle and the city’s wastewater facilities. Lastly, it argues the citizen activists as well as state and federal regulators have utilized the federal court system as a blunt planning instrument when Atlanta’s leaders displayed their seeming incapacity to handle the environmental strains of uncoordinated metropolitan development.

A ocupação desordenada e o grande percentual de superfície impermeabilizada em áreas urbanas, agravando os eventos extremos, é um dos problemas mais discutidos no meio técnico nacional e internacional. O conceito utilizado para projeto de drenagem urbana convencional, desta forma, tornou-se um tanto obsoleto nos dias de hoje, pois além dos problemas relativos aos picos elevados das tormentas, culminando em enchentes, principalmente nos grandes centros urbanos, há que se observar os aspectos de qualidade das águas pluviais. Neste sentido, começou-se a desenvolver na década de 1980 o conceito dos chamados BMP, do inglês, Best Management Practices, que consiste em técnicas que visam não somente o abatimento dos picos de eventos extremos como também a melhoria na qualidade da água precipitada com um enfoque mais ambiental. Procurou-se apresentar, ao longo do trabalho, o estágio de desenvolvimento dessas técnicas em vários países e a equalização das diversas terminologias utilizadas com o intuito de tornar estas ferramentas mais acessíveis ao meio técnico nacional, visando auxiliar no processo de mudança cultural brasileira. Analisou-se também a aplicabilidade dessas técnicas em um projeto real de drenagem urbana desenvolvido para a Prefeitura de São Paulo, na região do Butantã Zona Oeste, verificando-se a possibilidade de redução do sistema convencional ou sua eliminação com base nas informações técnicas elencadas.
Unregulated occupation and the growing proportion of non-porous, covered urban surface area as aggravating factors in the effects of extreme weather events is one of the most talked about problems in national (Brazilian) and international technical circles. This factor has rendered the conventional methods historically applied when planning urban stormwater drainage somewhat obsolete because, in addition to the flash floods caused by intense downpours and storms in large metropolitan centers, the quality of the stormwater itself is deteriorating. To combat these effects, the initial foundations of the BMP (Best Management Practices) were laid down in the 1980\'s to develop methods to not only diminish the effects of extreme events but also to improve the quality of the water deposited by focusing on environmentally friendly urban planning. In this study, an attempt has been made to illustrate the developmental stage of these methods in several countries and to standardized the different technical terms used so that such tools become more accessible to the relevant Brazilian technical field and thereby further the respective process of cultural change in Brazil. It has also been analyzed how these methods could be applied to an actual urban drainage plan developed for the São Paulo City Hall implemented in the Butantã district in the city\'s \'Western Zone\' by assessing the possibility of reducing the conventional system or even eliminating it, based on the technical information studied.

This thesis examines how constitutional reforms relating to the right to water in Bolivia have affected water provision in peri-urban Cochabamba. This multi-sited ethnography explores how the right to water has framed reforms to the Bolivian water sector, how and why the right to water has been contested in Bolivia, the impact of reforms to the water sector on peri-urban water committees and emerging challenges and opportunities for sustainable water provision in peri-urban Bolivia. It demonstrates that despite the high profile role played by Bolivia in advancing the right to water at the international and national level, in practice the right to water continues to be a fairly nebulous concept. There is a disconnect between Bolivia's international stance on the human right to water and national reforms around the right to water. This thesis contends that the right to water is a banner under which the water sector has been reformed since the election of Evo Morales in 2006. Even though the constitution states that everyone has the right to water, in practice water often continues to be provided through community providers such as drinking water committees (DWCs), largely due to the failure of municipal water provision. Reforms and policy have focussed on (re)nationalising the sector and establishing new institutions to regulate and develop diverse water providers such as peri-urban DWCs. Through detailed ethnographic examination of peri-urban Cochabamba, the thesis demonstrates that activists and community-water providers in rural and peri-urban areas have contested reforms linked to the right to water. They have contended that reforms have the potential to undermine community water systems, and furthermore, that the state has failed to guarantee basic human rights and service provision. To date, the state and non-state initiatives to enhance the sustainability of DWCs have focussed on certain elements of sustainability, specifically protecting the aquifer and enhancing institutional sustainability of DWCs. By drawing on the experience and development of one DWC, this thesis also explores further elements that present challenges and opportunities to enhance sustainable water provision in peri-urban areas, namely building equitable access, and the reconciling of local power relations.

The thesis covers the investigation of the storm water runoff and artificial recharge components of the Atlantis Water Resource Management Scheme in the Southwestern Cape. The objective of the study was to obtain an in-depth knowledge of the process of artificial recharge of urban storm water runoff, in order to identify the most efficient recharge management strategy for the Atlantis aquifer. To achieve the objective it was necessary to first study the existing knowledge on urban storm water hydrology and artificial recharge by spreading, and to create a conceptual model of what might be expected. The study area was then investigated to examine how closely the actual situation was reflected by the conceptual model, enabling recommendations to be made for the sound management of the system. The stormwater runoff component was found to differ from most urban hydrological studies as a result of its large baseflow component. The sandy nature of the catchment, small percentage area of effective impervious surface, and high groundwater table resulted in the baseflow constituting more than 40% of the total storm water runoff and accounting for over 60% of the pollution load. The "first flush" effect established as a major source of pollution in other studies, was found to be of minor significance in this study area. The overall stormwater quality (excluding the noxious industrial baseflow) was found acceptable for artificial recharge within the study area, although the baseflow from the industrial sub-catchments showed the potential for being a major source of pollution in the future. The treated wastewater used for artificial recharge prior to 1987 was found to be unacceptable for recharge purposes. The treated industrial effluent should under no circumstances be recharged up-gradient of the Witzand well field. The treated domestic effluent although of a poorer quality than the resident Witzand well field groundwater could be recharged in order to boost recharge volumes and form a buffer against further intrusion by the poor quality groundwater from the Brakkefontein area. This would however only be acceptable if strict water quality control is maintained and recharge does not take place west of the present basin. The recharge basin was found to be well situated with respect to influencing the Witzand wellfield and maintaining a groundwater buffer against poor quality groundwater flow from the northeast towards the central area of the wellfield. Unfortunately the surrounding low-lying topography and sandy retaining walls have resulted in return flow and raised groundwater-levels. The raised groundwater mound does not comply with the conceptual model and together with the sandy nature of the unsaturated zone resulted in less effective purification during infiltration. The practice of letting large portions of the basin floor dry-out during summer was shown to be beneficial and the periodic cleaning of the deeper portions of the basin essential. The artificially recharged water was found to have influenced the upper portion of the aquifer well beyond the West Coast Road. The study of groundwater quality being a good method for tracing artificially recharged water. The groundwater quality has improved as a result of artificial recharge since the removal of treated wastewater from the recharge basin. The groundwater was (ii) found to be very responsive to the slightest changes in recharge basin water quality or/and quantity. Management of the recharge basin therefore had to be very much of a compromise between qualitative and quantitative approaches. The present approach of recharging all the stormwater runoff throughout the year providing the most efficient compromise under the present conditions. The study revealed that the most efficient recharge management strategy would be the recharge of treated domestic sewage effluent in the present recharge basin and all residential storm water runoff plus industrial "storm flow" stormwater runoff in a new recharge basin located northwest of the present basin. Strict water quality control must be maintained on the water discharged into the basins and an annual wet/dry cycle implemented within the basins to boost infiltration. The entire system should continue being monitored to safe guard the groundwater resource from pollution and over exploitation.

Muscle and hepatopancreas of blue crabs (Callinectes sapidus), collected from the Elizabeth River, Virginia, contained residues of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAHs}, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and organochlorine pesticides. Analytical procedures involved dichloromethane extraction of lyophilized tissue, followed by molecular size and polarity-based purification of the extract. capillary gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and electrolytic conductivity detection was used for quantitation and tentative identification of the xenobiotic compounds. Mass spectrometry was used for confirmation of these identities. Contaminant concentrations were greater in hepatopancreas than in muscle in crabs from every site examined. Hepatopancreas PAH burdens were as high as 11 mg/kg dry weight, with an accompanying muscle level of 3.1 mg/kg. The PAHs present consisted mainly of alkylated low molecular weight compounds (e.g., acenaphthenes and naphthalenes), except near a creosote-impacted site. At the latter location, unsubstituted, higher molecular weight PAHs (e.g., pyrene and chrysene) dominated. Organochlorines, which included PCBs, 4,4'-DDE, and chlordane were found in lower concentrations. The effect of molting on xenobiotic accumulation in Crustacea was also examined. Molting is essential for crustacean growth and is integral to the reproductive process in some species. Molting and intermolt blue crabs were maintained in cages at the creosoted-impacted Elizabeth River site mentioned above. PAH concentration in muscle and hepatopancreas was measured for both molt groups. Newly molted blue crabs possessed statistically higher tissue burdens than intermolt crabs of three unsubstituted PAHs (cyclopenta(def)phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and pyrene) characteristic of the creosote-contaminated exposure site. Mean concentration of the three PAHs in hepatopancreas was 9560 μg/kg in newly molted crabs and 3360 μg/kg in intermolt crabs. Mean PAH concentration in muscle was 1380 μg/kg in new-molts and 498 μg/kg in intermolts. The elevated tissue burdens may be due to increased water uptake and shell permeability at ecdysis or decreased metabolism of PAH during the molt process. Newly molted blue crabs are regarded as a seafood delicacy and tissue burdens of xenobiotics, such as PAHs, may be of human health concern.

Water is the driving force in nature. We use water for washing cars, doing laundry, cooking, taking a shower, but also to generate energy and electricity. Therefore water is a necessary product in our daily lives (USGS. Howard Perlman, 2013). The model that we created is based on the urban water demand computer model from the Pacific Institute (California). With this model we will forecast the future urban water use of Emilia Romagna up to the year of 2030. We will analyze the urban water demand in Emilia Romagna that includes the 9 provinces: Bologna, Ferrara, Forli-Cesena, Modena, Parma, Piacenza, Ravenna, Reggio Emilia and Rimini. The term urban water refers to the water used in cities and suburbs and in homes in the rural areas. This will include the residential, commercial, institutional and the industrial use. In this research, we will cover the water saving technologies that can help to save water for daily use. We will project what influence these technologies have to the urban water demand, and what it can mean for future urban water demands. The ongoing climate change can reduce the snowpack, and extreme floods or droughts in Italy. The changing climate and development patterns are expected to have a significant impact on water demand in the future. We will do this by conducting different scenario analyses, by combining different population projections, climate influence and water saving technologies. In addition, we will also conduct a sensitivity analyses. The several analyses will show us how future urban water demand is likely respond to changes in water conservation technologies, population, climate, water price and consumption. I hope the research can contribute to the insight of the reader’s thoughts and opinion.

The City of Auburn is faced with a number of problems relating to its dependency on two karst springs, Auburn and Summers Springs, to meet its water requirements. Besides being extremely vulnerable to contamination, the springs often discharge and insufficient volume of water needed for public consumption and dilution of the City’s treated wastewater. Thus the City wishes to find an additional source of water and views nearby Shakertown Spring as a possibility. The study has three main objectives: 1) delineation of the Auburn, Summers, and Shakertown Springs ground water basins, 2) determination of the volume of available water at each spring, and 3) investigation of additional potential water supplies as alternatives to the use of Shakertown Spring. A well survey and karst hydrogeological inventory, supplemented by dye tracing, were conducted to reveal water table information necessary for ground water basin delineation and construction of a potentiometric map. Water monitoring stations were constructed at the three springs, discharge measurements performed and stage monitored over a fifteen month period. The Auburn, Summers, and SHakertown Springs Karst Ground Water Basins are estimated to possess areas of 9.74, 3.49 and 19.02 square miles (25.23, 9.04, and 49.26 square kilometers) respectively. Summers Spring was found to have an estimated base flow discharge of 1 – 2 cubic feet per second (cfs) (0.03 – 0.06 cubic meters per second (cms)) and Shakertown Spring an estimated base flow discharge of 8 – 9 cfs (0.2-0.3 cms). Estimation of base flow discharge at Auburn Spring was not possible due to the location of the City’s water intake pipe at the spring head. However, a minimum discharge of .22 cfs (0.01 cms) was recorded on thirteen separate occasions during the period monitored. Five alternatives for the City of Auburn, including Shakertown Spring and two additional, though smaller, water sources are presented. The best source of water for the City must be decided with consideration of cost and need. A potentiometric map depicting ground water basins, water table contours and subsurface flow routes is presented as a tool for the City of Auburn to aid in decisions regarding its water resources.

Thesis (M.C.P.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Urban Studies and Planning, 1999.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 73-75).
Public participation plays an important role in environmental decision making and policy formulation. Federal and state agencies charged with the responsibilities of determining laws to manage environmental problems are mandated to include participation in their regulatory rulemaking. In most cases, public participation takes place in conventional forums such as public hearings, meetings, and workshops. These forums have limited capacity for true deliberation or discussion between the public and the government agency. In this conventional view, the competency of the citizen in the participation process should be questioned. Because the public may be ill informed or have a limited knowledge of technical and political information, decision making and policy making should be left to experts. Despite the prevalence of these conventional models, alternative models to standard practice have arisen and are currently utilized. These models incorporate greater deliberation and take the form of citizen advisory committees and mediated consensus building processes. Alternative models of participation acknowledge that the citizenry, because of their unique knowledge of local conditions and intellectual capacity to generate and formulate ideas and solutions, are essential to decision making and policy formulation. The CALFED Bay-Delta Program, created specifically to address the pressing environmental and water management problems in the San Francisco/San Joaquin Bay-Delta, espoused the virtues of new and alternative approaches to dealing with decades-old controversies and conflicting interests. In this thesis, I have compared CALFED's policies and strategies for public participation with their actual practice. In seeking to reconcile policy with practice, I acknowledge that CALFED has attempted to engage the public. But despite the acknowledgement and emphasis on alternative approaches that seek to resolve conflict, CALFED's strategies, in practice, adhere to conventional approaches. Deliberation in both public outreach forums and citizen advisory committees has been limited. When deliberation has been realized in the CALFED process, it has been in small, sporadic events that incorporate highly structured and facilitated processes.
by Katrina D. Tavanlar.
M.C.P.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--George Mason University, 2008.
Vita: p. 179. Thesis director: Lee M. Talbot. Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Environmental Science and Public Policy. Title from PDF t.p. (viewed July 18, 2008). Includes bibliographical references (p. 148-149). Also issued in print.

Lebanon is situated in a Mediterranean semi-arid region rich in hydraulic resources but strongly under the impact of anthropogenic pressure, mainly after the industrial boost in the last 50 years. In this thesis our research is devoted to the study of water resources and the assessment of soil pollution in two contrasting watersheds that may resemble similar regions in the world. Rivers act as a collective funnel of contaminants derived from rock weathering, industrial, agricultural and urban practices. Thus we focus our study on the two main contrasting watersheds in Lebanon: an industrially dominated watershed located northwest of the country on the Mediterranean coast (Al Jouz basin), and a rural historically agricultural watershed that lies in the continental valley between the two mountainous chains (Litani basin). Geochemical analysis coupled to multi-isotopic applications was used as tools to investigate the collective influence of land-use cover, geomorphological processes, topography, soil type, geology, geography, orography, climate, and hydrological variability on drainage basin evolution. A two-year sampling strategy was followed (2011-2013) to collect not only water samples at various depths in the reservoir and in the piezometers, but also sediments (lacustrine, riverine and coastal) and soils (surficial and cores) to cover seasonal variations (rainy, first flush and dry seasons) in both studied areas. The results highlight the entire mechanism of characterization, origin, and partitioning between the dissolved and particulate phases of pollutants. Furthermore, the environmental implication of the Qaraaoun reservoir was assessed by emphasizing water hydrodynamics and its interaction with the watershed. Characterizing industrial and agricultural pollution allows the understanding of metal behavior and the prediction of its fate, in association with the environmental receiving media in semi-arid and Mediterranean areas. This work was the first to trace pollution sources and to reconstruct the metal fluxes in two of the most environmentally significant watersheds in the country. Stable and radioactive Pb isotopes were used in addition to 137Cs to study the geomorphological influence and the chronology of the environmental stress exerted by the factory and the dam on basin ecology. Moreover, the nature of the Qaraaoun reservoir and the internal hydrological dynamics were explored using stable hydrogen and oxygen isotopes to delineate the reservoir water layers and its fast response to meteorological and hydrodynamic changes in the watersheds, and to demonstrate its strong hydrological connectivity with groundwater. Reservoir water balance was made, indicating groundwater influx into the reservoir which was reported for the first time. The water hydrodynamics was also assessed using a box model, which in its role can be used to evaluate the reservoir water balance and hydro-project functionality and to establish the basis for water sustainability in the long term. This work has yielded a better understanding of biogeochemical processes under different environmental conditions. The treated issues in this thesis will provide a foundation for future hydropower projects and allow one to draw a road-map for national management plans, and to raise the alert for remediation processes and management methods to preserve the environment and resource sustainability, and ultimately the wellbeing of the local population.

Doctorat en Sciences
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Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES
Throughout history man has been transforming the world. In this new century, mankind faces a rapid depletion of natural resources and the unknown of what to do with the waste generated by a population inconsequential. It is known that there are several discussions about the need to reconcile development with environmental preservation, and an important factor analysis to agriculture, when it comes to food safety. In the face of several changes regarding the food shortage, it is obvious the need to find alternatives so that they do not miss the man. Thus, there is an option to urban agriculture, which grows every day, where its importance covers the areas social, economic and environmental. However, it is known that the practice of agriculture is undoubtedly one of the most contaminants, when practiced in an unsustainable way, such as the use of pesticides. On one hand these chemicals potentiate the production, the other, have complex consequences. Without doubt one of the greatest difficulties of urban agricultural practices, using water as a source of urban rivers are the changes in the patterns of the same qualities. In this aim, the objective of the research is to investigate the development of urban agriculture in the river basin Tambay located in the city of Bayeux, Paraíba State. To achieve the study was an exploratory type research literature, documentary research, survey statistics, the application of questionnaires and interviews with the resident population. For the assessment of water quality were established five sampling points of water sample along the river Tambay and the results were compared with the maximum values determined by resolution of the National Environment Council (CONAMA) No. 357/2005, to Freshwater, Class 2 (official classification of the river). Given the analysis, one can see that the river has Tambay parameters framed and not covered by the aforesaid resolution, because it is an area of agricultural practice, it is necessary that the standards are framed, which was not seen when it comes of fecal coliform, aluminum and lead, substances prohibited for any kind of cultivation. Thus, it appears that the river water is unfit for cultivation.
Ao longo da história o homem vem transformando o mundo. Nesse início de século, a humanidade enfrenta o esgotamento acelerado dos recursos naturais e a incógnita do que fazer com os resíduos gerados por uma população inconsequente. Sabe-se que várias são as discussões a respeito das necessidades de conciliar desenvolvimento com preservação ambiental, tendo a agricultura como um fator de importante análise quando se trata da segurança alimentar. Diante das várias alterações acerca da escassez de alimentos, fica óbvia a necessidade de buscar alternativas para que os mesmos não faltem para ao homem. Assim, tem-se como opção a agricultura urbana, que abrange as áreas sociais, econômicas e ambientais. Entretanto, sabe-se que a prática agrícola é sem dúvida um dos meios mais contaminantes existentes, quando praticada de forma insustentável, a exemplo do uso dos agrotóxicos. Se por um lado tais produtos químicos potencializam a produção, por outro, possuem consequências complexas. Sem dúvida uma das maiores dificuldades da prática agrícola urbana, utilizando como fonte de água os rios urbanos, são as alterações nos padrões de qualidades da mesma. Nesse intento, o objetivo geral da pesquisa é investigar o desenvolvimento da agricultura urbana na microbacia do rio Tambay localizada no município de Bayeux, Estado da Paraíba. Para concretização do trabalho foi realizado uma pesquisa do tipo bibliográfica exploratória, pesquisa documental, levantamento de dados estatísticos, aplicação de entrevistas e questionários junto à população residente. Para a avaliação da qualidade da água foram definidos cinco pontos de coleta de amostra de água ao longo do rio Tambay e os resultados obtidos foram comparados com os valores máximos determinados pela Resolução do Conselho Nacional de Meio Ambiente (CONAMA) Nº 357/2005, para água doce, classe 2 (classificação oficial do rio). Diante das análises realizadas, pode-se constatar que o rio Tambay apresenta parâmetros enquadrados e não enquadrados na resolução supracitada, por se tratar de uma área de prática agrícola, é necessário que certos parâmetros estejam enquadrados, o que não se foi constatado quando se trata dos coliformes termotolerantes, do alumínio e do chumbo, substâncias proibidas para qualquer tipo de cultivo. Assim, conclui-se que a água do rio é imprópria para o cultivo.

This study assessed the effect of an application of mycorrhizal fungi to stormwater filter media on urban bioswale soil and stormwater in an infiltration-based bioswale aged 20 years with established vegetation. The study tested the use of commercially available general purpose biotic soil blend PermaMatrix ^® BSP Foundation as a treatment to enhance Earthlite™ stormwater filter media amelioration of zinc, copper, and phosphorus in an ecologically engineered structure designed to collect and infiltrate urban stormwater runoff before it entered the nearby Willamette River.

These results show that the application of PermaMatrix^® BSP Foundation biotic soil amendment to Earthlite™ stormwater filter media contributed to the reduction of extractable zinc in bioswale soil (-24% and -26%), as compared to the control, which received a treatment of Earthlite™ stormwater filter media only, and experienced an increase in extractable zinc levels (23% and 39%). The results presented also show evidence that after establishment mycorrhizal treatment demonstrated lowered levels of phosphorus in bioswale soil (-41%) and stormwater (-100%), in contrast to the control, which had increased phosphorus levels. The treatment contributed to reductions between 67% and 100% in every metric detected in stormwater after an establishment period of 17 weeks, while the bioswale with no mycorrhizal treatment had increases between 50% and 117%. Treatment also appeared to enhance the reduction of ammonium and nitrates, while contributing to a greater increase in soil pH.

Rapid global urbanization over the last few decades has intensified the challenge of providing adequate water and sanitation services to urban residents. Meeting this challenge has been the focus of domestic and international development efforts, including Millennium Development Goal 7.C. This research studies three institutional and governance attributes theorized to improve government service outcomes, testing hypotheses that the attributes are associated with greater country progress on providing urban water and sanitation access. The attributes are: a) decentralized services; b) sector-wide strategy and investment coordination; and c) civil society engagement. Country-level experience is analyzed using a series of ordered logistic regression models for a sample of 75 low- and middle-income countries. UN GLAAS survey data is used to derive country-specific variables for the three attributes. These, along with control variables representing country background conditions, are analyzed relative to four country progress outcome variables, two each for water and sanitation. The outcome variables, (covering the 2000 to 2012 time period), are derived from the UN JMP dataset that tracks urban access rates by country. Based on results from these models, four country case studies look in-depth at implementation of the attributes and highlight aspects that can help or impede country progress. Overall, findings show that decentralization is helpful to sanitation progress, but not water progress, likely due limitations of capacity and funding faced by sub-national levels of government. Three explanations are proposed for why decentralization may impact water and sanitation differently. Results for sector planning were mostly inconclusive, except that it was shown helpful to water progress over the 12-year period. Study of this attribute would benefit from additional wide-scale data collection. Civil society engagement was consistently shown to help country progress in both water and sanitation, and several examples of engagement are profiled to demonstrate how it can improve service outcomes. The last chapter relates findings to theories about government provision of public goods. The extent to which the three attributes help achieve efficiency, supply, equity, and social welfare goals is discussed. Finally, practical recommendations for strengthening sector institutions and governance are presented with application to governments and international aid donors.

During the modern era, the urbanization of water has been facilitated by various privileged discourses, which valorize major engineering interventions for the sake of continued urban growth. This research examines discourse surrounding the 2-th Century proposal and construction of a reservoir near the then-tiny farming community of Grapevine, Texas, for the benefit of urban interests. I argue that urban interests produced Grapevine space as nothing more than a container for city water, by rendering meaningless any conception of space that was not directly articulated with urban economic networks. Modern discourse collapsed Denton Creek space from a watershed and landscape into a dimensionless node in the urban space of flows. In return, rural inhabitants were encouraged to progress and to modernize their own spaces: to become urban. Whereas urban discourse entails an implicit spatial imaginary of networks, I deploy the conceptual framework of settler colonialism to show that a core-periphery relationship remains relevant, and is not reducible to a network spatial ontology.

Wetlands are vital ecosystems that provide ecological, economic and social benefits to societies. In the Tampa Bay region in West Central Florida, a growing population has put immense pressure on wetlands. The situation has not gone unnoticed in the public domain with concerns raised about the need to formulate policies that would protect them. However, it has been difficult to ascertain the level of citizen involvement in the decision making process. This study aimed at investigating whether the perceptions and concerns of citizens drove them to influence local water policy. Questionnaires were used to collect data from residents living in close proximity to well fields situated in wetlands in Northwestern Hillsborough County. Results of the research showed that residents demonstrated a high degree of knowledge about water resources in the Tampa Bay region. Residents expressed concerns about groundwater pumping and development, and attributed them to changes in their environment. However, there was little engagement from residents with decision makers to address these concerns. This study therefore recommends that improved participatory mechanisms be created by local water agencies to incorporate valuable inputs from the public.

[EN] First chapter uses California's drought to identify the economic threats of water scarcity on food, energy and environmental systems as a way to introduce the multiple interactions between these resources. The second part of this first chapter introduces the focus of the dissertation, the water-energy nexus, presents a literature review identifying gaps, states the main and specific research objectives and the research questions, explains the research approach, and describes the organization of the dissertation. Second chapter develops an end-use model for water use and related energy and carbon footprint using probability distributions for parameters affecting water consumption in 10 local water utilities in California. Statewide single-family water-related CO2 emissions are 2% of overall per capita emissions, and locally variability is presented. The impact of several common conservation strategies on household water and energy use are assessed simulating different scenarios. Based on the this model, Chapter 3 introduces a probabilistic two-stage optimization model considering technical and behavioral decision variables to obtain the most eco-nomical strategies to minimize household water and water-related energy bills and costs given both water and energy price shocks. Results can provide an upper bound of household savings for customers with well-behaved preferences, and show greater adoption rates to reduce energy intensive appliances when energy is accounted, result-ing in an overall 24% reduction in indoor water use that represents a 30 percent reduc-tion in water-related energy use and a 53 percent reduction in household water-related CO2 emissions. To complete the urban water cycle, Chapter 4 develops first an hourly model of urban water uses by customer category including water-related energy consumption and next I calibrate a model of the energy used in water supply, treatment, pumping and wastewater treatment by the utility, using real data from East Bay Municipal Utility District in California. Hourly costs of energy for the water and energy utilities are assessed and GHG emissions for the entire water cycle estimated. Results show that water end-uses account for almost 95% of all water-related energy use, but the 5% managed by the utility is still worth over $12 million annually. Several simulations analyze the potential benefits for water demand management actions. The total carbon footprint per capita of the urban water cycle is 405 kg CO2/year representing 4.4% of the total GHG emissions per capita in California. Accounting for the results obtained in Chapters 2 to 4, Chapter 5 describes a simple but powerful decision support system for water management that includes water-related energy use and GHG emissions not solely from the water operations, but also from final water end uses, including demands from cities, agriculture, environment and the energy sector. The DSS combines a surface water management model with a simple groundwater model, accounting for their interrelationships, and also includes explicitly economic data to optimize water use across sectors during shortages and calculate return flows from different uses. Capabilities of the DSS are demonstrated on a case study over California's intertied water system over the historic period and some simulations are run to highlight water and energy tradeoffs. Results show that urban end uses account for most GHG emissions of the entire water cycle, but large water conveyance produces significant peaks over the summer season. The carbon footprint of the entire water cycle during this period, according to the model, was 21.43 millions of tons of CO2/year, what was roughly 5% of California's total GHG emissions. The last two chapters discus and summarize the thematic and methodological contribu-tions and looks for further research presenting and discussing the research gaps and research questions that this dissertation left open.
[ES] El primer capítulo utiliza la sequía de California para identificar las amenazas económicas de la escasez de agua en los sistemas de producción de alimentos, energético y medioambiental para presentar las múltiples interacciones entre estos recursos. La segunda parte del primer capítulo centra el objetivo de la tesis, la relación entre el agua y la energía, presenta la revisión de la literatura identificando los vacíos, describe los objetivos y las cuestiones que busca responder esta investigación, explica la metodología seguida, y describe la organización de la tesis. En el segundo capítulo se desarrolla un modelo de usos finales de agua, contando con la energía y las emisiones de GEI asociados utilizando distribuciones de probabilidad para los parámetros que afectan al uso del agua en 10 ciudades en California. Como resultados principales se obtiene que las emisiones de GEI asociadas al consumo residencial de agua representan el 2% del total de emisiones per cápita, y se presenta la variabilidad debida a las condiciones locales. Los impactos de algunas prácticas comunes de ahorro de agua y energía son calculadas simulando diferente escenarios. Basado en ese modelo, el Capítulo 3 se presenta un modelo de optimización probabilísticos en dos periodos considerando variables de decisión de modificaciones técnicas y de comportamiento en relación al consumo de agua para obtener las estrategias más económicas para minimizar las facturas de agua y energía. Los resultados proporcionan un límite superior para el ahorro doméstico, y muestran mayores tasas de adopción para reducir usos de agua que son más intensivos en consumo energético cuando la energía se incluye, resultando en una reducción del 24% de uso de agua adentro de las casas, que representa un 30% en reducción de energía y un 53% de emisiones de GEI, ambos relacionados con el consumo de agua. Para completar el ciclo urbano del agua, el Capítulo 4 desarrolla primero un modelo horario de usos de agua incluyendo la energía asociada y después se calibra un modelo de agua y energía en el abastecimiento, tratamiento y bombeo de agua, y el tratamiento de agua residual, utilizando datos reales de East Bay Municipal Utility District en California. Los costes horarios de energía para las compañías de agua y energía, así como las emisiones de GEI son estimadas. Los resultados muestran que los usos finales son responsables del 95% de la energía relacionada con el uso del agua, pero que el 5% restante tiene un coste de 12 millones de dólares anualmente. Teniendo en cuenta los resultados obtenidos en los capítulos 2, 3 y 4, el Capítulo 5 describe un sistema de apoyo de decisión (SSD) para gestión de recursos hídricos incluyente energía y emisiones de GEI no sólo de la gestión del agua, sino también de usos finales del agua, incluyendo demandas urbanas, agrícolas, ambientales y del sector energético. El SSD combina un modelo de agua superficial con uno de agua subterráneo, incluyendo sus interacciones, y también incluye explícitamente datos económicos para optimizar el uso del agua durante periodos de sequía. Las posibilidades del SSD son demostradas en un caso de estudio aplicado a un modelo simplificado del sistema de recursos hídricos de California. Los resultados muestran que los usos finales del agua en zonas urbanas son responsables de la mayoría de las emisiones de GEH, pero que las grandes infrastructures de transporte de agua producen importante picos en verano. De acuerdo con el modelo, la huella de carbón del ciclo del agua en California es de 21.43 millones de toneladas de CO2/año, lo que significa aproximadamente el 5% del total de emisiones de GEI del estado. Los últimos dos capítulos resumen y discuten las contribuciones temáticas y metodológicas de esta tesis, presentando nuevas líneas de investigación que se derivan de este trabajo.
[CAT] El primer capítol utilitza la sequera de Califòrnia per a identificar les amenaces econòmiques de l'escassesa d'aigua en els sistemes de producció d'aliments, energètic i mediambiental per a presentar les múltiples interaccions entre estos recursos. La segona part del primer capítol centra l'objectiu de la tesi, la relació entre l'aigua i l'energia, presenta la revisió de la literatura identificant els buits, descriu els objectius i les qüestions que busca respondre esta recerca, explica la metodologia seguida, i descriu la organització de la tesi. Al segon capítol es desenvolupa un model d'usos finals d'aigua, comptant amb l'energia i les emissions de GEH associats utilitzant distribucions de probabilitat per als paràmetres que afecten a l'ús de l'aigua en 10 ciutats en Califòrnia. Com a resultats principals s'obté que les emissions de GEH associades al consum residencial d'aigua representen el 2% del total d'emissions per càpita, i es presenta la variabilitat deguda a les condicions locals. Els impactes d'algunes pràctiques comunes d'estalvi d'aigua i energia són calculades simulant diferent escenaris. Basat en eixe model, al Capítol 3 es presenta un model d'optimització probabilístics en dos períodes considerant variables de decisió de modificacions tècniques i de comportament en relació al consum d'aigua per a obtindre les estratègies més econòmiques per a minimitzar les factures d'aigua i energia. Els resultats proporcionen un límit superior per a l'estalvi domèstic, i mostren majors taxes d'adopció per a reduir usos d'aigua que són més intensius en consum energètic quan l'energia es incluïda, resultant en una reducció del 24% d'ús d'aigua a dins de les cases, que representa un 30% en reducció d'energia i un 53% d'emissions de GEH, ambdós relacionats amb el consum d'aigua. Per a completar el cicle urbà de l'aigua, el Capítol 4 desenvolupa primer un model horari d'usos d'aigua incloent l'energia associada i després es calibra un model d'aigua i energia en l'abastiment, tractament i bombeig d'aigua i al tractament d'aigua residual, utilitzant dades reals de East Bay Municipal Utility District en Califòrnia. Els costs horaris d'energia per a les companyies d'aigua i energia, així com les emissions de GEH són estimades. Els resultats mostren que els usos finals són responsables del 95% de l'energia relacionada amb l'ús de l'aigua, però que el 5% restant té un cost de 12 milions de dolars anualment. Algunes simulacions analitzen els beneficis econòmics potencials de mesures de gestió de demanda d'aigua. La petjada de carbó total del cicle urbà de l'aigua s'estima en 405 kg CO2/any representant el 4.4% de les emissions per càpita en Califòrnia. Tenint en compte els resultats obtesos en els capítols 2, 3 i 4, el Capítol 5 descriu un sistema de suport de decisió (SSD) per a gestió de recursos hídrics incloent energia i emissions de GEH no sols de la gestió de l'aigua, sinó també del úsos finals de l'aigua, incloent demandes urbanes, agrícoles, ambientals i del sector energètic. El SSD combina un model d'aigua superficial amb un d'aigua subterrànea, incloent les seues interrelacions, i també inclou explícitament dades econòmiques per a optimitzar l'ús de l'aigua durant períodes de sequera. Les possibilitats del SSD són demostrades en un cas d'estudi aplicat a un model simplificat del sistema de recursos hídrics de Califòrnia. Els resultats mostren que els usos finals de l'aigua en zones urbanes són responsables de la majoria de les emissions de GEH, però que les grans infrastructures de transport d'aigua produïxen important pics a l'estiu. D'acord amb el model, la petjada de carbó del cicle de l'aigua a Califòrnia és de 21.43 milions de tones de CO2/any, el que significa aproximadament el 5% del total d'emissions de GEH a l'estat. Els últims dos capítols resumeixen i discuteixen les contribucions temàtiques i metodològiques d'esta tesi, presentan
Escrivà Bou, À. (2015). The Water-Energy Nexus: a bottom-up approach for basin-wide management [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/59451
TESIS
Premiado

Pollution of aquatic resources in Uganda is on the increase and the trends are expected to increase with increase in population size and urbanisation. Assessment and mitigation of the environmental impacts on water quality and biodiversity have now become necessary. The aim of the study was to integrate invertebrate and fish as bioindicators and fish histopathology as a biomarker in the assessment of water quality deterioration in urban wetlands in Uganda. The integration harnesses the advantages and counteracts the shortcomings of each method and thus builds a more robust diagnostic tool that gives a better view of the impacts to the entire ecosystem. Four endpoints which included, physicochemical variables, benthic macroinvertebrate bioindicators, fish bioindicators and fish histopathology biomarkers were compared between varied effluent-impacted wetlands (Murchison Bay in Kampala, and Kirinya, Masese and Winday Bay in Jinja) and a non-impacted reference wetland (Lwanika in Mayuge). Results from the effluent-impacted sites differed from the less impacted reference site. The two sampling locations at Murchison Bay (inshore and offshore) and one sampling location at Kirinya (inshore), that were highly impacted with urban effluent, showed elevated nutrient levels, low pH, dissolved oxygen and secchi depth readings. This corresponded with low invertebrate taxa and fish species diversity and richness; and severe histopathological responses in liver, gonads and gills of O. niloticus. Sensitive taxa such as ephemeroptera and trichoptera were completely absent while pollution tolerant taxa Chironomus sp, Corbicula and Oligochaeta were present. Also notable was the absence of many native haplochromines and presence of mainly Brycinus sadleri, Oreochromis niloticus and leucostictus. The organs manifested high prevalence of severe inflammatory and regressive changes and higher organ indices that fell within the pathological category. These sites were consistently classified as highly polluted under the four endpoints. The reference site was classified as least polluted while Masese and Winday Bay were moderately polluted. Results suggested that the approach of using invertebrate and fish as bioindicators and the fish histopathology as a biomarker, in relation to water quality physicochemical variables was a useful tool in highlighting the spatial differences in environmental quality.

Geology
M.S.
Vacant lots in cities and surrounding urban areas can potentially be used for stormwater management because they are pervious. However, the extent to which vacant lots provide pervious cover to increase infiltration and reduce stormflow is poorly understood. The goal of this study was to develop faster methods for monitoring stormwater infiltration to improve characterization of heterogeneous urban systems. Geophysical techniques are capable of mapping and characterizing subsurface materials, but are often limited by time and sensitivity constraints. In this study, the infiltration characteristics of a vacant lot created by the demolition of a house was characterized using a series of modeling, field and lab experiments. Site characterization under background conditions with an EM Profiler was used to map zones of different fill materials. Three zones were identified in the study site: grass area, driveway area, and a former house area. Transient soil moisture conditions were monitored during irrigation tests using two geophysical methods (electrical resistivity tomography [ERT] and electromagnetic induction [EM]) to evaluate method sensitivity and differences between the three zones. ERT proved more sensitive than EM profiling at detecting changes in the three zones. Soil moisture changes in the driveway area were particularly difficult to detect using EM. The EM Profiler showed a reduction rather than increase in conductivity at the start of irrigation and storms, which was attributed to flushing of high conductivity pore fluids by dilute irrigation or rain water. This explanation was supported using Archie’s Law to model the response of apparent conductivity under highly conductive pore fluid conditions. The EM Profiler was also used under natural precipitation conditions to quickly monitor areas too large for the ERT to reasonably survey. The results suggested that EM instrument drift needs to be corrected to make the method more sensitive. It was difficult to detect differences in hydrologic characterization between areas of the vacant lot using traditional soil point measurements because of the inherent spatial variability. The most useful point measurement was soil moisture loggers. Data from soil moisture loggers was used to parameterize the model; in addition, the soil moisture loggers showed a slow drying period. By combining the EM Profiler method with soil moisture data and applying corrections for drift, some improvement in sensitivity might be achieved. Quantitative characterization of fill material was shown by ERT, which detected more heterogeneous infiltration in the area of the former house than in the grass area.
Temple University--Theses

As California contends with climate change and more extreme cycles of drought and deluge, water management agencies and conservation groups are looking towards solutions to the decreasing reliability of imported water supplies. Stormwater has historically been perceived as a threat to development but when captured properly, it presents a resource that can augment local water supplies. Solutions to water supply issues in California have traditionally employed technical and centrally controlled methods for importing water, but there is a growing understanding that parcel-level capture through vegetated swales presents an opportunity for reducing the impact that development has on California’s hydrology. Vegetated swales mimic nature’s effectiveness in reducing runoff speeds, removing pollutants and increasing groundwater supplies. No less a piece of California’s water infrastructure than canals and dams, these swales bring water infrastructure into the context of the California landscape. My report for the Chino Basin Water Conservation District analyzes the feasibility of installing vegetated swales in the Chino Basin region.

Zambia is a highly urbanized country with 60% of its urban population residing in low cost areas also called peri-urban, slum or informal settlements. The increase in urban population attributed to rapid migration and urbanization due to political and economic changes has taken a toll on service provision as the infrastructure development and service provision has failed to meet the demand. For the 33 peri-urban areas in Lusaka, the water supply and sanitation has been poor, inadequate and unreliable with the coverage being slightly above 50% for water while 90% of the urban population does not have access to the much needed sanitation. The low coverage is a result of lack the financial capacity on the part of the service providers to extend services to un served areas.

This research focuses on the strategies to provide sustainable water and sanitation services to peri-urban areas to ensure improved accessibility through the expansion of infrastructure and attainment of full cost recovery. In this era of increasing migration to unplanned settlements where the services are inadequate, alternatives to public provision of water and sanitation services need to be put in place. One of the alternatives is the public-private partnership which encompasses the society, private and the civil society. As has been found in the study the best alternative should not only be completely bottom up but should also be more demand driven and be able to provide for reater contributions from the affected communities.

The hypothesis of the study is to ascertain if provision of water supply to the Peri-Urban Areas (PUAs) can be achieved through the partnership between the water utility and the small scale water providers. Therefore, the objectives of the research are to: evaluate and compare the current service provision to the peri-urban areas by the utility and small scale providers in terms of technical, social and institutional arrangements and determine the best way of ensuring sustained service provision to peri urban areas and show how partnership can be the best solution to improving service delivery to these areas.

Service provision in PUAs can not be achieved without the involvement of all the stakeholders especially the community who are also the users and whose major role is paying for the service to enhance sustainability. In this study the Small Scale Water Providers (SSWP) users were found to be satisfied with the service provided than the utility users who felt that more needed to be done. The two providers are found to have different strengths which when combined would enhance service provision. The collaboration between utility with its competence in water supply, technical installations, water quality testing and SSWP with theirs in community involvement, cost recovery, effective operation and maintenance and demand driven water schemes have to be merged to achieve the intended goal and it is also an indication that the two can complement each other. Utility should therefore consider opening investment accounts for all the areas so as to detach PUAs needs from the general plan and eventually budget as they would be self sustaining and enhance  illingness to pay for the users. The SSWP should therefore be viewed as partners by all and licensing should be considered by the government for the benefit of the urban poor.

Zambia is a highly urbanized country with 60% of its urban population residing in low cost areas also called peri-urban, slum or informal settlements. The increase in urban population attributed to rapid migration and urbanization due to political and economic changes has taken a toll on service provision as the infrastructure development and service provision has failed to meet the demand. For the 33 peri-urban areas in Lusaka, the water supply and sanitation has been poor, inadequate and unreliable with the coverage being slightly above 50% for water while 90% of the urban population does not have access to the much needed sanitation. The low coverage is a result of lack the financial capacity on the part of the service providers to extend services to un served areas.

This research focuses on the strategies to provide sustainable water and sanitation services to peri-urban areas to ensure improved accessibility through the expansion of infrastructure and attainment of full cost recovery. In this era of increasing migration to unplanned settlements where the services are inadequate, alternatives to public provision of water and sanitation services need to be put in place. One of the alternatives is the public-private partnership which encompasses the society, private and the civil society. As has been found in the study the best alternative should not only be completely bottom up but should also be more demand driven and be able to provide for greater contributions from the affected communities.

The hypothesis of the study is to ascertain if provision of water supply to the Peri-Urban Areas (PUAs) can be achieved through the partnership between the water utility and the small scale water providers. Therefore, the objectives of the research are to: evaluate and compare the current service provision to the peri-urban areas by the utility and small scale providers in terms of technical, social and institutional arrangements and determine the best way of ensuring sustained service provision to peri urban areas and show how partnership can be the best solution to improving service delivery to these areas.

Service provision in PUAs can not be achieved without the involvement of all the stakeholders especially the community who are also the users and whose major role is paying for the service to enhance sustainability. In this study the Small Scale Water Providers (SSWP) users were found to be satisfied with the service provided than the utility users who felt that more needed to be done. The two providers are found to have different strengths which when combined would enhance service provision. The collaboration between utility with its competence in water supply, technical installations, water quality testing and SSWP with theirs in community involvement, cost recovery, effective operation and maintenance and demand driven water schemes have to be merged to achieve the intended goal and it is also an indication that the two can complement each other. Utility should therefore consider opening investment accounts for all the areas so as to detach PUAs needs from the general plan and eventually budget as they would be self sustaining and enhance willingness to pay for the users. The SSWP should therefore be viewed as partners by all and licensing should be considered by the government for the benefit of the urban poor.

This study is an academic research project completed to satisfy the California Polytechnic Master Thesis Requirement for the Master Degree of City and Regional Planning in the College of Architecture and Environmental Design. The County of San Luis Obispo Planning and Building Department is the client for this professional project. The project was requested by the County of San Luis Obispo to assist in its water conservation efforts and to help achieve a 20 percent per capita reduction of water use by the year 2020. The project consists of two documents: A Handbook of Water Conservation Technologies and Practices (Handbook) and the Background Report for the Water Conservation Handbook (Background Report). The Handbook is intended to provide a quick guide to various water conserving fixtures and appliances that developers and residents throughout the County of San Luis Obispo can reference for personal use. The Handbook includes information on the type of technology, the benefits in terms of water saving potential, and the cost of implementation. The Handbook is organized based on Indoor and Outdoor water uses. The Background Report is a supplemental document for the Handbook which provides more in depth descriptions and examples on each technology. The Background Report also provides history on water conservation issues in California and San Luis Obispo. It looks at two case studies: one, on the water conservation efforts in Phoenix, Arizona, and two, on a plumbing retrofit project on the Cal Poly Campus that was awarded LEED certification for its water savings. Furthermore, the Background Report explores case studies in the use of community participatory planning to produce water conservation plans. The studies focused on a Community Plan development in Arroyo Grande, California, and on an Integrated Regional Water Management Plan in the Greater Los Angeles Region. The Background Report concludes by providing some cautionary advice on water conservation technologies and provides future recommendations for the county of San Luis Obispo to improve its water conservation efforts.

Climate change affects water resources suitable for human consumption, transforming water quality and quantity. These changes exacerbate vulnerabilities of human society, increasing the importance of adequately protecting and managing water resources and supplies. Growing urban populations provide an additional stress on existing water resources, particularly increasing the vulnerability of people living in poor neighbourhoods. In urban areas, official responses to climate change are currently dominated by Disaster Risk Management (DRM); however, more recently Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) has emerged to support the integration of climate change adaptation in water resource planning. Based on a case study of the city of Douala, Cameroon, the thesis examines the operational implementation of both frameworks, combining observations, semi-structured interviews with different stakeholders and a survey carried out in three poor communities. The research highlights the challenges of improving the joining of both frameworks to adequately reach the urban poor, whilst being alert to, and responsive to, the autonomous adaptation strategies the poor autonomously implement and develop. At present, the IWRM and DRM frameworks are implemented separately and do not clearly reach the urban poor who face three major water-related issues (flooding, water-related diseases and water access). Other institutional water-related measures and projects are carried out by authorities in the low-income communities, but the institutions still struggle to manage the delivery of basic services and protect these communities against hazards. The lack of effective outcomes of the institutional water-related measures and projects has led to a strong process of autonomous adaptation by inhabitants of poor communities. Driven by their adaptive capacity supported by the abundance in groundwater resources, they use coping and adaptive strategies to reduce their vulnerability to water-related issues, such as alternative water suppliers. Similarly, the frequency of the flooding hazard has led the urban poor to develop practices to minimise disaster impacts. However, the autonomous strategies developed face limitations caused by the natural and build environment. In this context, the autonomous strategies of the urban poor and the strategies appear to have a strong influence on each other. While institutional projects have initiated spontaneous strategies, other strategies reduce the willingness of the low-income neighbourhoods to participate in the implementation of official, externally derived development projects.

Water contamination during urban flood events can have a negative impact on human health and the environment. Prior flood studies lack investigation into how GIS can map and analyze this at a large scale (cadastral) level. This  thesis  focused on how GIS can  help map and analyze water contamination risk in urban  areas  using  LiDAR  elevation  data,  at  a  large-scale  (cadastral)  level,  and  symbology  and  flood classification  intervals  specifically  selected  for  contamination  risk.  This  was  done  by  first  completing a literature review about past research and studies  of similar scope. Based on  the findings, a method to map and analyze water contamination risk during sea-based flood scenarios was tested in the Näringen district of Gävle, Sweden. This study area was investigated and flood contamination risk maps were produced  for two different  flood scenarios which illustrated  which properties are vulnerable to flooding and at what depth, what their contamination risk is, and if they are hydrologically connected to the ocean.  The findings from this investigation  are that this method of examining water contamination risk could be useful to planning officials who are in charge of policies relating to land-use. These findings could help guide landuse  or  hazardous  material  storage  regulations  or  restrictions.  To  further  research  in  this  topic,  it  is recommended  that  similar  studies  are  performed  that  use  a  more  detailed  land-use  map  which  has information  on  what  type  and  quantity  of  possible  contaminants  are  stored  on  individual  properties. Furthermore, flood modeling should be employed in place of the flood mapping which was conducted in this thesis.

Com a consolidação do saneamento em algumas bacias urbanas, um novo desafio surge: o da recuperação dos corpos dágua. O que a principio parece ser uma consequência do processo, na realidade se mostra uma tarefa muito mais complexa e que envolve diversos fatores, tornando o processo de recuperação lento e dispendioso. Muito se diz a respeito da despoluição dos corpos dágua através da eliminação da carga pontual, mas o que se observa na prática é que, mesmo diante do controle das cargas pontuais, os corpos dágua continuam poluídos devido às cargas difusas. A preocupação com a poluição por carga difusa já é um assunto muito estudado em locais onde a poluição por cargas pontuais já possui um controle efetivo, mas este assunto ainda é um grande desafio em países como o Brasil, onde o controle da carga pontual ainda não constitui uma realidade palpável. Atualmente, na região metropolitana de São Paulo, há diversos programas atuando na despoluição de corpos dágua através do controle de cargas pontuais, dentre eles o programa Córrego Limpo se destaca por agir na otimização de sistemas de esgotamento sanitário, e apesar dos bons resultados obtidos, como o programa se baseia no controle de cargas pontuais, estas bacias não se encontram completamente despoluídas. Considerando o caso brasileiro, o programa é pioneiro no que se refere à adoção de medidas que integram a população no processo de recuperação, pois implanta em algumas de suas bacias um programa de governança colaborativa, que, através da mobilização da população, promove a integração desta com o corpo dágua. Diante deste panorama, o presente estudo, tem como intuito, através da análise de córregos de interesse do programa Córrego Limpo, contribuir para a melhor compreensão dos desafios envolvidos no processo de recuperação de corpos dágua urbanos através do controle de cargas pontuais e difusas. No estudo empregou-se o método da Unidade de carga para quantificação da geração de cargas difusas nas bacias e identificação do seu potencial poluidor, resultando na criação de um índice de qualidade da superfície da bacia; Avaliou-se também a qualidade ambiental destes corpos dágua através de indicadores físicos, químicos e biológicos, o que revelou a importância do uso conjunto destes indicadores, já que obteve-se resultados distintos para cada um destes indicadores; com base nos resultados obtidos nestes estudos foi possível avaliar o quão complexo é o processo de recuperação de corpos dágua em áreas urbanas.
With the consolidation of sanitation in some urban watersheds, a new challenge arises: the recovery of bodies of water. What at first appears to be a consequence of the process, in fact it shows to be a much more complex task and involves several facts, making the recovery process slow and costly. Much is said about the remediation of water bodies by removing point charge, but what we notice in practice is that even after controlling of point charge, they remain polluted because nonpoint pollution. The concern with nonpoint pollution is much studied in places where pollution by point charge already has an effective control, but this issue is still a challenge in countries like Brazil, where the control point charge does not constitutes a tangible reality. Currently, the São Paulo metropolitan area there are several programs working on recovering of water bodies through the control of point charge, including the Córrego Limpo that acts optimizing sewage systems, and is notorious the improvement in the quality of water bodies covered its actions. However, as the program based on controlling of point charge, the streams are not completely unpolluted. Considering the Brazilian case, the program is a pioneer when it comes to the adoption of measures that integrate the population in the recovering process. It deploys in some watersheds a program of collaborative governance that, through the people mobilization, promotes the body of water, resulting in reduction of the potential pollution in the watersheds and rendering more effective the process. The present study has the intention, through the analysis of streams of interest to the program Córrego Limpo, contribute to a better understanding of the challenges involved in the recovery process of urban water bodies through the control of the point and nonpoint pollution. In the study was used the method of unit load to quantify the generation of diffuse loads in basins and identification of their pollution potential, resulting in the creation of an index of quality of the surface of the basin, also evaluated the environmental quality of these bodies of water through physical, chemical and biological indicators, which revealed the importance of the combined use of these indicators, since we obtained different results for each of these indicators, the results of this study showed how complex is the recovery process of water bodies in urban areas.

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O planejamento urbano integrado aos recursos hídricos não é uma realidade ainda difundida às cidades, embora necessária, considerando que os sistemas urbanos dependem, em sua maioria, de uma única fonte de abastecimento de água, geralmente externa aos seus limites. Campina Grande, cidade de médio porte do semiárido brasileiro, objeto de estudo da presente dissertação, é expressão dessa desarticulação, tendo, historicamente, vivenciado crises relativas à disponibilidade hídrica para os diversos usos urbanos. O objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar possibilidades de ampliação da sensibilidade urbana em relação aos recursos hídricos, a partir da compreensão do metabolismo urbano e dos impactos da produção do espaço sobre esse metabolismo. Foram realizadas duas análises do espaço urbano: a primeira delas é relativa ao desempenho hidrológico, onde são levantados os potenciais de diversificação hídrica por meio do desenvolvimento de indicadores quantitativos e da geração de cenários possíveis à diversificação; a segunda refere-se à produção do espaço, onde é realizado um levantamento histórico das condições de acesso à água na cidade estudada. É verificado como se deu o processo de produção do espaço e o impacto deste processo sobre os recursos hídricos. Mais detalhadamente, observa-se as correlações entre os agentes e as transformações espaciais, visando identificar as associações que comandam essas transformações, sendo o objeto desta análise o Bairro do Catolé, devido às expressivas transformações espaciais que apresentou nos últimos 20 anos. Os resultados apresentam um potencial de 243,60% para diversificação por uso de água de chuva, e 68,90% por reúso de água residuária. Ainda, por meio da combinação de possibilidades de diversificação hídrica, o sistema de abastecimento, que atualmente é totalmente centralizado, poderia ter esta centralização reduzida a até 57,19%. Sendo assim, ressalta-se a importância do papel do município na gestão dos recursos hídricos. No entanto, a análise realizada no Catolé revela uma crescente diminuição do papel do Estado, como regulador dos processos espaciais. Os promotores imobiliários e proprietários fundiários condicionam a dinâmica espacial a seus interesses especulativos. Tal contexto dificulta a melhoria do desempenho hidrológico urbano. Por fim, são apresentadas diretrizes que indicam possíveis medidas a serem adotadas na cidade para direcionar-lhe a uma maior sensibilidade aos recursos hídricos.
Urban planning integrated to water resources is still not widespread in cities, although it is necessary, considering that urban systems rely, mostly, on a single source of water supply, usually outside their boundaries. Campina Grande, a medium-sized city in the Brazilian semi-arid, object of study of this dissertation, is an expression of this disarticulation, having, historically, experienced crises related to the water availability for its various urban uses. The aim of this work is to present possibilities of increasing urban sensitivity in relation to water resources, from the understanding of urban metabolism and the impacts of space production on this metabolism. Two analyzes of the urban space were carried out: the first is related to the hydrological performance, in which the water diversification potentials are raised by developing quantitative indicators and by the generation of possible scenarios for diversification; the second refers to the space production, in which a historical survey of the access conditions to water in the studied city is carried out. The space production process is verified, and the impact of this process on the water resources. In more detail, it is noted the correlations between the agents and the spatial transformations, in order to identify the associations that command these transformations, being the object of this analysis Catolé neighborhood, due to the expressive spatial transformations that it presented in the last 20 years. Results showed a potential of 243.60% for diversification by using rainwater, and 68.90% by reusing wastewater. Also, by the combination of possibilities of water diversification, the supply system, which is currently fully centralized, could have this centralization reduced to 57.19%. Therefore, the importance of the municipality's role in the management of water resources is emphasized. However, the analysis carried out in Catolé reveals a growing decrease in the role of the state, as a regulator of space processes. Real-Estate Developers and landowners condition spatial dynamics to their speculative interests. This situation makes it difficult to improve urban hydrological performance. Finally, guidelines indicating possible measures to be adopted in the city to direct it to a greater sensitivity to water resources are presented.

Urbanization, often characterized by high impervious surface area, can result in excessive inputs of fine sediments into urban streams. Excessive fine sediments can blanket the stream bed filling the interstitial space in the substratum, which may have adverse effects on stream biota. A field survey was conducted in Oregon urban and non-urban basins to investigate the relationship between fine sediments and stream macroinvertebrates. Physical, chemical, and biological data were collected from 59 stream sites in two urban and two rural streams. The stream sites fulfilled a continuous sediment gradient, which ranged from a low of 2% of fine sediment in the substrate to a high of 64% with an average of 22%. The % fines, in Clear Creek (rural basin) was significantly lower than in the urban basins (Johnson Creek and Tryon Creek) (p=0.005). Johnson Creek (mean=23%) had approximately three times more fine sediment than Clear Creek (mean=7%), while Tryon Creek (mean=32%) had nearly five times as much fine sediment as Clear Creek. EPT taxa richness was significantly higher in both rural streams than in both urban streams (p0.05). For example, regression analysis of EPT taxa richness vs. % fine sediments displayed a coefficient of determination (r2) value of 0.2. Other macro invertebrates metrics displayed similar patterns. The lack of significant correlations may be due to the cumulative effect of basin-wide "historical land use past". Past land use activity may have resulted in long-term reductions of sensitive taxa in the basin taxa pool and efforts to improve local habitats may not be quickly colonized by pollution sensitive taxa. Long-term degradation to the urban streams resulted in a relatively homogenous assemblage of macro invertebrates, which may have confounded the quantitative relationship between sediments and macroinvertebrates. This study suggests there is a clear difference between urban and non-urban streams in terms of macro invertebrates, which may be likely due to sediments, but the quantitative relationship between fine sediments and macro invertebrates is weak.

Este estudo centrou-se na caracterização de alguns parâmetros físico-químicos e biológicos da qualidade da água do Manancial do Utinga, que compreende as águas do rio Guamá, Lago Água Preta e Lago Bolonha, localizado no Complexo Hídrico Estadual do Utinga. A área de estudo compreendeu os Lagos Água Preta e Bolonha têm nascentes naturais, porém 90% da água desses lagos é captada do rio Guamá e levado para o Lago Água Preta através de uma adutora de 3 km e por conseguinte para o Lago Bolonha, onde é captada novamente para a estação de tratamento do Bolonha. A metodologia do trabalho consistiu na realização de coletas de campo, em pontos distribuídos ao longo desse percurso, para determinação de variáveis físicoquímicas e bacteriológicas. Como resultados, os dados mostraram uma relação direta entre o crescimento populacional e a presença de esgotos não tratados nos corpos dágua, e como conseqüência, observaram-se alterações importantes nas variáveis físicas: cor e turbidez; e nas variáveis biológicas: coliformes totais e variáveis química: N-amoniacal e nitratos, quando comparadas com a condição referencial. Os resultados mostraram que a população residente no entorno do manancial do Utinga, nas proximidades do Lago Bolonha apresenta deficiência de atendimento em relação ao saneamento básico (coleta de lixo e tratamento de esgoto sanitário).
This study was centered in the variation of some physical-chemical and biological parameters of the quality of the water of the Spring of Utinga, that understands the waters of the river Guamá, Lake Black Water and Lago Bolonha, located in the Compound State Hídrico of Utinga. The study area understood the Lakes Black Water and Bologna they have nascent natural, however 90% of the water of those lakes are captured of the river Guamá and mischievous to the Lake Black Water through a water main of 3 km and consequently to the Lago Bolonha, where it is captured again for the station of treatment of Bologna. The methodology of the work consisted of the accomplishment of field collections, in points distributed to the long of that course, for determination of variables physical-chemical and bacteriological. As results, the data showed a direct relationship between the population growth and the presence of sewers non agreements in the bodies of water, and as consequence, important alterations were observed in the physical variables: color and turbidez; and in the biological variables: total coliforms and you varied chemical: N- ammonia and nitrates, when compared with the condition reference. The results showed that the resident population in I spill him/it of the spring of Utinga, in Lago Bolognas proximities it presents attendance deficiency in relation to the basic sanitation (it collects of garbage and treatment of sanitary sewer).