Статті в журналах: "Urban runoff Australia Management"

1

Lloyd, S. D., T. H. F. Wong, and B. Porter. "The planning and construction of an urban stormwater management scheme." Water Science and Technology 45, no. 7 (April 1, 2002): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2002.0111.

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Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) offers a means to integrate stormwater best management practices into urban planning and design to achieve multiple objectives. Some of these objectives relate to stormwater drainage, water quality improvements, aquatic habitat protection, stormwater harvesting and use, and landscape amenity. The Lynbrook Estate, Australia, has incorporated bio-filtration systems and wetlands into the design of major roads, local access streets and parklands that attenuate and treat roof runoff and road runoff from a 32 ha, 270 allotment residential precinct. This paper outlines the process that enabled the concept of a stormwater drainage design to be translated into on-ground works. Details of the construction activities, costs and market acceptance highlight the potential for the adoption of similar practices elsewhere.

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Crampton, Andrea, and Angela T. Ragusa. "Perceived agricultural runoff impact on drinking water." Journal of Water and Health 12, no. 3 (March 25, 2014): 484–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2014.212.

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Agricultural runoff into surface water is a problem in Australia, as it is in arguably all agriculturally active countries. While farm practices and resource management measures are employed to reduce downstream effects, they are often either technically insufficient or practically unsustainable. Therefore, consumers may still be exposed to agrichemicals whenever they turn on the tap. For rural residents surrounded by agriculture, the link between agriculture and water quality is easy to make and thus informed decisions about water consumption are possible. Urban residents, however, are removed from agricultural activity and indeed drinking water sources. Urban and rural residents were interviewed to identify perceptions of agriculture's impact on drinking water. Rural residents thought agriculture could impact their water quality and, in many cases, actively avoided it, often preferring tank to surface water sources. Urban residents generally did not perceive agriculture to pose health risks to their drinking water. Although there are more agricultural contaminants recognised in the latest Australian Drinking Water Guidelines than previously, we argue this is insufficient to enhance consumer protection. Health authorities may better serve the public by improving their proactivity and providing communities and water utilities with the capacity to effectively monitor and address agricultural runoff.

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3

Braune, M. J., and A. Wood. "Best management practices applied to urban runoff quantity and quality control." Water Science and Technology 39, no. 12 (June 1, 1999): 117–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1999.0537.

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South Africa currently has one of the highest rates of urbanisation in the world causing a significant increase in surface water runoff. This, in turn, causes increased flooding and a significant decrease in water quality due primarily to the accumulation of pollutants. The need exists to manage urban stormwater runoff on an integrated catchment basis, thereby reducing the negative impact of urbanisation on the environment and quality of life. In this paper, details on how existing problem areas can be identified and ranked, the use of Best Management Practices (BMPs) to reduce the impacts of urbanisation on the environment and the effectiveness of BMP's are discussed and illustrated, based on expertise gained from studies in South Africa as well as visits to the USA and Australia.

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4

Iqbal, Asif, Md Mizanur Rahman, and Simon Beecham. "Spatial Analysis of the Water Harvesting Potential of Permeable Pavements in Australia." Sustainability 14, no. 23 (December 6, 2022): 16282. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su142316282.

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An increase in impermeable surface areas with urban development contributes to the rapid and large amount of surface runoff during rainfall. This often requires higher capacity stormwater collection systems, which can cause stress on the existing drainage system and this subsequently contributes to urban flooding. However, urban runoff can be reduced and managed for flood control and converted into a useful resource by harvesting and reusing the water. This can be achieved by switching from impermeable to permeable pavements. However, the amount of stormwater that can be harvested in a permeable pavement system depends on many factors, including rainfall, the water reuse demand and the materials used. This research aims to assess the requirements for permeable pavement design across Australia to balance demand, runoff reduction and construction requirements. A design approach employing the hydrological effects of the infiltration system was adopted for the analysis, along with a spatial analysis for a probabilistic prediction. A relationship was also established to predict a probable design thickness of pavement for various parameters. The research showed that in most Australian cities, for a 120 mm permeable pavement thickness, 40–80% of rainfall-runoff could be harvested, meeting about 10–15% of domestic water demand. The approach developed in this study can be useful for screening the potential of permeable pavements for water harvesting and for predicting spatially where a circular economic approach can be more efficient.

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5

Hopkins, Ben, and John R. Argue. "Constructed “Source” Wetland Concepts Applied to Urban Landscapes." Water Science and Technology 29, no. 4 (February 1, 1994): 133–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0175.

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A class of wetland is introduced which employs engineering practices and installations to collect, store, dispose of, retrieve and use stormwater, at source, in the urban landscape. Two Adelaide (South Australia) examples of “source wetlands” are described. At New Brompton Estate, roof runoff from (eventually) a cluster of 15 residences is diverted to a 106 m gravel-filled trench in a central reserve. The collected water sustains a row of deciduous trees bordering the reserve and provides frequent (winter) charges, via a bore, to a Quaternary aquifer at depth 30 m. At Northfield a swale/trench system which handles all storm runoff from a residential street (including domestic contribution) will be trialled. Runoff seeping to the trench from the swale will be of high quality and will provide charges of water to a 5 m Quaternary aquifer. Some runoff of good quality will pass from the catchment in large storm events. In both cases, New Brompton and Northfield, water retrieved from the Quaternary aquifers in summer will be used for open space irrigation. Constructed source wetlands offer a valuable new option in urban stormwater quantity/quality management.

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6

Simmons, B. L., and S. L. Trengove. "Impact of Catchment Urbanisation on Lake Macquarie (Australia)." Water Science and Technology 21, no. 2 (February 1, 1989): 205–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1989.0051.

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Increasing urbanisation of coastal areas is leading to impacts on coastal lakes which decrease their amenity for recreation and tourism. Runoff and wastewater discharge cause siltation, impact seagrass beds and change the characteristics of open waters, affecting boating, swimming, fishing and the aesthetic quality of the locale. Management of urban development and wastewater disposal is required to minimise sedimentation and nutrient enrichment. This could include development restrictions, runoff controls and a strategy for wastewater treatment and discharge. The catchment of Lake Macquarie, a marine coastal lake, has been progressively urbanised since 1945. Urbanisation, through increased stormwater runoff and point source discharges, has caused a major impact on the lake in terms of sedimentation and nutrient enrichment. Losses of lake area and navigable waters have occurred. Accompanying problems include changes in the distribution of seagrass beds and nuisance growths of benthic algae. Since the 1950's, dry weather nutrient concentrations have increased and mean water clarity has decreased. Severe problems, as observed in other New South Wales coastal lakes, for example benthic algae in Lake Illawarra and Tuggerah Lakes, have not yet developed. Because of the lead time taken to implement policies and controls, trends should be identified and policies developed now so as to avoid nutrient buildup and development of sustained problems.

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Fletcher, Tim D., Ana Deletic, V. Grace Mitchell, and Belinda E. Hatt. "Reuse of Urban Runoff in Australia: A Review of Recent Advances and Remaining Challenges." Journal of Environmental Quality 37, S5 (September 2008): S—116—S—127. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/jeq2007.0411.

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8

Papiri, S., C. Ciaponi, A. Capodaglio, C. Collivignarelli, G. Bertanza, F. Swartling, M. Crow, M. Fantozzi, and P. Valcher. "Field monitoring and evaluation of innovative solutions for cleaning storm water runoff." Water Science and Technology 47, no. 7-8 (April 1, 2003): 327–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0706.

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Urbanization increases the variety and amount of pollutants transported to receiving waters. Sediment from development and new construction; oil, grease, and toxic chemicals from automobiles; nutrients and pesticides from turf management and gardening; viruses and bacteria from failing septic systems; road salts; and heavy metals are examples of pollutants generated in urban areas. Sediments and solids constitute the largest volume of pollutant loads to receiving waters in urban areas. When runoff enters storm drains, it carries many of these pollutants with it. In older cities, this polluted runoff is often released directly into open waterways without any treatment. Increased pollutant loads can harm fish and wildlife populations, kill native vegetation, foul drinking water supplies, and make recreational areas unsafe. The objective of the study, performed by University of Pavia (Italy), University of Brescia (Italy) and GreenTechTexas International (US), reported herein is to evaluate the use of an innovative stormwater technology (EcoDräin(tm)) to reduce pollution due to urban runoff in existing urban areas. The paper describes the methodology and the results achieved with tests conducted in laboratory in Pavia University in Italy and in two pilot areas in Italy and in Australia to investigate the EcoDrain's effectiveness for oil and heavy metals retention and sediment trapping. In the tests performed in a marina near Sidney in Australia a reduction has been achieved in oil and grease concentration higher than 95% and a reduction in metal concentration (particularly Copper, Lead and Zinc) close to 98%. The paper also describes the methodology of the analysis on the absorbing material after its use and the consequent determination of the most efficient and environmentally safe way to dispose of consummated absorbent.

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9

Bach, P. M., D. T. McCarthy, and A. Deletic. "The development of a novel approach for assessment of the first flush in urban stormwater discharges." Water Science and Technology 61, no. 10 (May 1, 2010): 2681–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2010.209.

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The management of stormwater pollution has placed particular emphasis on the first flush phenomenon. However, definition and current methods of analyses of the phenomena contain serious limitations, the most important being their inability to capture a possible impact of the event size (total event volume) on the first flush. This paper presents the development of a novel approach in defining and assessing the first flush that should overcome these problems. The phenomenon is present in a catchment if the decrease in pollution concentration with the absolute cumulative volume of runoff from the catchment is statistically significant. Using data from seven diverse catchments around Melbourne, Australia, changes in pollutant concentrations for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Nitrogen (TN) were calculated over the absolute cumulative runoff and aggregated from a collection of different storm events. Due to the discrete nature of the water quality data, each concentration was calculated as a flow-weighted average at 2 mm runoff volume increments. The aggregated concentrations recorded in each increment (termed as a ‘slice’ of runoff) were statistically compared to each other across the absolute cumulative runoff volume. A first flush is then defined as the volume at which concentrations reach the ‘background concentration’ (i.e. the statistically significant minimum). Initial results clearly highlight first flush and background concentrations in all but one catchment supporting the validity of this new approach. Future work will need to address factors, which will help assess the first flush's magnitude and volume. Sensitivity testing and correlation with catchment characteristics should also be undertaken.

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10

Davies, C. M., S. M. Petterson, C. Kaucner, N. J. Ashbolt, V. G. Mitchell, G. D. Taylor, and J. Lewis. "Microbial challenge-testing of treatment processes for quantifying stormwater recycling risks and management." Water Science and Technology 57, no. 6 (March 1, 2008): 843–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2008.194.

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Pathogenic microorganisms have been identified as the main human health risks associated with the reuse of treated urban stormwater (runoff from paved and unpaved urban areas). As part of the Smart Water initiative (Victorian Government, Australia), a collaborative evaluation of three existing integrated stormwater recycling systems, and the risks involved in non-potable reuse of treated urban stormwater is being undertaken. Three stormwater recycling systems were selected at urban locations to provide a range of barriers including biofiltration, storage tanks, UV disinfection, a constructed wetland, and retention ponds. Recycled water from each of the systems is used for open space irrigation. In order to adequately undertake exposure assessments, it was necessary to quantify the efficacy of key barriers in each exposure pathway. Given that none of the selected treatment systems had previously been evaluated for their treatment efficiency, experimental work was carried out comprising dry and wet weather monitoring of each system (for a period of 12 months), as well as challenging the barriers with model microbes (for viruses, bacteria and parasitic protozoa) to provide input data for use in Quantitative Microbial Risk Assessment.

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11

Ashbolt, S., S. Aryal, K. Petrone, B. S. McIntosh, S. Maheepala, R. Chowdhury, and T. Gardner. "Can stormwater harvesting restore pre-development flows in urban catchments in South East Queensland?" Water Science and Technology 67, no. 2 (January 1, 2013): 446–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2012.582.

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Increases in the impervious area due to urbanisation have been shown to have negative impacts on the physical and ecological condition of streams, primarily through increased volume and frequency of runoff. The harvesting and detention of runoff has a potential to decrease this impact. This paper describes the effects of urbanisation on catchment flow and of stormwater harvesting on reducing those adverse impacts on a stream in South East Queensland (SEQ), Australia. A largely undeveloped catchment located southeast of Brisbane city was calibrated and validated using the Stormwater Management Model (SWMM). This model was used to investigate the effect of a range of future increases in urbanisation (represented by impervious area) on stream hydrology as well as the potential of stormwater harvesting to return the catchments to predevelopment flow conditions. Stormwater harvesting was modelled according to flow frequency measures specified in current SEQ development guidelines. These guidelines stipulate the capture of the first 10 mm of runoff from impervious areas of 0–40% and the first 15 mm from impervious areas of 40% or greater for urban developments. We found that increases in the impervious area resulted in increases in the mean, frequency and duration of high flows, and an increase in the mean rate of rise and fall for storm events in the catchment. However, the predevelopment (non-urbanised) flow distribution was very flashy in comparison with all urbanised scenarios; i.e. it had the quickest response to rainfall indicated by a high rate of rise to and fall from peak flow volume, followed by a return to zero flow conditions. Capturing the runoff according to the development guidelines resulted in a reduction in flow towards the flow distribution of a lower impervious area, however this was insufficient to meet predevelopment conditions. This suggests a stronger influence of impervious areas in this catchment on the volume of runoff than flow frequency measures are able to ameliorate.

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12

Rahman, K., and T. Weber. "Sustainable urban development in Brisbane City - the Holy Grail?" Water Science and Technology 47, no. 7-8 (April 1, 2003): 73–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0673.

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Impacts from urban stormwater runoff on receiving environments have been well documented, particularly through specific regional scientific studies. Using various local government planning and management elements, urban developments in Brisbane City are now able to address stormwater management in an increasingly holistic context. One key initiative includes facilitating Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) components within an Integrated Water Management Strategy that looks at policy formation, planning strategies, design option, community marketing and acceptance, maintenance programs and finally evaluation of various WSUD approaches. These can include the use of Natural Channel Designs, grassed swales, bio-filtration systems, porous pavements and roofwater tanks in several economic combinations. By linking with the Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology, Brisbane City Council has influenced the design of WSUD planning tools and benefited the city with academic inputs into extensive evaluation programs. As well, it has also contributed to the Cooperative Research Centre's research outcomes. These evaluation programs are increasingly providing better understanding of various stormwater quality best management practices throughout Australia. As part of the overall implementation process, active involvement by a range of stakeholders has been crucial. These stakeholders have included internal planning, development assessment and design staff, external consultants, developers, and other local and state government agencies. The latter two groups are assisting in the important task of “regionalisation” of Brisbane City Council's policies and guidelines. Implementation of WSUD initiatives and stormwater re-use strategies under Council's new “Integrated Water Management” agenda are showing some excellent results, suggesting that sustainable urban development is no longer like the search for the Holy Grail.

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13

Pittock, Jamie, Nadine Marshall, Tim Capon, Meg Parsons, Alistar I. Robertson, and Carolina Casaril. "A review of Australian institutions for riparian adaptation to climate change." Journal of Water and Climate Change 5, no. 3 (March 19, 2014): 315–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2014.116.

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Australia represents a global proving ground for effective riparian climate change adaptation due to its scale and diversity, extreme variation in runoff and degrees of aridity. An array of autonomous riparian zone (RZ) management adaptations have emerged in Australia that have captivated the international community but have yet to be effectively delivered. This paper reviews government policies, governance structures, the application of market-based instruments and voluntary measures to ask why Australia has not achieved more. We find promise in: the resurgence of application of indigenous knowledge and engagement in management; understanding of the catalytic roles of women, means of better engaging individuals, strengthening of social networks and fostering leadership in rural communities; transferring of urban resources to their rural hinterlands; better engaging communities through campaigns, businesses and political leaders; and strategic research programmes. These findings have application in other difficult hydrologies. We contend that government and market-based programmes are underpinned by voluntary and cultural institutions, and that these require strengthening through fostering of an ethic to conserve RZs as the core element of the biophysical and human landscape. It calls for stakeholders to adopt a common vision for conservation of RZs that can sustain implementation through institutional changes.

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Chan, K. Y., T. Wells, D. Fahey, S. M. Eldridge, and C. G. Dorahy. "Assessing P fertiliser use in vegetable production: agronomic and environmental implications." Soil Research 48, no. 8 (2010): 674. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/sr10056.

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Vegetable production is often located in the peri-urban areas close to large cities. In Sydney, Australia, excessive levels of phosphorus (P) have been reported in the soils, and vegetable farms have long been regarded as a potential source of the P that enters Sydney’s waterways. We report vegetable production under varying soil P conditions and the consequent changes in soil P, as well as water quality of runoff and leachate after growing 5 crops in a field trial where inputs in the form of garden organic compost were compared to current farmers’ practice. No difference in vegetable yield was observed between 100 and 400 mg/kg of soil Colwell P (0–0.10 m); therefore, our results indicate that the excessive soil P levels in the vegetable farms around Sydney are not important for optimal vegetable production. Results from runoff and leachate studies clearly demonstrate that high concentrations of P in soils used for vegetable production under the current farming practice around Sydney have increased the potential to export P and to negatively affect water quality of receiving environments. The significant increases in soluble P concentrations found in the soil and runoff water from the current farming practice can be attributed to the use of poultry litter. In contrast, using compost in place of poultry litter resulted in significantly reduced soil P accumulation and P concentration in runoff and leachate. Training and education programs for farmers and their advisors are recommended to encourage more sustainable fertiliser management practices and reduce the accumulation of P in the environment.

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15

Hatt, B. E., N. Siriwardene, A. Deletic, and T. D. Fletcher. "Filter media for stormwater treatment and recycling: the influence of hydraulic properties of flow on pollutant removal." Water Science and Technology 54, no. 6-7 (September 1, 2006): 263–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2006.626.

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Improved urban water management in Australia is of national importance. Water resources are stretched and urban runoff is a recognized leading cause of degradation of urban waterways. Stormwater recycling is an option that can contribute to easing these problems. Biofilters are effective structural stormwater pollution control measures with the potential for integration into stormwater treatment and recycling systems. However, premature clogging of biofilters is a major problem, with resulting decreased infiltration capacity (and hence the volume of stormwater the system can detain) and increased detention time. This paper presents preliminary findings with respect to the effect of clogging on pollutant removal efficiency in conventional stormwater filter media. A one-dimensional laboratory rig was used to investigate the impact of clogging on pollutant removal efficiency in a conventional biofiltration filter media (gravel over sand). Both the individual gravel layer and the overall multi-filter were highly efficient at removing suspended solids and particulate-associated pollutants. This removal efficiency was consistent, even as the filters became clogged. Removal of dissolved nutrients was more variable, with little reduction in concentrations overall. Although preliminary, these results challenge the concept that increased detention time improves the treatment performance of stormwater filtration systems.

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Nguyen, Hong, Friedrich Recknagel, and Wayne Meyer. "Water Quality Control Options in Response to Catchment Urbanization: A Scenario Analysis by SWAT." Water 10, no. 12 (December 13, 2018): 1846. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w10121846.

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Urbanization poses a challenge to sustainable catchment management worldwide. This study compares streamflows and nutrient loads in the urbanized Torrens catchment in South Australia at present and future urbanization levels, and addresses possible mitigation of urbanization effects by means of the control measures: river bank stabilization, buffer strip expansion, and wetland construction. A scenario analysis by means of the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) based on the anticipated urban population density growth in the Torrens catchment over the next 30 years predicted a remarkable increase of streamflow and Total Phosphorous loads but decreased Total Nitrogen loads. In contrast, minor changes of model outputs were predicted under the present urbanization scenario, i.e. urban area expansion on the grassland. Scenarios of three feasible control measures demonstrated best results for expanding buffer zone to sustain stream water quality. The construction of wetlands along the Torrens River resulted in the reduction of catchment runoff, but only slight decreases in TN and TP loads. Overall, the results of this study suggested that combining the three best management practices by the adaptive development of buffer zones, wetlands and stabilized river banks might help to control efficiently the increased run-off and TP loads by the projected urbanization of the River Torrens catchment.

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17

Brennan, L. E., S. N. Lisson, P. L. Poulton, P. S. Carberry, K. L. Bristow, and S. Khan. "A farm-scale, bio-economic model for assessing investments in recycled water for irrigation." Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 59, no. 11 (2008): 1035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ar06316.

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Demand for water in Australia is increasing along with growing pressure to maximise the efficiency of irrigation water use and seek additional and alternative irrigation supplies. The scarcity of water supplies coupled with the need for urban communities to dispose of large quantities of treated recycled water from sewage treatment plants has led to increasing interest from urban and rural communities in the reticulation of this water for irrigating adjacent crop-production areas. Proposals to use recycled water inevitably lead to a complex range of issues that need to be addressed, including: costs and benefits of supplying an additional source of water to current or new cropping systems; optimum irrigation design and management, particularly where there are multiple sources of irrigation water; management of overflow from on-farm water storages; and environmental implications with regard to salinity, runoff, drainage, nitrate leaching, and environmental flows. Simulation models can capture many of the key factors and processes influencing irrigated crop production systems, and can play a useful role in exploring these issues. In this paper, we have described an approach that couples agricultural production system and economic models in a way that enables analysis of the likely benefits and risks of investing in recycled water, although the analysis is equally relevant to any assessment of the value of an additional source of irrigation water, particularly saline water. The approach has been illustrated with a case study of a mixed-crop farm in the Darling Downs region of Queensland, Australia, in which the farm-scale crop production, economic, and environmental implications of investing in recycled water were considered.

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Lee, Byoung-Hwa, and Miklas Scholz. "What is the role of Phragmites australis in experimental constructed wetland filters treating urban runoff?" Ecological Engineering 29, no. 1 (January 2007): 87–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2006.08.001.

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Gupta, Rakesh, Kejia Yan, Tarlok Singh, and Di Mo. "Domestic and International Drivers of the Demand for Water Resources in the Context of Water Scarcity: A Cross-Country Study." Journal of Risk and Financial Management 13, no. 11 (October 29, 2020): 255. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jrfm13110255.

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Global warming, while increasing human demand for water, is reducing water availability by reducing runoff flows and the effective amount of water between seasons, making water scarcity a growing problem globally. Water management plays an important role in mitigating global warming, improving the water cycle, reducing carbon emissions, and providing clean energy, and pricing water is considered a good approach to water management. Pricing water needs to take into account all sectors and aspects of society, such as domestic water, food and agriculture, energy, transport, industry, urban provision, human health, ecosystems, and the environment, and their interrelationships through water, within the context of the fundamental human rights to water and sanitation. This requires that every stakeholder should contribute to the development of water-related policies at every stage of the water interrelationship. This study investigated the relationship between water demand across different sectors of the economy using indicators for China, Australia, Japan, and the UK. Using panel analyses, this study finds that economic growth and population expansion increases the demand for water in all aspects. These findings have significant policy implications for water management. Because water prices can have an impact on global trade and, more importantly, are a major solution to global warming, water management policies should be considered at the global level, not only at the national level.

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Gong, Siming, James Ball, and Nicholas Surawski. "Urban land-use land-cover extraction for catchment modelling using deep learning techniques." Journal of Hydroinformatics 24, no. 2 (March 1, 2022): 388–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2022.124.

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Abstract Throughout the world, the likelihood of floods and managing the associated risk are a concern to many catchment managers and the population residing in those catchments. Catchment modelling is a popular approach to predicting the design flood quantiles of a catchment with complex spatial characteristics and limited monitoring data to obtain the necessary information for preparing the flood risk management plan. As an important indicator of urbanisation, land use land cover (LULC) plays a critical role in catchment parameterisation and modelling the rainfall–runoff process. Digitising LULC from remote sensing imagery of urban catchment is becoming increasingly difficult and time-consuming as the variability and diversity of land uses occur during urban development. In recent years, deep learning neural networks (DNNs) have achieved remarkable image classification and segmentation outcomes with the powerful capacity to process complex workflow and features, learn sophisticated relationships and produce superior results. This paper describes end-to-end data assimilation and processing path using U-net and DeepLabV3+, also proposes a novel approach integrated with the clustering algorithm MeanShift. These methods were developed to generate pixel-based LULC semantic segmentation from high-resolution satellite imagery of the Alexandria Canal catchment, Sydney, Australia, and assess the applicability of their outputs as inputs to different catchment modelling systems. A significant innovation is using the MeanShift clustering algorithm to reduce the spatial noise in the raw image and propagate it to the deep learning network to improve prediction. All three methods achieved excellent classification performance, where the MeanShift+U-net has the highest accuracy and consistency on the test imagery. The final suitability assessment illustrates that all three methods are more suitable for the parameterisation of semi-distributed modelling systems rather than the fully distributed modelling systems, where the MeanShift+U-net should be adopted for image-based impervious area extraction of urban catchment due to its superior prediction accuracy of 98.47%.

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Chang, Tak, Amin Talei, Lloyd Chua, and Sina Alaghmand. "The Impact of Training Data Sequence on the Performance of Neuro-Fuzzy Rainfall-Runoff Models with Online Learning." Water 11, no. 1 (December 29, 2018): 52. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11010052.

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The learning algorithms in many of conventional Neuro-Fuzzy Systems (NFS) are based on batch or global learning where all parameters of the fuzzy system are optimized off-line. Although these models have frequently been used, they suffer from a reduced flexibility in their architecture as the number of rules need to be predefined by the user. This study uses a Dynamic Evolving Neural Fuzzy Inference System (DENFIS) in which an evolving, online clustering algorithm, the Evolving Clustering Method (ECM), is implemented. This study focused on evaluating the performance of this model in capturing the rainfall-runoff process and rainfall-water level relationship. The two selected study catchments are located in an urban tropical and in a semi-urbanized area, respectively. The first catchment, Sungai Kayu Ara (23.22 km2), is located in Malaysia, with 10-min rainfall-runoff time-series from which 30 major events are used. The second catchment, Dandenong (272 km2), is located in Victoria, Australia, with daily rainfall and river stage (water level) data from which 11 years of data is used. DENFIS results were then compared with two groups of benchmark models: a regression-based data-driven model known as the Autoregressive Model with Exogenous Inputs (ARX) for both study sites, and physical models Hydrologic Engineering Center–Hydrologic Modelling System (HEC–HMS) and Storm Water Management Model (SWMM) for Sungai Kayu Ara and Dandenong catchments, respectively. DENFIS significantly outperformed the ARX model in both study sites. Moreover, DENFIS was found comparable if not superior to HEC–HMS and SWMM in Sungai Kayu Ara and Dandenong catchments, respectively. A sensitivity analysis was then conducted on DENFIS to assess the impact of training data sequence on its performance. Results showed that starting the training with datasets that include high peaks can improve the model performance. Moreover, datasets with more contrasting values that cover wide range of low to high values can also improve the DENFIS model performance.

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A. Bustami, Rosmina, Nor Azalina Rosli, Jethro Henry Adam, and Kuan Pei Li. "Development of Temporal Rainfall Pattern for Southern Region of Sarawak." Journal of Civil Engineering, Science and Technology 3 (December 1, 2012): 17–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.33736/jcest.98.2012.

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In the process of a design rainfall, information on rainfall duration, average rainfall intensity and temporal rainfall pattern is important. This study focuses on developing a temporal rainfall pattern for the Southern region of Sarawak since temporal pattern for Sarawak is yet to be available in the Malaysian Urban Storm Water Management Manual (MSMA), which publishes temporal pattern for design storms only for Peninsular Malaysia. The recommended technique by the Australian Rainfall and Runoff (AR&R) known as the ‘Average Variability Method’ and method in Hydrological Procedure No.1-1982 are used to derive design rainfall temporal pattern for the study. Rainfall data of 5 minutes interval from year 1998 to year 2006 for 7 selected rainfall stations in the selected region is obtained from Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID). The temporal rainfall patterns developed are for 10 minutes,15 minutes, 30 minutes, 60 minutes, 120 minutes, 180 minutes and 360 minutes duration. The results show that Southern region of Sarawak has an exclusive rainfall pattern, which is different from the pattern developed for Peninsular Malaysia.

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23

Li, James, and B. J. Adams. "Optimization of urban runoff quantity/quality management." Environmetrics 1, no. 4 (July 6, 2007): 321–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/env.3170010402.

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24

Trowsdale, S., J. Gabe, and R. Vale. "Integrated urban water management in commercial buildings." Water Science and Technology 63, no. 5 (March 1, 2011): 859–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2011.261.

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Monitoring results are presented as an annual water balance from the pioneering Landcare Research green building containing commercial laboratory and office space. The building makes use of harvested roof runoff to flush toilets and urinals and irrigate glasshouse experiments, reducing the demand for city-supplied water and stormwater runoff. Stormwater treatment devices also manage the runoff from the carpark, helping curb stream degradation. Composting toilets and low-flow tap fittings further reduce the water demand. Despite research activities requiring the use of large volumes of water, the demand for city-supplied water is less than has been measured in many other green buildings. In line with the principles of sustainability, the composting toilets produce a useable product from wastes and internalise the wastewater treatment process.

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25

Helmreich, Brigitte. "Rainwater Management in Urban Areas." Water 13, no. 8 (April 16, 2021): 1096. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13081096.

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Rising levels of impervious surfaces in densely populated cities and climate change-related weather extremes such as heavy rain events or long dry weather periods provide us with new challenges for sustainable stormwater management in urban areas. The Special Issue consists of nine articles and a review and focuses on a range of relevant issues: different aspects and findings of stormwater runoff quantity and quality, including strategies and techniques to mitigate the negative effects of such climate change impacts hydraulically, as well as lab-scale and long-term experience with pollutants from urban runoff and the efficiency of stormwater quality improvement devices (SQIDs) in removing them. Testing procedures and protocols for SQIDs are also considered. One paper analyses the clogging of porous media in the use of stormwater for managed aquifer recharge. The Special Issue demonstrates the importance and timeliness of the topic of sustainable rainwater management, especially with regard to growing cities and the challenges posed by climate change.

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26

Garcia, Alfred, and Wesley P. James. "Urban Runoff Simulation Model." Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management 114, no. 4 (July 1988): 399–413. http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733-9496(1988)114:4(399).

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27

Xiao, Qingfu, E. McPherson, Qi Zhang, Xinlei Ge, and Randy Dahlgren. "Performance of Two Bioswales on Urban Runoff Management." Infrastructures 2, no. 4 (September 27, 2017): 12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/infrastructures2040012.

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28

Malaviya, Piyush, and Asha Singh. "Constructed Wetlands for Management of Urban Stormwater Runoff." Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 42, no. 20 (October 9, 2012): 2153–214. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2011.574107.

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29

Nightingale, Harry I. "WATER QUALITY BENEATH URBAN RUNOFF WATER MANAGEMENT BASINS." Journal of the American Water Resources Association 23, no. 2 (April 1987): 197–205. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.1987.tb00797.x.

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30

ELLIS, Professor J. B. "The Management and Control of Urban Runoff Quality." Water and Environment Journal 3, no. 2 (April 1989): 116–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1989.tb01499.x.

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31

Almakki, Ayad, Estelle Jumas-Bilak, Hélène Marchandin, and Patricia Licznar-Fajardo. "Antibiotic resistance in urban runoff." Science of The Total Environment 667 (June 2019): 64–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.183.

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32

Viklander, M., J. Marsalek, P. A. Malmquist, and W. E. Watt. "Urban drainage and highway runoff in cold climates: conference overview." Water Science and Technology 48, no. 9 (November 1, 2003): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2003.0479.

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This overview of research findings presented at the conference on urban drainage and highway runoff in cold climates starts with generation of urban runoff and snowmelt, followed by snowmelt and winter runoff quality, best management practices for urban snowmelt and winter runoff, and snow management in urban areas. Research on the urban hydrological cycle is lagging behind the needs in this field, particularly in terms of data availability. The current studies of winter urban runoff quality focus on road salts in the urban environment and their environmental effects. The needs for better source controls in salt applications, improved management of chloride-laden runoff, and selective adoption of environmentally safer alternative de-icers were reported. Adaptation of the conventional stormwater best management practices (BMPs) for winter operation remains a challenge. The first step in refining the existing BMPs for winter operation is to advance the understanding of their operation, as reported for some cases at the conference. Finally, snow management in urban areas may require local storage of fresh (unpolluted) snow and disposal of more polluted snow at central snow disposal sites.

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33

Zhang, Yixin, Weihan Zhao, Xue Chen, Changhyun Jun, Jianli Hao, Xiaonan Tang, and Jun Zhai. "Assessment on the Effectiveness of Urban Stormwater Management." Water 13, no. 1 (December 22, 2020): 4. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13010004.

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Stormwater management is a key issue in line with global problems of urbanization and climate change. Assessing the effectiveness in managing stormwater is crucial to maintain urban resilience to flooding risk. A method based on a stormwater management model (SWMM) was developed for assessing the control of stormwater runoff volume and the percentage removal of suspended solids by implementing a Sponge City strategy. An interdisciplinary approach was adopted incorporating Low Impact Development (LID) with urban green infrastructure and grey infrastructure paradigms in a typical old residential community in Suzhou, China. Sponge facilities for reducing stormwater runoff included bio-retention cells, permeable pavements, grassed pitches, and stormwater gardens. The simulation results of SWMM show that the stormwater pipe system can meet the management standard for storms with a five-year recurrence interval. The volume capture ratio of annual runoff was 91%, which is higher than control target of 80%. The suspended solids reduction rate was 56%, which meets the requirement of planning indicators. Thus, the proposed method of spongy facilities can be used for renovation planning in old residential areas in China. Implementing spongy facilities with a LID strategy for stormwater management can significantly enhance urban water resilience and improve ecosystem services.

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34

Liu, Yesen, Yaohuan Huang, Yuanyuan Liu, Kuang Li, and Min Li. "The Impact of Rainfall Movement Direction on Urban Runoff Cannot Be Ignored in Urban Hydrologic Management." Water 13, no. 20 (October 17, 2021): 2923. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w13202923.

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Urban floods have been exacerbated globally, associated with increasing spatial-temporal variations in rainfall. However, compared with rainfall variabilities of intensity and duration, the effect of rainfall movement direction is always ignored. Based on 1313 rainfall scenarios with different combinations of rainfall intensity and rainfall movement direction in the typically rainy city of Shenzhen in China, we find that the effect of rainfall movement direction on the peak runoff may reach up to 20%, which will decrease to less than 5% under heavy rainfall intensity conditions. In addition, our results show that the impact of rainfall movement direction is almost symmetrical and is associated with the direction of the river. The closer rainfall movement direction is to the Linear Directional Mean of rivers, the larger is the peak runoff of section. Our results reveal that rainfall movement direction is significant to urban peak runoff in the downstream reaches, which should be considered in urban hydrological analysis.

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35

Brodie, Ian M. "Stormwater reuse treatment requirements and screening-level risk assessment at two urban spatial scales." Journal of Water Reuse and Desalination 2, no. 1 (March 1, 2012): 13–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2012.072.

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Monitoring was conducted at two urban spatial scales (lot-scale road surface and residential subdivision) to assess treatment requirements for non-potable stormwater reuse by irrigation. A screening-level risk assessment was also made focusing on metals, nutrients, cations and pesticides. Composite stormwater samples were taken at two locations in Toowoomba, Australia. Road runoff had higher treatment requirements for suspended solids but less for disinfection. No organic load or salinity reduction is generally needed, and pH adjustment is an occasional requirement for road runoff only. For both stormwaters, hardness was rated at very soft, which may potentially increase corrosion of irrigation equipment. Sodium adsorption ratios were also low indicating a limited risk of soil degradation under irrigation. Nutrient and metal concentrations also pose a low risk. High turbidity and low alkalinity of road runoff makes it easier to treat with coagulants compared to the subdivision runoff. Pesticide analysis of 121 compounds found road runoff concentrations below levels of detection, except for Simazine and Hexazinone. Although detectable, these pesticide concentrations were within Australian drinking water guidelines.

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36

Madhuri, R., Y. S. L. Sarath Raja, and K. Srinivasa Raju. "Simulation-optimization framework in urban flood management for historic and climate change scenarios." Journal of Water and Climate Change 13, no. 2 (December 21, 2021): 1007–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wcc.2021.436.

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Abstract A simulation-optimization framework is established by integrating Hydrologic Engineering Center Hydraulic Modeling System (HEC-HMS) for computation of runoff, siting tool EPA System for Urban Storm-water Treatment and Analysis INtegration (EPA-SUSTAIN) for placement of Best Management Practices (BMPs), and Binary Linear Integer Programming (BLIP) for runoff reduction. The framework is applied to an urban catchment, namely Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation (GHMC). The rainfall-runoff analysis was conducted for extreme rainfalls for historic (2016) and future events in 2050 and 2064 under Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs) 6.0 and 8.5. The simulation-optimization approach in the historic scenario yielded 495,607 BMPs occupying 76.99 km2 resulting in runoff reduction of 21.54 mm (198.76–177.22 mm). Achieved runoff reduction is 38.72 (428.35–389.63 mm) and 55.03 (602.65–547.62 mm), respectively, for RCPs 6.0 and 8.5, which could meet the water demands of GHMC for 10.33 and 11.53 days. Impacts of 10 different BMP configurations of varying costs (10–70%) and pollutant load reductions (0–3%) on runoff reduction are accomplished as part of sensitivity analysis.

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37

Ellis, John Bryan. "Bacterial sources, pathways and management strategies for urban runoff." Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 47, no. 6 (November 2004): 943–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0964056042000284910.

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38

Taylor, Geoff D., Tim D. Fletcher, Tony H. F. Wong, Peter F. Breen, and Hugh P. Duncan. "Nitrogen composition in urban runoff—implications for stormwater management." Water Research 39, no. 10 (May 2005): 1982–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2005.03.022.

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39

Ballo, Siaka, Min Liu, Lijun Hou, and Jing Chang. "Pollutants in stormwater runoff in Shanghai (China): Implications for management of urban runoff pollution." Progress in Natural Science 19, no. 7 (July 2009): 873–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.07.021.

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40

Brodie, Ian M., and Peter K. Dunn. "Suspended particle characteristics in storm runoff from urban impervious surfaces in Toowoomba, Australia." Urban Water Journal 6, no. 2 (June 2009): 137–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15730620802541607.

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41

Liu, Yang, Chunyi Wang, Yang Yu, Yongyu Chen, Longfei Du, Xiaodong Qu, Wenqi Peng, Min Zhang, and Chenxin Gui. "Effect of Urban Stormwater Road Runoff of Different Land Use Types on an Urban River in Shenzhen, China." Water 11, no. 12 (December 2, 2019): 2545. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/w11122545.

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Urban storm runoff is a major source of pollutants in receiving water bodies. To assess the impact of urban stormwater runoff on an urban river, the runoff process of total suspended solids (TSS), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium (NH4), and total phosphorus (TP) were investigated on road surfaces classified as arterial road (AR), residential area (RA), and industrial area (IA) in the Pingshan River (PSR) watershed in Shenzhen, China. Event mean concentration (EMC) was calculated to analyze the water quality of road runoff, and the dimensionless M(V) cumulative curves were used to estimate the course of decreasing concentration of runoff pollutants during each rainfall event. Multicriteria decision making methods (PROMETHEE-GAIA) were used to identify the linkage between runoff pollutants, land use types, and rainfall intensity. The EMCs of COD and TP in runoff exceeded the class IV level of the water quality standard for surface water (China). RA was a major potential source for NH4, COD, and TP in the river. Controlling the first flush is critical to decrease the effect of road runoff on receiving water bodies, as most runoff pollutants in AR, RA, and IA had a first flush effect during heavy rainfall. The specific management measure for runoff pollution varied with land use type. Reducing road TSS concentrations was effective for controlling runoff pollution in AR and RA because NH4, TP, and COD attached to particulate matter. In IA, the collection and reuse of stormwater in the initial rainfall period were effective for reducing the effect of soluble pollutants in runoff on receiving water bodies. This study provides new information for managing urban road stormwater runoff in different land use types.

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42

Anderson, John M. "Current water recycling initiatives in Australia: scenarios for the 21st century." Water Science and Technology 33, no. 10-11 (May 1, 1996): 37–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1996.0659.

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Australia is a relatively dry continent with an average runoff of 50 mm per year. The use of water resources in some river basins is approaching the limits of sustainability. Some adverse environmental impacts have been observed resulting from water diversions and from both reclaimed water and stormwater discharges. The paper describes current water recycling initiatives in Australia. These include: beneficial reuse of reclaimed water for urban, residential, industrial and agricultural purposes; recycling of greywater and stormwater; advanced treatment using membrane technology; and water efficient urban design. Some possible water recycling scenarios for Australia in the 21st century are examined. The implications of these scenarios are discussed.

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43

Oraei Zare, S., B. Saghafian, and A. Shamsai. "Multi-objective optimization for combined quality–quantity urban runoff control." Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 16, no. 12 (December 3, 2012): 4531–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/hess-16-4531-2012.

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Abstract. Urban development affects the quantity and quality of urban surface runoff. In recent years, the best management practices (BMPs) concept has been widely promoted for control of both quality and quantity of urban floods. However, means to optimize the BMPs in a conjunctive quantity/quality framework are still under research. In this paper, three objective functions were considered: (1) minimization of the total flood damages, cost of BMP implementation and cost of land-use development; (2) reducing the amount of TSS (total suspended solid) and BOD5 (biological oxygen demand), representing the pollution characteristics, to below the threshold level; and (3) minimizing the total runoff volume. The biological oxygen demand and total suspended solid values were employed as two measures of urban runoff quality. The total surface runoff volume produced by sub-basins was representative of the runoff quantity. The construction and maintenance costs of the BMPs were also estimated based on the local price standards. Urban runoff quantity and quality in the case study watershed were simulated with the Storm Water Management Model (SWMM). The NSGA-II (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II) optimization technique was applied to derive the optimal trade off curve between various objectives. In the proposed structure for the NSGA-II algorithm, a continuous structure and intermediate crossover were used because they perform better as far as the optimization efficiency is concerned. Finally, urban runoff management scenarios were presented based on the optimal trade-off curve using the k-means method. Subsequently, a specific runoff control scenario was proposed to the urban managers.

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44

Maršálek, J., and D. Sztruhár. "Urban Drainage: Review of Contemporary Approaches." Water Science and Technology 29, no. 1-2 (January 1, 1994): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1994.0645.

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Recent developments in urban storm drainage are reviewed starting with rainfall/runoff processes, followed by discussions of combined sewage, drainage impacts on receiving waters, impact mitigation, hydroinformatics, regulatory programs and conclusions. The most promising trends in this field include improvements in spatial definition of rainfall data, runoff modelling with a limited number of model parameters and recognition of modelling uncertainties, analytical statistical modelling of runoff quality, advances in the understanding and modelling of sewer sediment transport, the use of biomonitoring and modelling in assessing drainage impacts on receiving waters, further refinement of best management practices for stormwater management, development of new processes for treatment of stormwater, experience with vortex combined sewer overflow structures and their applications in combination with other treatment devices, real time control of sewer system operation, advances in hydroinformatics leading to improvements in the integrated management and modelling of drainage systems, interfacing of drainage models with geographic information systems, and improved regulation of drainage effluents.

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45

ANDOH, R. Y. G. "Urban Runoff: Nature, Characteristics and Control." Water and Environment Journal 8, no. 4 (August 1994): 371–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-6593.1994.tb01120.x.

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46

Argue, John R., and David Pezzaniti. "Catchment “greening” using stormwater in Adelaide, South Australia." Water Science and Technology 39, no. 2 (January 1, 1999): 177–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.1999.0116.

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The paper reviews the goals of stormwater management adopted in Adelaide and declares a focus on harvesting of stormwater to replace mains water in irrigating areas landscaped with grass, flower beds and shrubs. Four categories of catchments are recognised according to their levels of pollution production - roof runoff and “low”, “medium” and “high” pollution runoff surfaces. Four case study examples of systems involving appropriate treatment trains are described, each one delivering harvested stormwater suitable for irrigation. Two examples are given of large roof areas draining to gravel-filled trenches providing “passive” irrigation to grassed surfaces and two examples of runoff from ground-level surfaces supplying cleansed recharge to small aquifer storage/recovery schemes.

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47

Harris, J. A., and B. J. Adams. "Probabilistic assessment of urban runoff erosion potential." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 33, no. 3 (March 1, 2006): 307–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l05-114.

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At the planning or screening level of urban development, analytical modeling using derived probability distribution theory is a viable alternative to continuous simulation, offering considerably less computational effort. A new set of analytical probabilistic models is developed for predicting the erosion potential of urban stormwater runoff. The marginal probability distributions for the duration of a hydrograph in which the critical channel velocity is exceeded (termed exceedance duration) are computed using derived probability distribution theory. Exceedance duration and peak channel velocity are two random variables upon which erosion potential is functionally dependent. Reasonable agreement exists between the derived marginal probability distributions for exceedance duration and continuous EPA Stormwater Management Model (SWMM) simulations at more common return periods. It is these events of lower magnitude and higher frequency that are the most significant to erosion-potential prediction. Key words: erosion, stormwater management, derived probability distribution, exceedance duration.

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48

Chocat, B., P. Krebs, J. Marsalek, W. Rauch, and W. Schilling. "Urban drainage redefined: from stormwater removal to integrated management." Water Science and Technology 43, no. 5 (March 1, 2001): 61–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wst.2001.0251.

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Even though urban drainage has been practised for more than 5000 years, many challenges arising from growing demands on drainage still remain with respect to runoff quantity and quality; landscape aesthetics, ecology and beneficial uses; and operation of existing urban wastewater systems. Further advances can be achieved by adopting an integrated approach, optimal operation of the existing infrastructure, advanced pollution and runoff source controls, improved resilience of receiving waters, and adaptive water management. The specific research needs include new technologies and strategies for stormwater management, advanced treatment of urban wet-weather effluents, and tools for analysis and operation of drainage systems. High diversity of demands on, and region/site specific conditions of, urban drainage shapes the role of urban drainage experts – as mediators among the many stakeholders and fields involved.

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49

Kändler, Nils, Ivar Annus, Anatoli Vassiljev, and Raido Puust. "Real time controlled sustainable urban drainage systems in dense urban areas." Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua 69, no. 3 (December 2, 2019): 238–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2019.083.

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Abstract Stormwater runoff from urban catchments is affected by the changing climate and rapid urban development. Intensity of rainstorms is expected to increase in Northern Europe, and sealing off surfaces reduces natural stormwater management. Both trends increase stormwater peak runoff volume that urban stormwater systems (UDS) have to tackle. Pipeline systems have typically limited capacity, therefore measures must be foreseen to reduce runoff from new developed areas to existing UDS in order to avoid surcharge. There are several solutions available to tackle this challenge, e.g. low impact development (LID), best management practices (BMP) or stormwater real time control measures (RTC). In our study, a new concept of a smart in-line storage system is developed and evaluated on the background of traditional in-line and off-line detention solutions. The system is operated by real time controlled actuators with an ability to predict rainfall dynamics. This solution does not need an advanced and expensive centralised control system; it is easy to implement and install. The concept has been successfully tested in a 12.5 ha urban development area in Tallinn, the Estonian capital. Our analysis results show a significant potential and economic feasibility in the reduction of peak flow from dense urban areas with limited free construction space.

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50

Cederkvist, K., M. B. Jensen, and P. E. Holm. "Characterization of Chromium Species in Urban Runoff." Journal of Environmental Quality 42, no. 1 (January 2013): 111–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.2134/jeq2012.0182.

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