Дисертації з теми "Transposal elements"

Os elementos de transposicão (TEs) são sequências genéticas móveis. Sua capacidade mutagênica faz deles uma importante fonte de variabilidade nos genomas. Outro importante papel dos TEs na evolução dos genomas é o de doadores de domínios protéicos na formação de novos genes. 276 clones de cDNA homólogos a TEs foram previamente identificados no banco de dados do SUCEST (projeto de sequenciamento de etiquetas expressas de cana-de-acúcar). Neste trabalho nós realizamos o sequenciamento completo de 156 destes clones e a classificação e caracterização de suas sequências comparando-as com bancos de dados. Foram identificadas 9 diferentes famílias de transposons e 11 diferentes famílias de retrotransposons. As famílias mais representadas entre os transposons foram MuDr e hAT (que engloba os elementos do tipo Ac e Tam3), para os quais foram identificados 43 e 32 clones de cDNA, respectivamente. Entre os retrotransposons, a família mais representada foi Hopscotch, apresentando 25 clones de cDNA. Após esta análise global, o foco das investigações voltou-se para os cDNAs do tipo hAT. Uma análise comparativa destes cDNAs revelou que as sequências homólogas a hAT estão distribuídas em dois grupos. O grupo I, é composto por sequências com alta conservação no nível de nucleotídeos, está presente no genoma de todas as gramíneas analisadas (híbridos e parentais da cana-de-acúcar, milho e arroz) com um baixo número de cópias, teve a sua expressão detectada em folhas, raízes e mais intensamente em calos cana. Além disso, apresenta alta similaridade de sequências com transposases domesticadas descritas na literatura. O grupo II, por sua vez, é composto por sequências mais heterogêneas, que apresentam similaridade com os transposons originais que constituem a superfamília hAT: hobo (de Drosophila melanogaster), Ac (de Zea mays) e Tam3 (de Antirrhinum majus). Sua distribuição é restrita ao genoma de Saccharum, com um número de cópias maior que o grupo I. Um ensaio de PCR-Inversa identificou terminações inversas repetidas (TIRs) para o cDNA TE221 do grupo II. A partir de iniciadores desenhados sobre estas TIRs foi possível recuperar dois elementos, de 3,5kb e 4,2kb, respectivamente, e um MITE de 250 pb, todos homólogos a hAT. Este resultado demonstrou que a estratégia utilizada para recuperar elementos do genoma da cana-de-açúcar a partir do cDNA TE221 mostrou-se eficiente. Homólogos aos grupos I e II de cana-de-acúcar foram identificados em bancos de dados de milho, arroz e arabidopsis. Estes dados sugerem que a separação dos dois grupos ocorreu antes da divergência entre as classes Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea. Com base nos resultados aqui apresentados sugerimos que um transposon ancestral do tipo hAT, presente nas angiospermas anteriormente à separação de Monocotiledonea e Eudicotiledonea, teve sua transposase capturada na formação de um gene com função celular. A partir do evento da domesticação, estas transposases seguiram dois caminhos evolutivos distintos, um como gene funcional e outro como um transposon tradicional. Estas duas formas de transposase do tipo hAT podem ser encontradas no genoma da cana-de-acúcar, representadas pelos elementos dos grupos I e II, respectivamente.
Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic sequences. Their mutagenic capacity makes them important sources of variation in the genomes. These elements have another important evolutionary role as donors of functional protein domains in the formation of new genes. 276 cDNA clones homologous to TEs were previously identified in the Brazilian Sugarcane Expressed Sequence Tag Project (SUCEST) databases. In this work, we have obtained the full sequences of 156 for these clones. These sequences were compared with Genbank database. We have identified 9 families of transposons and 11 families of retrotransposons. The most representative families found amongst the transposons were MuDr and hAT (wich encompass Ac and Tam3), with 43 and 32 cDNAs, respectively. Amongst the retrotransposons, the most representative family was Hopscotch, with 25 cDNAs. After this global analysis, we have focused our investigation in the hAT-like cDNAs. A comparative analysis of these cDNAs has revealed a profile of two distinct groups. Group I is composed of sequences with high conservation at nucleotide level, it is present in the genome of all grasses analysed (hybrids and parentals of sugarcane, maize and rice) with low copy number, it is expressed in leaves and roots of sugarcane, and more intensely in callus. In addition, group I sequences have clustered with domesticated transposases. The group II is composed of more heterogeneous sequences similar with the original elements that constitute the hAT superfamily: hobo (from Drosophilla melanogaster), Ac (from Zea mays) and Tam3 (from Antirrhinum majus). This group was shown to be restricted to the genome of Saccharum, with higher copy number than group one. Inverse-PCR assays has identified terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) to the cDNA TE221 from group II. Primers based on the sequences of the TIRs allowed us to recover three elements hAT-like from sugarcane’s genomic DNA: one of 3,5kb and another of 4,2kb, and a MITE of 250 bp. These results corroborate the strategy applied in order to recover elements from the sugarcane´s genome. Sequences homologous to both sugarcane group I and group II were found also in maize and rice, as well as in arabidopsis databases. These data suggest that the divergence of the two groups occured before the separation between the classes Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea. Based on our results, we suggest the existence of an ancestral transposon hAT-like, present in angiosperms before the separation between Monocotiledonea and Eudicotiledonea, of which the transposase was captured to compose a new gene with some cellular function. Since the domestication event, these transposases followed distinct evolutive pathways, one as a regular gene and another as a bona fide transposon. These two forms of hAT-like transposases could be found in the sugarcane’s genome, represented by the elements from groups I and II, respectively.

Kyoto University (京都大学)
0048
新制・課程博士
博士(農学)
甲第18526号
農博第2083号
新制||農||1026(附属図書館)
学位論文||H26||N4870(農学部図書室)
31412
京都大学大学院農学研究科農学専攻
(主査)教授 奥本 裕, 教授 米森 敬三, 教授 冨永 達
学位規則第4条第1項該当

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are an abundant and diverse class of small, non-protein coding RNAs that guide the post-transcriptional repression of messenger RNA (mRNA) targets in a sequence-specific manner. Hundreds, if not thousands of distinct miRNA sequences have been described, each of which has the potential to regulate a large number of mRNAs. Over the last decade, miRNAs have been ascribed roles in nearly all biological processes in which they have been tested. More recently, interest has grown in understanding how individual miRNAs evolved, and how they are regulated. In this work, we demonstrate that Transposable Elements are a source for novel miRNA genes and miRNA target sites. We find that primate-specific miRNA binding sites were gained through the transposition of Alu elements. We also find that remnants of Mammalian Interspersed Repeat transposition, which occurred early in mammalian evolution, provide highly conserved functional miRNA binding sites in the human genome. We also provide data to support that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) can provide a novel miRNA binding substrate which, rather than inhibiting the miRNA target, inhibits the miRNA. As such, lncRNAs are proposed to function as endogenous miRNA "sponges," competing for miRNA binding and reducing miRNA-mediated repression of protein-coding mRNA targets. We also explored how dynamic changes to miRNA binding sites can occur by A-to-I editing of the 3 `UTRs of mRNA targets. These works, together with knowledge gained from the regulatory activity of endogenous and exogenously added miRNAs, provided a platform for algorithm development that can be used in the rational design of artificial RNAi triggers with improved target specificity. The cumulative results from our studies identify and in some cases clarify important mechanisms for the emergence of miRNAs and miRNA binding sites on large (over eons) and small (developmental) time scales, and help in translating these gene silencing processes into practical application.

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Colletotrichum is one of the most important genera of plant-pathogenic fungi in the world. The pathogenic species of this genus have hemibiotrophic lifestyle and cause diseases in several economically significant crops. Besides the economic importance, Colletotrichum has great significance as a model system for studying the molecular and cellular bases of fungal pathogenicity. The species C. graminicola, causal agent of corn anthracnose (Zea mays), has rare sexual stage and was the first species of the genus to have its genome completely sequenced. The transposable elements are ubiquitous and constitute a source of new mutations, being an important source of genetic variability. These elements are divided into two classes according to the presence or absence of an RNA intermediate in transposition. Elements of class I transpose via RNA intermediate, while class II elements transpose directly as DNA. The transposable elements can be applied as mutagenic agents aimed at the identification and labeling of genes and in phylogenetic and population studies. Given the importance of transposable elements in the generation of genetic variability and its applications in research, the aim of this study was to identify and characterize the class II transposable elements in the genome of C. graminicola. For this purpose, we used a bioinformatic approach combined with experimental activities. We identified 132 complete sequences of transposable elements in the sequenced genome of C. graminicola, which represent a significant proportion of the genome (0.47%). The elements were classified into six families according to similarity, all elements have characteristics of Tc1-mariner superfamily. Although some of these elements possess putative transposases with conserved DDE domain, all are interrupted by multiple stop codons. None of the elements identified has all the necessary features to be considered an active element. In silico analysis revealed evidence that these sequences are mutated by RIP (repeat point induced mutation) mechanism. TCg1 element was amplified by PCR from a Brazilian isolate and has imperfect terminal inverted repeats and the putative transposase sequence has three conserved domains characteristic of transposases: DDE, CENPB and HTH. However, this sequence is interrupted by stop codons and lacks the initiation codon and termination codon, therefore, is probably inactive. The genomic DNA from 49 different isolates were analyzed by hybridization with a probe derived from the inner region of TCg1 and different profiles were identified. The strategy allowed the efficient identification of a variety of Tc1-Mariner transposable elements degenerated by mutations characteristics of RIP in C. graminicola. It is unlikely that any of the identified elements is autonomous, however, these elements must have an important role in the genetic variability of this fungus. The TCg1 element is present in the genomes of different isolates of C. graminicola and has the potential to be used as a molecular marker in population analyzes.
Colletotrichum é um dos gêneros mais importantes de fungos fitopatogênicos em todo o mundo. As espécies fitopatogênicas desse gênero apresentam ciclo de vida hemibiotrófico e causam doenças em diversas culturas economicamente importantes. Além da importância econômica, Colletotrichum possui grande relevância como um sistema modelo para o estudo das bases celulares e moleculares da patogenicidade fúngica. A espécie Colletotrichum graminicola, agente causal da antracnose do milho (Zea mays), possui ciclo sexual raro e foi a primeira espécie do gênero a ter o seu genoma completamente sequenciado. Os elementos transponíveis são ubíquos e constituem uma fonte de novas mutações, sendo, portanto, uma importante fonte de variabilidade genética. Esses elementos são divididos em duas classes de acordo com a presença ou ausência de um intermediário de RNA na transposição. Os elementos da classe I se transpõem via intermediário de RNA, enquanto os elementos da classe II se transpõem diretamente como DNA. Os elementos transponíveis podem ser utilizados como agentes mutagênicos visando à identificação e etiquetagem de genes e em estudos filogenéticos e populacionais. Tendo em vista a importância dos elementos transponíveis na geração de variabilidade genética e as suas aplicações na pesquisa, o objetivo deste trabalho foi identificar e caracterizar elementos transponíveis da classe II no genoma de C. graminicola. Para tanto, foi utilizada uma abordagem de bioinformática (análises in silico) aliada às atividades experimentais. Foram identificadas 133 sequências completas de elementos transponíveis no genoma sequenciado de C. graminicola, que representam uma proporção relevante do genoma (0,47%). Os elementos foram classificados em 6 famílias de acordo com a identidade e apresentam características da superfamília Tc1-Mariner. Apesar de algumas transposases putativas codificadas por esses elementos possuírem domínio DDE conservado, todas estão interrompidas por vários códons de parada. Nenhum elemento identificado possui todas as características necessárias para um elemento autônomo. A análise in silico revelou evidências de mutações geradas pelo mecanismo de RIP (Mutação de ponto induzida por repetição). O elemento TCg1, amplificado por PCR a partir de um isolado brasileiro de C. graminicola, possui extremidades repetidas invertidas imperfeitas e a sequência putativa da transposase apresenta os três domínios característicos conservados: DDE, HTH e CENPB. Entretanto, essa sequência está interrompida por códons de parada e não foram localizados os códons de iniciação e de terminação, sendo, portanto, provavelmente inativa. O DNA genômico de 49 diferentes isolados foi analisado por hibridização com uma sequência derivada da região interna de TCg1 e apresentaram diferentes perfis. A estratégia utilizada permitiu uma identificação eficiente de uma variedade de elementos transponíveis Tc1-Mariner degenerados por mutações características de RIP em C. graminicola. É improvável que algum dos elementos identificados seja autônomo, entretanto, esses elementos devem possuir um importante papel na variabilidade genética desse fungo. O elemento TCg1 está presente no genoma de diferentes isolados de C. graminicola e possui potencial para ser utilizado como marcador molecular em análises populacionais.

Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile DNA sequences that are a source of mutations and can target specific sites in host genome. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of TE target site preferences is a fundamental challenge in functional and evolutionary genomics. Here we used accurately mapped TE insertions in the Drosophila melanogaster genome, from large-scale gene disruption and resequencing projects, to better understand TE insertion site mechanisms. First we test predictions of the palindromic target site model for DNA transposon insertion using artificially generated P-element insertions. We provide evidence that the P-element targets a 14 bp palindromic motif that can be identified at the primary sequence level that differs significantly from random base composition in the D. melanogaster genome. This sequence also predicts local spacing, hotspots and strand orientation of P-element insertions. Next, we combine artificial P-element insertions with data from genome- wide studies on sequence properties of promoter regions, in an attempt to decode the genomic factors associated with P-element promoter targeting. Our results indicate that the P-element insertions are affected by nucleosome positioning and the presence of chromatin marks made by the Polycomb and trithorax protein groups. We provide the first genome-wide study which shows that core promoter architecture and chromatin structure impact P-element target preferences shedding light on the nuclear processes that influence its pattern of TE insertions across the D. melanogaster genome. In an effort to understand the natural insertion preferences of a wide range of TEs, we then used genome resequencing data to identify insertions sites not present in the reference strain. We found that both Illumina and 454 sequencing platforms showed consistent results in terms of target site duplication (TSD) and target site motif (TSM) discovery. We found that TSMs typically extend the TSD and are palindromic for both DNA and LTR elements with a variable center that depends on the length of the TSD. Additionally, we found that TEs from the same subclass present similar TSDs and TSMs. Finally, by correlating results on P-element insertion sites from natural strains with gene disruption experiments, we show that there is an overlap in target site preferences between artificial and natural insertion events and that P-element targeting of promoter regions of genes is a natural characteristic of this element that is influenced by the same features has the artificially generated insertions. Together, the results presented in this thesis provide important new findings about the target preferences of TEs in one of the best-studied and most important model organisms, and provide a platform for understanding target site preferences of TEs in other species using genomic data.

Le moustique Chironomus riparius est présent dans toute la région Paléarctique, et il est bien caracterisé au niveau morphologique et cytogénétique. Les connaissances sur la variabilité génétique de cette éspèce sont cependant très reduites. Ici nous décrivons le polymorphisme, chez six populations naturelles, des sites d'insertion de quatre éléments transposables (CTRT, MEC, NLRCth1, TFB1) au moyen d'une technique TID (Transposon Insertion Display) derivée de la technique S-SAP (Sequence -Specific Amplification Polymorphism) et aussi de l'AFLP (Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism). La seule étude sur le polymorphisme alloenzymatique faite sur cette espèce a decelé une differenciation très rèduite entre des populations de Russie. Nos resultats indiquent que tous les amplicons identifiés sont polymorphes. Le degré de différenciation entre individus au sein de chaque population est d'un ordre de grandeur plus élevé que la différenciation parmi les populations. Néanmoins, la valeur de st est significative (P< 0. 001): cela suggère que les populations sont génétiquement plus differenciées entre-elles qu'un échantillon aléatoire d'individus

Los elementos transponibles son unidades genéticas capaces de insertarse en otras regiones de los genomas en los que habitan y están presentes en casi todas las especies eucariotas estudiadas. El interés del análisis de los elementos transponibles no se debe únicamente a su consideración de parásitos intragenómicos. Los elementos transponibles suponen una enorme fuente de variabilidad para los genomas de sus hospedadores, y son por lo tanto claves para comprender su evolución. En este trabajo hemos abordado el análisis de los elementos transponibles de Drosophila buzzatii desde dos enfoques distintos, el estudio detallado de una única familia de elementos transponibles y el análisis global de todos los elementos presentes en el genoma. El estudio de inversiones cromosómicas en D. buzzatii llevó a la descripción del elemento transponible no autónomo, BuT5, que posteriormente se descubrió como elemento causante de inversiones polimórficas en D. mojavensis y D. uniseta. En este trabajo hemos caracterizado el elemento transponible BuT5 y hemos descrito su elemento maestro. BuT5 se encuentra en 38 especies del grupo de especies de D. repleta. El elemento autónomo que moviliza a BuT5 es un elemento P, del que hemos descrito 3 copias parciales en el genoma secuenciado de D. mojavensis y una copia completa en D. buzzatii. La copia completa y putativamente activa tiene 3386 pares de bases y codifica una transposasa de 822 residuos en siete exones. Por otra parte hemos anotado, clasificado y comparado los elementos transponibles presentes en los genomas de dos cepas de D. buzzatii secuenciadas recientemente con tecnología de nueva generación, y en el de D. mojavensis, la especie filogenéticamente más cercana secuenciada, en este caso mediante tecnología Sanger. Los elementos transponibles representan el 8.43%, el 4.15% y el 15.35% de los ensamblajes de los genomas de D. buzzatii st-1, j-19 y D. mojavensis respectivamente. Adicionalmente hemos detectado un sesgo en el contenido de elementos transponibles de los genomas secuenciados mediante tecnología de nueva generación, comparado con el contenido en los genomas secuenciados con tecnología Sanger. Hemos desarrollado un método basado en la cobertura que nos ha permitido corregir este sesgo en el genoma de D. buzzatii st-1 y contar con estimas mas realistas del contenido en elementos transponibles. Así hemos determinado que el contenido en elementos transponibles en D. buzzatii st-1 es de entre el 10.85% y el 11.16% del genoma. Adicionalmente las estimas nos han permitido inferir que el orden de los Helitrones ha experimentado múltiples ciclos de actividad y que las superfamilias Gypsy y BelPao han sido recientemente activas en D. buzzatii.
Transposable genetic elements are genetic units able to insert themselves in other regions of the genomes they inhabit, and are present in almost all eukaryotes analyzed. The interest of transposable element analysis, it is not only because its consideration as intragenomic parasites. Transposable elements are an enormous source of variability for the genomes of their hosts, and are therefore key to understanding its evolution. In this work we addressed the analysis of Drosophila buzzatii transposable elements from two different approaches, the detailed study of one family of transposable elements and global analysis of all elements present in the genome. The study of chromosomal inversions in D. buzzatii led to the description of the non-autonomous transposable element, BuT5, which was later found to cause polymorphic chromosomal inversions in D. mojavensis and D. uniseta. In this work we have characterized the transposable element BuT5 and we have described its master element. BuT5 is found in 38 species of the group of species D. repleta. The autonomous element that mobilizes BuT5 is a P element, we described three partial copies in the sequenced genome of D. mojavensis and a complete copy in D. buzzatii. The full-length and putatively active copy has 3386 base pairs and encodes a transposase of 822 residues in seven exons. Moreover we have annotated, classified and compared the transposable elements present in the genomes of two strains of D. buzzatii, st-1 and j-19, recently sequenced with next-generation sequencing technology, and in the D. mojavensis, the phylogenetically closest species sequenced, in this case with Sanger technology. Transposable elements make up for 8.43%, the 4.15% and 15.35% of the assemblies of the genomes of D. buzzatii st-1, j-19 and D. mojavensis respectively. Additionally, we have detected a bias in the transposable elements content of genomes sequenced using next-generation sequencing technology, compared with the content in genomes sequenced with Sanger technology. We have developed a method based on the coverage that allowed us to correct this bias in the genome of D. buzzatii st-1 and have more realistic estimates of the content in transposable elements. Using this method we have determined that the transposable element content in D. buzzatii st-1 is between 10.85% and 11.16%. Additionally, the estimates allowed us to infer that the Helitrons order has undergone multiple cycles of activity and that the superfamily Gypsy and BelPao have recently been active in D. buzzatii.

Vector control is an essential and effective approach for controlling transmission of vector-borne diseases. However, increasing resistance to insecticide and drugs suggests that new strategies to control vector-borne diseases are needed. One possible strategy involves replacing mosquito populations with disease-resistant transgenic mosquitoes. Transposable elements (TEs) are an important component in this new strategy due to their ability to integrate exogenous DNA into chromosomes. They could potentially be useful tools in assisting the spread of disease-resistant genes in mosquito populations.

This research focuses on two related subjects, TEs and their regulation. The first subject is on a Long Terminal Repeat (LTR) retrotransposon in the African malaria mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, namely Belly. The second subject focuses on the characterization of piwi genes in the dengue and yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti.

For the first subject we characterized Belly by identifying the two identical LTRs and one intact open reading frame. We also defined the target site duplications and boundaries of the full-length Belly element. This novel retrotransposon has nine full-length copies in the An. gambiae sequenced genome and their nucleotide similarity suggests that there has been fairly recent retrotransposon. We have shown that Belly is transcribed and translated in An. gambiae. Single LTR circles were recovered from An. gambiae cells, which is consistent with active transposition of Belly.

The second subject focuses on the piwi genes of Ae. aegypti. We found nine potential piwi genes in Ae. aegypti and two in An. gambiae. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that these piwis formed two subgroups and gene duplication within each group occurred after the divergence between the two mosquito species. RT-PCR and transcriptome analysis showed Ago3 as well as all the seven tested piwi genes were expressed either in germline tissues or developing embryos. Differential expression patterns were observed. While most piwis were transcribed in the ovaries, testis, and embryos, two piwis appear to have a zygotic expression. Three piwi genes (piwi 3, piwi 4, and Ago3) were also detected in adult somatic tissues of Ae. aegypti. The expansion of the number of piwi genes in Ae. aegypti compared to An. gambiae and D. melanogaster may be correlated with a larger genome size and greater amount of TEs. The finding of piwi expression in adult somatic tissues is intriguing. It is possible that these piwi genes were expressed in the adult stem cells. It is also possible that they may be involved with anti-viral defense. Both of these hypotheses require further testing.
Master of Science

Os elementos de transposição são seqüências discretas que são capazes de mover- se de um lócus para outro, constituindo uma parte significante do genoma de eucariotos. São agrupados em duas classes principais, os elementos da Classe I, que se transpõem via um intermediário de RNA (retrotransposon), e os elementos da Classe II, que se transpõem via mecanismo de DNA do tipo corta e cola (transposon). A análise das seqüências de um banco de cDNA construído com RNA mensageiro da glândula salivar de Rhynchosciara americana mostrou a presença de representantes das duas classes de elementos. Nesse trabalho caracteriza-se quarto elementos de transposição tipo mariner, onde as seqüências consenso de nucleotídeos foram derivadas de múltiplas cópias defectivas contendo deleções, mudança no quadro de leitura e códons de terminação. Ramar1, um elemento full-length e Ramar2 um elemento defectivo que contém uma deleção na região interna da ORF da transposase, mas mantém e as extremidades intactas. Ramar3 e Ramar4 são elementos defectivos que apresentam muitas deleções no interior da ORF. As seqüências preditas das transposases demostraram que Ramar1 e Ramar2 estão filogeneticamente muito próximos dos elementos mariner da subfamília mauritiana. Enquanto, Ramar3 e Ramar4 pertencem às subfamílias mellifera e irritans, respectivamente. Hibridização in situ mostrou que Ramar1 localiza-se em muitas regiões do cromossomo, principalmente na heterocromatina pericentromérica, enquanto Ramar2 aparece em uma única banda no cromossomo A. Resultado ainda mais curioso foi a caracterização molecular de um elemento de retrotransposição, denominado RaTART, que provavelmente é o responsável pela reconstituição telomérica em R.americana, assim como os elementos TART, HeT-A e TAHRE de Drosophila. Experimentos de Southern Blots do retroelemento RaTART indicam que este está representado por seqüências repetidas no genoma de R.americana, enquanto que Northern Blots mostraram uma expressão em diferentes estágios do desenvolvimento e o transcrito de alto peso molecular detectado representa o retrotransposon non-LTR inteiro. Enquanto a localização cromossômica de RaTART por hibridização in situ mostrou uma marcação predominante nas extremidades dos cromossomos, indicando possivelmente o primeiro elemento de transposição descrito em R.americana com função definida na estrutura do cromossomo. O último retrotransposon, identificado nesse projeto, presente no genoma de R.americana, denominado R2Ra, foi isolado a partir de uma varredura em um banco genômico construído no bacteriófago lambda dash usando como sonda o recombinante pRa1.4 que contém a unidade de repetição do rDNA. A análise da seqüência mostrou a presença de regiões conservadas, como o domínio de transcriptase reversa e o motivo zinc finger na região amino-terminal. O sítio de inserção no gene 28S do rDNA é altamente conservado em R.americana e a análise filogenética mostrou que este elemento pertence ao grupo R2. A localização cromossômica confirma que o elemento móvel R2Ra se insere em um sítio específico no gene rDNA.
Transposable elements are discrete sequences that are able to move from one locus to another within the genome, constituting a significant part of eukaryotic genome. They are grouped into two main types, Class I elements transpose via an RNA intermediate (retrotransposon), and Class II elements transpose via a DNA \"cut-and-paste\" mechanism (transposons). The analysis of sequences of a cDNA bank constructed from mRNA of the salivary glands of Rhynchosciara americana showed the presence of putative types of two classes elements. In the present thesis we describe four mariner elements, where the nucleotides consensus sequences were derived from multiple defective copies containing deletions, frame shifts and stop codons. Ramar1, a full-length element and Ramar2 is a defective mariner element that contains a deletion overlapping most of the internal region of the transposase ORF and the extremities of the element maintain intact. Ramar3 e Ramar4 are defective mariner element that were impossible to predict a complete ORF. Predicted transposase sequences demonstrated that Ramar1 and Ramar2 are phylogenetically very close to mariner-like elements of mauritiana subfamily. However, Ramar3 and Ramar4 belong to mellifera and irritans subfamilies, respectively. In situ hybridisations showed Ramar1 localized in several chromosome regions, mainly in pericentromeric heterochromatin and their boundaries, while Ramar2 appeared as a single band in chromosome A. More interesting data were the molecular characterization of the non-LTR retrotransposon element, called as RaTART, that probably is the responsible by telomeric reconstruction in R.americana, as well as the telomeric retrotransposable elements TART, Het-A and TAHRE of Drosophila. Southern blot analysis indicated that this transposable element is represented by repeat sequences in the genome of R. americana, and Northern blot analysis showed a expression in different developmental stages and the transcript of high molecular mass detected represents the full-length non-LTR retrotransposon. However, the chromosomal localization of the retroelement by in situ hybridisation showed a labelling predominant on chromosome ends, indicating possibly the first transposable element described in R.americana with a defined role in chromosome structure. The last retrotransposon, identified in this project, present in the genome of Rhynchosciara americana, called R2Ra, was isolated from screening of a lambda dash genomic library using as probe the recombinant pRa1.4 of rDNA. The analysis of sequence showed the presence of conserved regions, like transcriptase reverse domain and zinc finger motif in the amino terminal region. The insertion site is high conserved in R.americana and a phylogenetic analysis showed that this element belongs to the R2 clade. The chromosomal localization confirm that the R2Ra mobile element insert into the site specific in rDNA gene.

Os elementos transponíveis (TEs) constituem grande parte do material genético de diversos eucariotos, alcançando entre 50-80% do genoma de gramíneas. Os projetos genoma proporcionaram um aumento das informações disponíveis sobre estes elementos, o que evidenciou sua importância e possibilitou o desenvolvimento de novas abordagens para seu estudo. O sistema Mutator (Mu) de milho é o mais ativo e mutagênico transposon de plantas. Além do elemento autônomo, MuDR, o sistema compreende ainda um conjunto de elementos bastante heterogêneo em sua seqüência e estrutura, chamados MuLEs, que podem conter até mesmo fragmentos de genes do hospedeiro. As seqüências de transposons mais abundantemente expressas no transcriptoma de cana-de-açúcar são relacionadas a MuDR e se agrupam em quatro clados (nomeados Classes I, II, II e IV), existentes antes da divergência entre Mono e Eudicotiledôneas. O trabalho apresentado aqui teve o objetivo de aprofundar o conhecimento sobre o sistema Mutator em cana-de-açúcar a partir da análise comparativa entre seqüências dessa planta e de arroz (cujo genoma está totalmente seqüenciado). Foi possível avaliar a abundância e diversidade do sistema Mu em gramíneas, ficando evidente uma amplificação de elementos clado-específica, tendo a Classe II sofrido uma explosão no número de cópias ao longo da evolução destas plantas. Análises estruturais revelaram que, enquanto as Classes I e II compreendem elementos com características de transposons, as Classes III e IV são, na verdade, transposases domesticadas. Foram completamente seqüenciados dois clones de BAC de cana-de-açúcar, um proveniente de cada parental do híbrido (Saccharum officinarum e Saccharum spontaneum), ambos contendo elementos da Classe III. Estes elementos foram caracterizados e a seqüência genômica de cana foi comparada com sua ortóloga em arroz, revelando um acúmulo de TEs nas regiões intergênicas.
Transposable elements (TEs) constitute great part of eukaryote genetic material, in grasses, they comprise between 50-80% of the genome. Genome projects have significantly increased the amount of information about these elements, revealing their importance and allowing the development of new approaches for their study. The Mutator system (Mu) of maize is the most active and mutagenic plant transposon. Beyond the autonomous element, MuDR, the system comprises a very heterogeneous, in sequence and structure, set of elements, called MuLEs, that can contain even host gene fragments. The most abundant transposon related sequences expressed in sugarcane transcriptoma are the MuDR-like. They group into four clades (called Classes I, II, III and IV) that exist prior to the Mono and Eudicot split. The aim of this work is to gain knowledge about the Mutator system in sugarcane through the comparative analysis against rice (whose genome is completely sequenced). The results described the abundance and diversity of the Mu system in grasses, evidencing a clado-specific amplification with a burst of Class II along the evolution of this plant group. Structural analyses showed that, while Classes I and II comprise elements with transposon characteristics, Classes III and IV are domesticated transposases. One BAC clone from each sugarcane parental genotype (Saccharum officinarum and Saccharum spontaneum) have been completely sequenced, both containing Class III elements. These elements have been characterized and the sugarcane genomic sequences were compared with their orthologues in rice. The comparative analyses showed an accumulation of TEs in the intergenic regions.

Les éléments transposables (ET) ont un impact majeur sur le fonctionnement etla dynamique des génomes, à l’échelle de l’individu et de l’espèce. Le cilié Parameciumest un modèle original pour l’étude des ET. Chaque individu unicellulaire a un génomegerminal qui subit, lors des processus sexuels, des réarrangements massifs, comprenantl’élimination des ET et de leurs vestiges à copie unique, pour former un génome somatiqueoptimisé pour l’expression des gènes. La programmation épigénétique de cesréarrangements implique des petits ARN dans un processus complexe de soustractiongénomique.Au cours de ma thèse, j’ai effectué des analyses bioinformatiques et biostatistiques dedonnées hétérogènes à l’échelle du génome pour : (i) Identifier et analyser des propriétésintrinsèques, de dizaines de milliers de vestiges d’ET à copie unique, appelés "InternalEliminated Sequences" (IES). (ii) Comprendre le rôle de déterminants génétiques et dedifférents facteurs épigénétiques dans le ciblage et l’élimination des IES.L’ensemble de ces analyses met en lumière la co-Évolution des ET et des mécan-Ismes de défense de l’hôte
Transposable elements (TE) have major impact on the function and dynamicsof genomes, both at the level of the individual and of the species. The ciliate Parameciumprovides an original model for studies of TE. Each individual unicell has a germlinegenome that undergoes massive rearrangements at each sexual generation including thephysical elimination of TE and their single copy remnants, yielding a somatic genomestreamlined for gene expression. The epigenetic programming of the rearrangementsinvolves small RNAs in a complex process of genomic subtraction.During my thesis, I carried out bioinformatic and biostatistical analyses of heteroge-Neous, genome-Scale datasets in order to : (i) Identifiy and study the intrinsic propertiesof tens of thousands of TE remnants know as "Internal Eliminated Sequences" (IES).(ii) Explore the roles of genetic determinants and epigenetic factors in the targeting andelimination of the IESs.Taken together, the studies illustrate the co-Evolution of TE and host defense mecha-Nisms

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Biology, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2008.
Committee Chair: Jordan, I. King; Committee Member: Borodovsky, Mark; Committee Member: Bunimovich, Leonid; Committee Member: Choi, Jung; Committee Member: McDonald, John.

Les Eléments Transposables (ET) sont des parasites du génome caractérisés par leur capacité à se répliquer plus rapidement que les autres éléments génétiques du génome. La régulation par la voie des piARN joue un rôle essentiel pour limiter l’expansion des ET dans les lignées germinales des animaux.La première question posée est comment le génome répond face à une nouvelle invasion par un ET. Dans ce but, nous avons introduit le transposon de Classe II mariner (sous-famille mos1) chez D. melanogaster, qui ne contient naturellement pas l’élément. Nous avons montré, qu’après son amplification autonome dans le génome, l’élément avait atteint un équilibre en termes de nombre de copies, depuis qu’une régulation de novo par les piARN avait été acquise.Deuxièmement, nous avons étudié la mobilisation de l’élément mariner au cours du processus de colonisation des régions géographiques tempérées. A partir d’un large panel de populations naturelles nous avons trouvé que l’activité moyenne de mariner était remarquablement augmentée dans les populations non-Africaines en comparaison aux populations Africaines. Ces variations peuvent s’expliquer par un fort polymorphisme d’expression (transcriptionnel et traductionnel) des gènes de la voie des piARN.Le troisième chapitre soutient que la forte activité des ET dans la lignée germinale mâle est un phénomène global chez les drosophiles. Par ailleurs, le contenu en ET chez les espèces sœurs (D. melanogaster et D. simulans) a fortement divergé et, cela a affecté la réponse associée à la production des piARN. Chez D. melanogaster, de nombreux « burst » de transposition ont eut lieu récemment. Ces familles d’ET sont activement réprimées par les piARN dans l’ovaire et donc, se retrouvent massivement surexprimés dans les testicules. Chez D. simulans, nous pensons que la réponse par les piARN résulte principalement d’une régulation passée qui semble être la relique d’anciennes invasions d’ET.La voie des piARN est supposé être « garante de l’intégrité du génome » de par son rôle actif dans la défense contre les ET. Cependant, si la sélection naturelle purge les génomes de ces parasites délétères, il semble que les mécanismes de régulation de l’hôte contribuent au maintien de l’homéostasie du génome en limitant leur expansion, et quelque part en favoriser le maintien sur long terme. Ainsi, une autre interprétation pourrait être que la voie des piARN est « garante de la diversification du génome » de par son rôle à faciliter l’accumulation des ET
Transposable Elements (TEs) are genomic parasites characterized by their ability to replicate faster than any other genetic element in the genomes. The piRNA mediated silencing is of central importance to limit TE expansion in the germline of animal species. The present dissertation explores the relationship between TEs and piRNAs alongside their evolutionary dynamics.The first question raised here was to understand how the genome responds to a new TE invasion. For that purpose, we injected a mariner Class II transposon into D. melanogaster genome that does not naturally contain the element. We found that, after its self-replication into the genome, the element have reached a copy number equilibrium since a de novo piRNA mediated regulation have been acquired.Second, we studied the mariner rewiring activity during the colonization of geographical temperate regions. From a large sampling of D. simulans natural populations, we found the mean activity of mariner to be strikingly higher in non-African populations compared to the African ones. These findings support the idea that selection acting on piRNA effector proteins has been of central importance to explain TE lineages diversification during colonization process.The third chapter provides evidences to propose that, the strong TE activity in testes, is a general phenomenon in Drosophila. We also observed that TE landscape divergence between the two sister species, have affected the genomic response mediated by the piRNAs. As a response of their recent bursts of transposition, TEs overexpressed in testes are preferentially silenced by piRNAs in D. melanogaster ovaries. By contrast, we assumed the D. simulans piRNA response to be the relic of a past regulation that still persists mostly against inactive TEs.The piRNA silencing in the germline, is assumed to be the “vanguard of genome” defense and integrity due to its active role against TEs. However, while natural selection purifies the genome from its deleterious parasites, it seems that the host regulation contributes to genome homeostasis by limiting their expansion, and somehow, favors their longterm maintenance. Thus, another interpretation would have been that piRNA silencing is the “vanguard of genome” diversification due to its active role in facilitating TE accumulation

The mariner transposable element mos1, isolated from Drosophila mauritiana belongs to a family of inverted repeat DNA transposons, found in many phyla. Members of this family of elements transpose by a 'cut and paste' mechanism, in which the element is excised from its position in the genome and inserted elsewhere. Mos1 is 1286bp long, and contains a single open reading frame of 345 amino acids. This ORF encodes a transposase which is essential for the transposition mechanism. The existence of various forms of extrachromosomal copies of transposons has been documented for a number of elements and it has been assumed that some of these are intermediates in transposition. Active mariner elements exist in the genome of D. simulans. Several forms of free copies of mariner have been isolated from DNA prepared from this species. Some of these are circular in conformation. Sequence analysis, performed to determine the structures across junctions of the circular copies, has revealed that all elements are deleted for some mariner nucleotides. The majority of elements are missing three bases from one or the other end. Recombinant mos1 transposase purified from E. coli is able to stimulate excision of mos1 elements from plasmids. These excised copies are linear in structure. Primer extension analysis has been employed to investigate the terminal most nucleotides of these elements. The excision of mos1 occurs, leaving the terminal most three base pairs from each 5' strand behind in the plasmid. No circular copies were detected in this reaction. An explanation for these findings is discussed and a model for transposition of mos1 and mariner elements from D. simulans is proposed.

Nearly one half of the human genome is composed of transposable elements (TEs). Once dismissed as 'selfish' or 'junk' DNA, TEs have also been implicated in a numerous functions that serve the needs of their host genome. I have evaluated the role of TEs in mediating the epigenetic mechanisms that serve to regulate human gene expression. These findings can be broadly divided into two major mechanisms by which TEs affect human gene expression; by modulating nucleosome binding in the promoter regions and by recruiting epigenetic histone modifications that enable them to serve as promoters and enhancers. Thus. the studies encompassed in this thesis elucidate the contributions of TEs in epigenetically regulating human gene expression on a global as well as local scale.

The existence of transposable elements in the genomes of predominantly asexual species such as bacteria poses a problem for evolutionary biologists. Attempts to explain the persistence of such elements in terms of selfish spread are confounded by the fact that in an asexual species, there is no way for elements to infect new hosts. However, it is difficult to conceive of a mechanism by which transposable elements can increase their host's fitness.

The different genomic environments in which transposable elements reside in the Great Apes and the Drosophila result in substantial differences between the evolution of transposable elements in these two groups of organisms. In the Great Apes, where deletion of transposable elements is relatively rare, elements tend to be retained in the genome to the extent that complete sets of elements belonging to a particular transposable element family can be obtained. In Drosophila, there is a rapid turnover of transposable elements, imposing strong selection pressure on transposable elements to be able to infect new hosts. This study investigates the evolution of transposable elements in these two genomic environments. Complete sets of elements belonging to young Alu subfamilies in humans and closely-related species are used to investigate factors involved in their evolutionary history, such as mutation and gene conversion. The application of the master gene model, and other proposed models of the proliferation of young Alu subfamilies, are considered in light of the results obtained. The evolution of the AluYg, Yh and Yi lineages are investigated using a C++ program to simulate their evolutionary history. The results of the simulations are compared to statistics such as theta and pi, as well as the number of shared mutations and the proliferation time, in order to determine possible, and likely, values for parameters such as the retrotransposition rate and the number of source elements for each subfamily. The results suggest that although the master gene model may apply to some lineages, it is not the best model to explain the evolutionary history of all young Alu subfamilies. The selection pressure on transposable elements in Drosophila results in a high level of horizontal transfer of these elements among species of the Drosophila genus. In this study, the twelve sequenced Drosophila genomes are used to investigate the frequency of horizontal transfer within these twelve species using a large dataset of transposable element sequences from the DNA transposons, as well as LTR, and non-LTR, retrotransposons. Horizontal transfer is inferred where identity between transposable elements of the same family in different species exceeds that between the coding regions of the Adh gene in the relevant species. Cases are further supported by evidence from the distribution of the transposable element family across the Drosophila genus, and phylogenetic incongruence, which in many cases elucidates likely directions of transfer. The results suggest that horizontal transfer may be even more common than previously thought, and appears to be most common for the LTR retrotransposons. The possibility that possession of the env gene may result in higher rates of horizontal transfer of LTR retrotransposons is investigated, and the env open reading frame is found to be under selective constraint.

Los transposones son elementos genéticos que tienen la capacidad de modificar su posición en el genoma. Como consecuencia, tienen un impacto en la evolución de los genomas inactivando o alterando los genes del huésped y proporcionando nuevas funciones génicas. Los transposones ocupan una fracción importante en todos los genomas resecuenciados. El objetivo del trabajo presentado en esta tesis trata en estudiar los distintos impactos de transposones tanto en genes como en la evolución de los genomas de distintas especies de plantas. En esta tesis, se ha analizado la fracción de transposones en melón y pepino, dos especies muy cercanas. Los resultados sugieren que los transposones han proliferado más en melón, causando un aumento del tamaño del genoma. Los transposones no se encuentran distribuidos habitualmente de forma homogénea y tienden a acumularse en las regiones pericentroméricas heterocromáticas, como es el caso de los genomas de melón y pepino. Curiosamente, los resultados presentados muestran que los transposones han expandido las regiones pericentroméricas en melón, demostrando que los transposones pueden modificar la estructura de los genomas. El número de genomas de referencia de plantas disponibles y el número de variedades resecuenciadas ha crecido exponencialmente permitiendo estudiar la correlación entre las variaciones genéticas y fenotípicas. El propósito del trabajo resumido en la segunda parte de esta tesis consiste en analizar el impacto de los transposones en genomas de especies cultivables, detectando los polimorfismos ocasionados por la presencia o ausencia de transposones en un locus concreto, a través de la comparación de una variedad resecuenciada respecto al genoma de referencia. El análisis de inserciones polimórficas de transposones se ha realizado en tres especies distintas: melón, palmera datilera y Physcomitrella patens. Los resultados obtenidos pueden ayudar a identificar familias de transposones activas recientemente y proporcionar información nueva sobre polimorfismos genéticos que pueden estar ligados a caracteres seleccionados durante la evolución reciente de estas tres especies. Para estudiar el impacto de la transposición en la regulación génica, el trabajo presentado en la tercera parte de esta tesis se centra en la capacidad de los transposones en amplificar y redistribuir sitios de unión a factores de transcripción. Los resultados muestran que algunas familias de MITEs se han amplificado y redistribuido los sitios de unión del factor de transcripción E2F durante la evolución de algunas especies del género Brassica. El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido evaluar el impacto de los sitios de unión a E2F localizados dentro de transposones reprogramando la regulación de genes en la red transcripcional de E2F. Los resultados obtenidos han determinado que los sitios de unión a E2F localizados dentro de transposones tienen capacidad de unirse a los factores de transcripción de E2F in vivo, independientemente de las marcas epigenéticas en la región. Además, los transposones se utilizan como herramienta genética útil para generar colecciones de mutantes en animales y plantas debido a su capacidad de integrar copias en el genoma. En plantas, algunos retrotransposones se integran preferentemente cerca de genes siendo particularmente interesantes para la mutagénesis. De entre todos, el retrotransposón de tabaco Tnt1 se ha utilizado para generar mutantes en distintas especies de plantas. La última parte de esta tesis consiste en analizar la capacidad del retrotransposón de tabaco Tnt1 en transponer en el musgo Physcomitrella patens, ya que se demostró que Tnt1 transpone eficientemente en P. patens y se integra preferentemente cerca de genes. Finalmente, este estudio presenta vectores derivados de Tnt1 diseñados para transponer con alta eficiencia y ser utilizados para generar colecciones de mutantes con inserciones estables en esta especie briofita.
Els transposons són elements genètics que tenen la capacitat de modificar la seva posició dins el genoma. Com a conseqüència, tenen un impacte en l’evolució del genomes inactivant o alterant els gens de l’hoste i proporcionant noves funcions gèniques. Els transposons ocupen una fracció important de tots els genomes seqüenciats. L’objectiu del treball presentat en aquesta tesis consisteix en estudiar els diversos impactes de transposons tant en els gens com en l’evolució dels genomes de diferents espècies de plantes. En aquesta tesis, s’ha analitzat la fracció de transposons en meló i cogombre, dues espècies molt properes. Els resultats suggereixen que els transposons han proliferat més en meló, causant un augment de la mida del genoma. Els transposons no es troben distribuïts habitualment de forma homogènia i tendeixen a acumular-se en les regions pericentromèriques heterocromàtiques, com el cas dels genomes de meló i cogombre. Curiosament, els resultats presentats mostren que els transposons han expandit les regions pericentromèriques en meló, demostrant que els transposons poden modificar l’estructura dels genomes. El número de genomes de referència de plantes disponibles i el número de varietats reseqüenciades ha crescut exponencialment permetent estudiar la correlació entre les variacions genètiques i fenotípiques. El propòsit del treball resumit en la segona part d’aquesta tesis consisteix en analitzar l’impacte dels transposons en genomes d’espècies cultivables detectant els polimorfismes deguts a la presència o absència de transposó en un locus concret, comparant una varietat reseqüenciada respecte al seu genoma de referència. L’anàlisi d’insercions polimòrfiques de transposons s’ha realitzat en tres espècies diferents: meló, palmera datilera i Physcomitrella patens. Els resultats obtinguts poden ajudar a identificar famílies de transposons actives recentment i proporcionar informació nova sobre polimorfismes genètics que poden estar lligats a caràcters seleccionats durant l’evolució recent d’aquestes tres espècies. Per tal d’estudiar l’impacte de la transposició en la regulació gènica, el treball presentat en la tercera part d’aquesta tesis se centra en la capacitat dels transposons en amplificar i redistribuir llocs d’unió a factors de transcripció. Els resultats mostren que algunes famílies de MITEs s’han amplificat i han redistribuït els llocs d’unió del factor de transcripció E2F durant l’evolució d’algunes espècies del gènere Brassica. L’objectiu d’aquest treball és avaluar l’impacte dels llocs d’unió a E2F localitzats dins de transposons reprogramant la regulació de gens de la xarxa transcripcional de E2F. Els resultats obtinguts han determinat que els llocs d’unió a E2F localitzats dins de transposons tenen la capacitat d’unir-se als factors de transcripció de E2F in vivo, independentment de les marques epigenètiques de la regió. A més a més, els transposons s’han convertit en eines genètiques útils per generar col·leccions de mutants en animals i plantes degut a la seva capacitat d’integrar còpies en el genoma. En plantes, alguns retrotransposons s’integren preferentment a prop de gens sent particularment interessants per la mutagènesis. Entre tots ells, el retrotransposó de tabac Tnt1 s’ha utilitzat per generar mutants en diferents espècies de plantes. L’última part d’aquesta tesis consisteix en analitzar la capacitat del retrotransposó de tabac Tnt1 en transposar en la molsa Physcomitrella patens. S’ha demostrat que Tnt1 transposa eficientment en P. patens i s’integra preferentment a prop de gens. Aquest estudi presenta vectors derivats de Tnt1 dissenyats per transposar amb alta eficiència i ser utilitzats per generar col·leccions de mutants amb insercions estables en aquest briòfit.
Transposable elements are genetic elements that have the capacity to modify their position within the genome. As a consequence, they impact the evolution of genomes by inactivating or altering host genes and by providing new gene functions. Transposons account for an important fraction of all sequenced genomes. The goal of the work presented in this dissertation is to investigate the diverse impacts of transposons on gene and genome evolution in different plant species. The transposon content has been analyzed in melon and cucumber, two closely related species. The results suggest that transposons have proliferated to a greater extend in melon, causing an increase of its genome size. Transposable elements are usually not homogenously distributed and tend to accumulate in heterochromatic pericentromeric regions. This is also the case of melon and cucumber genomes. Interestingly, the results presented show that transposons have expanded the pericentromeric regions in melon, showing that transposons can modify the structure of genomes. The number of plant reference genomes made available and the number of varieties resequenced is growing exponentially, and this is allowing to study the correlation between genetic and phenotypic variations. The purpose of the work summarized in the second part of this dissertation is to analyze the impact of transposons in crop genomes by detecting polymorphisms due to the presence or absence of transposon at a given locus, comparing one resequenced variety respect to the reference genome. The analysis of transposon-related polymorphism insertions has been performed in three different species: melon, date palm and Physcomitrella patens. The results obtained can help to identify the transposon families recently active and to provide new information on genetic polymorphisms that can be linked to traits selected during the recent evolution of these three species. In order to study the impact of transposition on gene regulation, the work reported in the third part of this dissertation focuses on the capacity of transposons to amplify and redistribute transcription factor binding sites. The results show that some MITE families have amplified and redistributed the binding sites of E2F transcription factor during Brassica evolution. The goal of this study was to assess the impact of E2F binding sites located within a transposon in reprogramming gene regulation on the E2F transcriptional network. The results obtained have determined that E2F binding sites located within transposons have the capacity to bind E2F transcription factor in vivo, regardless the epigenetic mark context. Moreover, transposons have become a useful genetic tool to generate mutant collections in animals and plants due to the capacity to insert copies into the genome. In plants, some retrotransposons have been shown to integrate preferentially near genes making them particularly interesting for mutagenesis. Among them, the tobacco retrotransposon Tnt1 has been used to generate mutants in different plant species. The last part of this dissertation consists in analyzing the capacity of the tobacco retrotransposon Tnt1 to transpose in the moss Physcomitrella patens. It shows that Tnt1 efficiently transposes in P. patens and inserts preferentially in genic regions. This work presents Tnt1-derived vectors designed for high efficiency transposition that could be used to generate stable insertion mutant collections in this bryophyte species.

Transposable elements (TEs) are interspersed repetitive sequences that are present in most genomes. Miniature inverted repeat transposable elements (MITEs) are the most numerous Class II elements in higher eukaryotes. Little is known about their origin, transposition and function. In this study, three novel MITE families (Kiddo, MDM1 and MDM2) were identified in the rice genome. They bear terminal inverted repeats (TIRs) and show target site duplications (TSDs) at the insertion sites. Each family is present in hundreds of copies with length that range from 200 bp to 400 bp. An evolutionary relationship between Mutator elements and MDM1 and MDM2 family was established. The absence of an observed transposition event, together with the mutated ancestral elements identified by in silico analysis, led to a conclusion that Kiddo and its autonomous elements are not presently active. To overcome laborious and time consuming manual analysis of MITEs on a genomic scale, MAK, a computational tool kit, was developed to automatically retrieve MITE sequences, their neighboring genes and ancestral elements from genome sequences. MAK has been functionally tested and is now available to the research community. Studies on the effect of MITE (Kiddo and MDM1) insertions into a rice ubiquitin (rubq2) promoter revealed a two-edged role of MITEs on gene regulation. While Kiddo and MDM1 contribute ~40% to rubq2 promoter activity, they also induce progressive silencing of this promoter. The evolutionary implications of the two-edged role of MITEs in gene regulation are discussed.

Entender cómo las especies se adaptan al ambiente es aún una pregunta sin resolver en el campo de la Biología Evolutiva. Mientras el foco principal siempre ha estado en la base genética, los factores ambientales responsables de dichos procesos adaptativos se quedan por detrás. Nuestro objetivo principal es identificar las principales variables ambientales que contribuyen a la adaptación. Utilizamos poblaciones naturales de D. melanogaster de Europa y Norte América, y analizamos tanto SNPs como elementos transponibles (TEs). Para detectar y estimar las frecuencias de una población con precisión, actualizamos el algoritmo de T-lex y lanzamos una nueva versión: T-lex3. Realizamos un análisis de Asociación GenomaAmbiente (GEA) para awsociar las frecuencias alélicas de TEs y SNPs con las diferentes variables ambientales, e identificamos temperatura, lluvia y viento, como las variables más relevantes implicadas en la adaptación ambiental. Tambien encontramos 10 TEs asociados con al menos, una variable ambiental. Finalmente, desarrollamos una herramienta bioinfórmatica para integrar más de 200 genomas de D. melanogaster de todo el mundo, lo que facilitará los análisis ambientales espacial y temporalmente.
Understanding how species adapt to the environment is still an open question in Evolutionary Biology. While the focus has been on the genetic basis, the analysis of the environmental factors which drive these adaptive processes lags behind. Our main goal is to identify the main environmental variables that contribute to adaptation. We used natural D. melanogaster populations from Europe and North America, and analyzed both SNPs and transposable elements (TEs). To accurately detect and estimate TE population frequencies, we updated the T-lex algorithm and released a new version: T-lex3. We performed a Genome-Environment Analysis (GEA) to associate TEs and SNP allele frequencies with several environmental variables, and we identified temperature, rainfall and wind as the relevant variables involved in environmental adaptation. In addition, we found 10 TEs associated with an environmental variable. Finally, we developed a bioinformatic pipeline that integrates >200 D. melanogaster world-wide genomes, which will facilitate environmental analysis in space and time.

Tn4371 est un transposon catabolique de 55 kpb qui a ete isole de ralstonia eutropha a5. Il porte, sur un region de 13 kpb situe au centre de l'element mobile, les genes responsables de la degradation du biphenyle (genes bph) dont l'expression est induite lorsque le biphenyle est present dans le milieu de croissance. L'implication du facteur sigma 54, suggeree dans une premier travail, sur l'utilisation du biphenyle par la bacterie, a ete etudiee. Le gene rpon de ralstonia eutropha ch34 a, pour cela, ete isole, et l'organisation du locus caracterisee. Une analyse transcriptionnelle de cette region, revele que le gene rpon est monocistronique. Un mutant rpon a donc pu etre construit ce qui a permis de montrer qu'il est defectueux dans le metabolisme de l'hydrogene, de l'uree et de la proline. En revanche, l'expression des genes bph ne depend pas du facteur sigma 54. Les genes cataboliques bph sont bordes de deux genes bphr et bphs codant potentiellement pour des regulateurs de la famille lysr et gntr respectivement. Une analyse transcriptionnelle a revele que les genes bphegfa1a2a3bc et d sont cotranscrits sur un arn messager de 10 kb dont la synthese est gouvernee par une promoteur de type sigma 70, pe, activee constitutivement par une region situee en amont du promoteur et reprimee par le produit du gene bphs. Deux intermediaires de la degradation du biphenyle, le dihydroxybiphenyle et le hopda sont proposes comme candidats de molecules inducteurs, agissant vraisemblablement sur la proteine bphs afin de lever la repression exercee sur l'expression de l'operon bph. En depit de la similitude avec des genes regulateurs de la famille lysr, le produit du gene bphr n'est pas implique dans l'expression des genes bph.

Ma thèse vise à caractériser l’évolution dynamique et l’organisation des génomes des différentes espèces du blé (genres Triticum et Aegilops) en relation avec la prolifération des éléments transposables (TEs) dans leur génome (>80%), les polyploïdisations récurrentes ainsi que la syntenie avec d’autres espèces de la famille des Poaceae. En constituant des sets de séquences génomiques représentatives et en étudiant la variabilité entre des haplotypes des génomes du blé, j’ai caractérisé la dynamique et la prolifération différentielle des TEs qui est la résultante de l’équilibre entre leurs insertions et aussi leurs éliminations actives. Le taux moyen de remplacement de l’espace TEs, mesurant les différences de séquences dues aux insertions et aux délétions entre deux haplotypes, a été ainsi estimé à 86% par million d’années (Ma) et dépasse celles bien documentées du maïs. Les insertions des TEs mais aussi leurs éliminations par recombinaisons illégitimes de l’ADN (pouvant atteindre plusieurs dizaines de kb) ainsi que les recombinaisons génétiques entre haplotypes divergents représentent les principaux mécanismes à la base des changements rapides de l’espace TEs. Sur une échelle d’évolution plus longue (60 Ma), j’ai analysé la conservation des gènes et l’évolution du locus (Ha) entre différentes espèces des Poaceae. J’ai pu ainsi préciser l’émergence du caractère grain tendre et des gènes Ha, comme nouveaux membres de la famille des gènes de Prolamine, dans l’ancêtre commun des Pooideae (blé et Brachypodium, de la tribu des Triticeae et des Brachypodieae) et des Ehrhartoideae (riz), après leur divergence des Panicoideae (maïs, sorgho)
My PhD aims to characterize dynamic evolution and organization of wheat genomes from différent species (Triticum and Aegilops genera) in relation to transposable element (TE) proliferation in their genomes (>80%), polyploidizations and synteny with other Poaceae species. By constituting and comparing representative genomic sequences and analyzing haplotype variability of the wheat genomes, I have characterized dynamics and differential proliferation of TEs, as resulting from the combinations of their insertions and deletions. Mean replacement rate of the TE space, which measures sequence differences due to insertion and removal of TEs between two haplotypes, was estimated to 86% per one million year (My). This is more important than the well-documented haplotype variability found in maize. It was observed that TE insertions and DNA elimination by illegitimate recombination (implicating several ‘tens’ of kb) as well as homologous recombination between divergent haplotypes represent the main molecular basis for rapid change of the TE space. At a longer evolutionary scale (60 My), I have compared gene conservation at the Ha locus region between different Poaceae species. The comparative genome analysis and evolutionary comparison with genes encoding grain reserve proteins of grasses suggest that an ancestral Ha-like gene emerged, as a new member of the Prolamin gene family, in a common ancestor of the Pooideae (wheat and Brachypodium from the Triticeae and Brachypodieae tribes) and Ehrhartoideae (rice), between 60 and 50 My, after their divergence from Panicoideae (Sorghum)

Le développement de la seconde génération de séquenceurs haut débit a généralisé l'accès à l'étude du transcriptome via le protocole RNAseq. Celui-ci permet d'obtenir à la fois la séquence et l'abondance des transcrits d'un échantillon. De nombreuses méthodes bioinformatiques ont été et sont encore développées pour permettre l'analyse des données issues du RNAseq et en tirer le maximum d'information. Ce type d'analyse est notamment possible sans utiliser de génome de référence, et donc pour les espèces modèles ou non-modèles, grâce à des méthodes d'assemblage. Durant ma thèse, j'ai principalement travaillé à partir de données RNA-seq issues d'espèces non modèles. Je me suis intéressée dans un premier temps à l'impacte de l'hybridation inter spécifique sur la stabilité des génomes chez les hybrides issus des croisements réciproques de D. mojavensis et D. arizonae. Nos résultats ne montrent pas une dérégulation globale, mais plutôt quelques gènes et éléments transposables qui sont spécifiquement dérégulés. La pipeline d'analyse mis en place ici sera réutilisée pour l'étude des niveaux d'expression des transcrits chez les mâles ainsi que pour les croisements issus d'autres lignées de D. mojavensis avec D. arizonae, conduisant à une fertilité variable chez les hybrides.Dans un second temps, j'ai participé à la validation du logiciel KisSplice pour la détection de SNP dans des données RNA-seq sans génome de référence. Celui-ci permet de trouver différents types de variants (épissage, indels) directement dans le graphe de de Bruijn construit à partir des lectures séquencées. J'ai également participé au développement d'outils de post-traitement permettant de prédire l'impact des SNP sur les protéines
Next-generation high throughput sequencing technologies provide efficient, rapid, and low cost access to sequencing. Its application to transcriptomes, called RNA-seq, enables the study of both the sequence and the expression of the transcripts. Many bio-informatics methods are still developed for RNA-seq data processing, trying to get the maximum out of it. Assembly methods allow us to study non-model species (no reference genome available) as well as model species. The work presented here is mostly related to RNA-seq data on non-model species.In the first study, to understand the initiation of hybrid incompatibility, we performed a genome-wide transcriptomic analysis on ovaries from parental lines and on hybrids from reciprocal crosses of \emph{D. mojavensis} and \emph{D. arizonae}. We didn't see a global deregerulation of genes or transposable element. Instead, we show that reciprocal hybrids presented specific gene categories and few transposable element families misexpressed relative to the parental lines. The analytical workflow developed for this project will be used to analyze transcriptomic data from the testis, but also to study the reciprocal crosses from other lines of D. mojavensis with D. arizonae leading to variable levels of sterility in hybrids. A second project tacked here is the identification and quantification of SNPs from RNA-seq data without a reference genome with KisSplice. Kissplice was developed to identified several type of variants (splicing events, indels) directly from the de Bruijn graph, build from the sequenced reads. We also developed other KisSplice-tools, for downstream analyses of the SNPs, including the prediction of their impact on the protein sequence

Environmental stress is a major aspect of life and a limiting factor for the survival and distribution of species. Understanding the organismal stress response and the developed coping mechanisms is indispensable in order to mitigate the negative effects of stress. A lot of studies focus on the role of single nucleotide polymorphisms, while transposable elements (TEs) which are also very powerful mutagens are largely overlooked. In this thesis, we studied the contribution of TEs to the eukaryotic stress response, first by using a molecular mechanism specific approach. By studying six different stress responses in humans and Drosophila melanogaster, we showed that TEs can regulate the expression of stress response genes by adding transcription factor binding sites. In the second part, we chose a stress specific approach, and described the transcriptomic and physiological basis of D. melanogaster desiccation tolerance. Moreover, we found that TEs might be involved in desiccation stress response but they do not seem to be the main mutations fuelling this stress response. Overall, we showed that transposable elements are relevant players in eukaryotic stress response, however their effect could be stress specific
El estrés ambiental es un aspecto importante de la vida y un factor limitante en la supervivencia y distribución de las especies. Entender la respuesta a estrés a nivel de organismo y los mecanismos desarrollados para enfrentarlo son indispensable para mitigar sus efectos negativos. Muchos estudios se han centrado en el rol de los polimorfismos de nucleótido único, mientras que otros potentes mutágenos, como son los elementos transponibles (TEs), han sido ignorados. En la primera parte de esta tesis, hemos estudiado la contribución de los TEs en la respuesta eucariótica a estrés utilizando un enfoque específico al mecanismo molecular. Al estudiar seis tipos de respuesta a estrés diferentes en humanos y en Drosophila melanogaster hemos demostrado que los TEs pueden regular la expresión de genes de respuesta a estrés gracias a la adición de sitios de unión de factores de transcripción. En la segunda parte, hemos escogido un enfoque específico de estrés y hemos descrito las bases transcriptómicas y fisiológicas de la tolerancia a la desecación en D. melanogaster. Además, hemos observado que los los TEs podrían estar involucrados en la respuesta a estrés por desecación, aunque no parecen ser la principal mutación causante de la respuesta a este estrés. En conjunto, se muestra que los TEs tienen un rol importante en la respuesta eucariótica a estrés, sin embargo, su contribución parecería ser específica del estrés.

Transposable elements (TEs) are self-replicating genetic elements that comprise a large portion of all characterized nuclear genomes. Self-replication, which is catalyzed by proteins encoded by autonomous TEs, permits TEs to persist without necessarily providing immediate adaptive benefit to the organism; therefore, TEs are sometimes characterized as selfish, parasitic, or junk DNA. Nevertheless, over the course of evolution, TEs have produced diverse and vital eukaryotic adaptations. One way in which TEs coevolve with ordinary genes is by direct sequence exchange: TEs can duplicate and mobilize ordinary genes; conversely, TE-derived sequences can become conserved as ordinary genes. In this thesis, I use genome-scale bioinformatic analyses to identify direct sequence exchanges from plant genomes to TEs, and vice versa, and to characterize their functional and evolutionary consequences. After reviewing the literature, I first examine Mutator-like elements (MULEs) in rice that have duplicated and mobilized thousands of ordinary coding gene fragments, a process we term transduplication. Contrary to a previous report, these sequences do not appear to produce functional proteins, although they may have regulatory functions. Second, I examine a gene family that appears to have originated through transduplication in Arabidopsis thaliana MULEs, which is conserved within TEs, called Kaonashi (KI). KI shows that transduplication does occasionally produce functional gene duplications; however, at least in this case, the result is a not a new ordinary gene, but a new TE gene. Finally, I examine ordinary genes in A. thaliana derived from TE genes, a process termed molecular domestication. In addition to 3 previously known A. thaliana domesticated transposable elements (DTEs) families, I identify 23 candidate novel families. Together, these results support the view that, despite persisting by self-replication, TEs are not molecular parasites but are integral components of eukaryotic genomes.
Les éléments transposables (ET) sont des séquences d'ADN capables de se déplacer et de s'autoreproduire dans un génome, un mécanisme appelé transposition. Ces éléments représentent l'une des composantes les plus importantes des génomes nucléaires eucaryotes. Cette capacité à s'autoreproduire, grâce aux protéines codées par les ET autonomes, a permis aux ET de persister et de peupler les génomes sans nécessairement apporter un avantage adaptatif immédiat à l'organisme hôte. À cet égard, les ET sont parfois considérés comme des éléments égoïstes ou parasites, ou de l'ADN « poubelle ». Néanmoins, les ET ont joué un rôle important au cours de l'évolution en générant diverses adaptations essentielles aux eucaryotes. Ainsi, les ET peuvent coévoluer avec les gènes du génome hôte par l'échange direct de séquence d'ADN. Les ET peuvent se dupliquer et mobiliser des gènes hôtes ; à l'inverse, des séquences d'ADN dérivées de ET peuvent avoir le même niveau de conservation que des gènes hôtes. Dans le cadre de ma thèse, j'ai utilisé des analyses bio-informatiques à l'échelle du génome afin d'identifier des échanges directs de brins de séquence d'ADN à partir de génomes de plantes vers les ET, et vice-versa, et de caractériser leurs fonctions et leurs effets évolutifs. Ma thèse débutera par une recension des diverses publications scientifiques dans le domaine. Je dresserai ensuite un portrait des éléments mobiles Mutator-like (MULE) dans le génome du riz qui ont entraîné la duplication et la mobilisation de milliers de fragments de gènes codants normaux, un procédé appelé transduplication. Contrairement à ce qui avait été rapporté dans des publications antérieures, ces séquences transdupliquées ne semblent pas produire des protéines fonctionnelles malgré le fait qu'elles puissent avoir des fonctions régulatrices. En second lieu, j'examinerai une famille de gènes, appelée Kaonashi (KI), qui proviendrait d'un événement de transduplication présent dans les MULE de l'Arabidopsis thaliana, mais également conservé dans les ET. La présence de la famille KI nous montre que le procédé de transduplication permet à l'occasion des duplications fonctionnelles de gènes. Cependant, du moins dans le cas de la KI, le procédé n'entraîne pas la création d'un nouveau gène normal, mais bien d'un nouvel élément transposable. En troisième lieu, j'examinerai les gènes hôtes présents dans le génome de la plante A. thaliana qui proviendrait de ET, un procédé appelé domestication moléculaire. En plus des trois cas de familles d'éléments transposables domestiquées (ETD) déjà connues dans l'espèce A. thaliana, j'ai identifié 23 nouvelles familles potentielles. L'ensemble de ces résultats tend à démontrer que, malgré le fait qu'ils persistent dans les génomes grâce à leur capacité d'autoreproduction, les ET ne sont pas des parasites moléculaires, mais bien des éléments clés faisant partie intégrale des génomes eucaryotes.

In this thesis we investigate the mappability of human genome and we look at some reasons that might cause unmappability in a region. We look at transposable elements and genome duplications as the main reasons for unmappability. In this analysis we simulated singled end, paired end and mate paired reads of 6 different lengths and we used BWA to map these simulated reads to the human genome. We assumed that a position in the genome is mappable if there is at least one unique read mapped to that position. We looked at unmappable regions and fraction of transposable elements or genome duplications corresponding to these regions. We also looked at age distribution of transposable elements and genome duplications that are in unmappable regions. Our results shows that regions that are in younger and longer transposable elements are harder to sequence. In order to compare our simulated data with a real sequencing data, we used the output of a sequencing from Illumina to compare coverage of genome in this real data set with our mappability results. We show that 4.1% of genome that is mappable in our simulations result, has low coverage in real sequencing data. We also investigated the reasons behind having low coverage in mappable regions. Our simulation result shows the impact of transposable elements and other repeats on mappability in the human genome and we show that using longer paired end and mate paired reads improves the mappability of the human genome.
Dans cette thèse, nous étudions la "visibilité" du génome humain par des méthodes séquençage modernes et nous regardons quelles sont les raisons qui pourraient causer l'absence de visibilité dans une région donnée. Nous montrons que les éléments transposables et les duplications de génome sont les principaux obstables à la visibilité de régions génomiques. Dans cette analyse, nous avons utilisé des reads simulés, de types individuels ou pairés, de 6 longueurs différentes et nous avons utilisé BWA pour assigner ces reads au génome humain. Nous avons supposé que la position dans le génome est visible s'il y a au moins un read unique assigné à cette position. Nous avons examiné les régions non visibles et la fraction d'éléments transposables ou des duplications de génome correspondant à ces régions. Nous avons également examiné la distribution d'âge des éléments transposables et des duplications de génome qui sont dans les régions non visibles. Nos résultats montrent que les régions qui sont des éléments plus jeunes et plus transposable sont plus difficiles à séquencer. Afin de comparer nos données simulées avec les données réelles de séquençage, nous avons utilisé des données de reséquençage provenant d'un séquençage Illumina pour comparer la couverture observée du génome avec nos résultats provenant de données simulées. Nous montrons que 4,1% du génome qui est visible dans nos simulations a une faible couverture dans les données de séquençage réelles. Nous avons également étudié les raisons pouvant expliquer une faible couverture dans les régions visibles. Les résultats de nos simulations montrent l'impact des éléments transposables et les autres répétitions sur la visibilité dans le génome humain et nous montrent que l'utilisation de long reads pairés améliorent la visibilité du génome humain.

Tp1 is a long highly-abundant repetitive element found in the genome of Physarum polycephalum. It predominates in a hypermethylated, high molecular weight HpaII-resistant domain. The structural properties of this element resemble those of eukaryotic retrotransposons such as copia in Drosophila melanogaster. Preliminary evidence has indicated that segments of Tp1 are transcribed in both plasmodia and amoebae. Hence, from the structural analogy with retrotransposons it was supposed that the long terminal repeats (LTRs) of Tp1 may serve as transcriptional promoters. A plasmid (pE1oriCAT) was constructed which contains a CAT reporter gene located 3' to the Tp1 LTR and a Physarum origin of replication. CAT activity observed in cell lysates prepared from pE1oriCAT-transfected amoebae suggested that the Tp1 LTR can function as a transcriptional promoter. Nucleotide sequence information was obtained for the right-hand end of a copy of Tp1. From its predicted amino acid sequence a high degree of homology was found with the reverse transcriptase domain in the C-terminal half of the pol polypeptide in copia from Drosophila melanogaster, Ty912 from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Ta1 from Arabidopsis thaliana. The high degree of identity between the reverse transcriptase domains in all of the above elements suggests that they may share a common ancestor. A preliminary search for Tp1 virus-like particles (VLPs) was carried out. Fractions collected from sucrose density gradients, prepared from amoebal cell lysates, were examined for VLP structures by transmission electron microscopy. Although putative VLPs were observed, which were morphologically similar to VLPs associated with the yeast retrotransposon Ty, they did not react immunologically with an antibody prepared against Ty VLPs. A member of another transposon-like family, designated Tp2, has also been identified in the genome of Physarum. Tp2 is 1.68kb in length, has 180bp LTR sequences at its termini and is blanked by 5bp direct repeats. Analysis of the predicted amino acid sequence of Tp2 identified an amino acid motif that is homologous to a highly conserved RNA binding domain in the gag polypeptide of retroviruses and retrotransposons.

Transposable elements (TEs) are almost ubiquitous components of eukaryotic genomes that have long been considered solely deleterious or ’junk DNA’. They are split into two main forms, retro-transposons and DNA transposons, depending on the method of replication employed. Hosts have developed strategies for combating TEs including RNAi, methylation and copy number con-trol. TEs have also evolved ways of persisting in the genome in order to survive, such as target site specificity. Two additional ways which may be utilised by TEs, positive selection and horizontal transfer, were investigated here primarily using the budding yeasts in the Saccharomyces sensu lato complex. These species typically contain up to five families of retrotransposons, designatedTy1-5, and multiple subfamilies, all of varying transpositional activity. Discoveries of insertions evolving under positive selection and providing benefits to their hosts have been sporadic and serendipitous findings in a number of organisms. Full genome screenings for such insertions are rarely published, despite the impact TE insertions have upon their hosts. A population genomics approach was performed to address this issue in the genomes of Saccha-romyces cerevisiae and sister species S. paradoxus. Signatures of positive selection acting upon Ty insertions were identified using Tajima’s statistical D test. Neighbouring genes were also analysed to ascertain the true target of selection where hitchhiking linked the two. A subset of LTR-gene pairings were explored using qPCR in order to identify any effects on host gene expression the occupied loci may cause. Two genes displayed significantly increased levels of expression, which may be due to the presence of positive selection candidate LTRs, which in turn may contribute to improving host fitness. This thesis further documents the systematic screening for Ty-like elements of all available genomes of budding yeast and related species. Extensive phylogenetic analyses estimated evolutionary relationships and possible horizontal transfer events of elements between the species. Evidence for in excess of 75 horizontal transfer events was uncovered here, around half of which were successful in propagating in new genomes. The occurrence of horizontal transfer of TEs in the genomes of budding yeast is therefore far more common than previously documented. During screening of genomes, a further potential method of avoiding host defences was uncovered. The divergence of the highly active Ty4 family, which coincided with population isolation of multiple Saccharomyces species into subfamilies, was surprising given previous reports of this family being of particularly low activity. Such events are rarely recorded in eukaryotic genomes, and may also illustrate the compulsive spread of a new subfamily via horizontal transfer. The investigations reported here represent the first genomic screening of Ty insertions in Saccharomyces for signatures of positive selection, and an updated, comprehensive search for evidence of HT between species of budding yeast. Both may act as methods for TE families to persist in the genomes of their hosts, and represent far more than simply ’junk DNA’.

To determine the ability of the P-M hybrid dysgenesis system of Drosophila melanogaster to generate mutations affecting quantitative traits, X chromosome lines were constructed in which replicates of isogenic M and P strain X chromosomes were exposed to a dysgcnic cross, a nondys-genic cross, or a control cross, and recovered in common autosomal backgrounds. Mutational heritabilities of abdominal and sternopleural bristle score were in general exceptionally high. P strain chromosomes were eight times more mutable than M strain chromosomes, and dysgcnic crosses three times more effective than nondysgenic crosses in inducing polygenic variation. However, mutational heritabilities of the bristle traits were appreciable for P strain chromosomes passed through one nondysgenic cross, and for M strain chromosomes backcrossed for seven generations to inbred P strain females. The new variation resulting from one generation of mu-tagenesis was caused by a few lines, with large effects on bristles score, and all mutations reduced bristle number. Among eight of these mutant lines and two additional mutant lines which occurred spontaneously during stock maintenance, the range of additive effects for both abdominal and sternopleural bristle scores are 2 to 9.5 bristles (1.2-5.0ap) in females, and 3.7 to 15.7 bristles (2.3-9.1<7p) in males. The effects of nine mutant chromosomes (the exception is line NDC(19)) on sternopleural bristle scores are similar and close to l.3fff, well within the wildtype range. The effects of mutants NDC(19) for both bristle traits, and lines DP(146) and DP(146)NAB for abdominal bristle scores, are extreme (2.53-5.53<7«) compared with the wildtype. This result supports the hypothesis that the distribution of effects of mutant genes on quantitative characters is highly variable, and possibly leptokurtic. The overall degree of dominance of all mutant X chromosomes suggests they are partially recessive, but the effect of line NDC(19) on abdominal bristle score appears completely recessive. Six of the mutant lines have similar low sternopleural bristle scores of about 15, are caused by allelic mutations with a map distance of approximately 24.7 cM, 4.7 cM from the cflocus. Deficiency mapping shows they are within chromosomal bands 8A4-8C6 Lines NDC(19) and DP(146) have extremely low abdominal and sternopleural bristle scores of 11.5 and 14.9, and of 10.3 and 12.5 respectively, and map closely linked to the y locus. The test of allclism and deficiency mapping indicate they are closely linked but at separate loci within chromosomal bands !B2;lB4-6 and 1B4-6;1B10, respectively, with some epistatic effects. They are apparently single mutant alleles with pleiotropic effects on both bristle traits and viability. The mutation of line NDC(19) is probably at the scute locus. In situ hybridization analysis suggests these two mutants are associated with insertion of P elements within chromosomal region 1A-1B10, but the other six mutants probably resulted from excision of P elements at the site of 8C.

Transposable Elements (TEs) or jumping genes are the DNA sequences that have an intrinsic capability to move within a host genome from one genomic location to another. Studies show that the presence of a TE within or adjacent to a functional gene may alter its expression. TEs can also cause an increase in the rate of mutation and can even promote gross genetic arrangements. Thus, the proper classification of the identified jumping genes is important to understand their genetic and evolutionary effects. While computational methods have been developed that perform either binary classification or multi-label classification of TEs, few studies have focused on their hierarchical classification. The existing methods have limited accuracy in classifying TEs. In this study, we examine the performance of a variety of machine learning (ML) methods and propose a robust augmented Stacking-based ML method, ClassifyTE, for the hierarchical classification of TEs with high accuracy.

Estudos realizados no Laboratório de Drosophila da UFRGS tem caracterizado linhagens de Drosophila willistoni quanto à presença de Elementos Transponíveis (TEs) e à existência do fenômeno de Disgenesia Híbrida nesta espécie. Como conseqüência destes estudos, o presente trabalho se propôs a ampliar o conhecimento sobre o papel destes elementos na geração de variabilidade nesta espécie e abordou os TEs P, hobo, gypsy e 412, anteriormente identificados no genoma de D. willistoni, quanto à sua atividade transcricional. Em nosso trabalho, verificamos a presença de transcritos de P, gypsy e 412 em adultos, sugerindo uma regulação pós-transcricional destes elementos, como já sugerido para o elemento P, considerando que as linhagens utilizadas não se caracterizam pela hipermutabilidade. Devido à descrição prévia da Síndrome da Disgenesia do Híbrido na prole do cruzamento entre as linhagens 17A2 e Wip de D. willistoni, foi estabelecido o padrão de expressão do elemento P durante o desenvolvimento embrionário das duas linhagens. O padrão de expressão embrionário em D. melanogaster também foi estabelecido, para fins comparativos, uma vez que se aceita a ocorrência de um evento de transferência horizontal de P de D. willistoni para D. melanogaster. A similaridade entre os padrões de expressão nas duas espécies, sugere que o elemento P é regulado pelo seu próprio promotor e que não é dependente de promotores de genes vizinhos aos seus sítios de inserção. Foi estabelecida a presença de transcritos potenciais da transposase e de um repressor da transposição de P nos embriões analisados. Além do transcrito correspondente ao repressor, que é gerado por processamento alternativo do transcrito da transposase, obteve-se indícios da presença de transcritos antisenso do próprio elemento nos embriões, sugerindo a regulação por interferência de RNA (RNAi) neste estágio do desenvolvimento de Drosophila. Diferenças transcricionais do elemento P entre D. willistoni e D. melanogaster, estão relacionadas ao número de transcritos deletados de P que são expressos em maior número em D. melanogaster do que em D. willistoni, corroborando a idéia da invasão recente do genoma da primeira por este elemento. A expressão dos TEs descrita neste trabalho relata a regulação complexa destes elementos, evidenciando a importância da continuidade deste estudo.
Studies accomplished in the Laboratory of Drosophila of UFRGS have been characterizing strains of Drosophila willistoni in respect to the presence of Transposable Elements (TEs) and to the occurrence of the Hybrid Dysgenesis phenomenon in this species. As a consequence of these studies, the present work aimed to broaden the knowledge about the role of these elements in the genesis of variability in this species, by approaching the transcriptional expression of P, hobo, gypsy and 412 TEs, already described in the D. willistoni genome. In our work, we verified the presence of P, gypsy, and 412 transcripts in adults, suggesting post-transcriptional regulation, like already described for P element in D. melanogaster, considering that the strains studied were not characterized by hypermutability. Due to the previous description of the Hybrid Dysgenesis Syndrome in the offspring resulting of crosses between 17A2 and Wip D. willistoni strains, their P element expression pattern during the embryonic development was established. The embryonic P element expression pattern in D. melanogaster was also established, for comparative purpose, since the occurrence of a horizontal transfer event of this element from D. willistoni to D. melanogaster is accepted. The similarity among these expression patterns in both species suggests that P element is regulated by its own promoter and that it’s not dependent of the insertion sites neighboring genes promoters. The presence of putative P element transcripts of transposase and of the transposase repressor was established in the analyzed embryos. Besides the transposase repressor transcript, that is result of an alternative splicing of the transposase transcript, it was obtained indication of the presence of antisense transcripts of P element in the embryos, suggesting the regulation by RNA interference (RNAi) in this stage of development of Drosophila. Transcriptional differences of the P element between D. willistoni and D. melanogaster, are related to the number of deleted transcripts of P that are expressed in larger number in D. melanogaster than in D. willistoni, corroborating the idea of the recent invasion of the genome of the first species by this element. The expression of TEs described in this work suggests a complex regulation of these elements, evidencing the importance of the continuity of this study.

Os elementos de transposição (TEs) são ubíquos e abundantes, presentes nos mais diversos genomas analisados até então. Neste trabalho foram estudadas duas famílias de elementos (hosimary e hobo) pertencentes à superfamília hAT de transposons que possui membros amplamente distribuídos. Descrevemos aqui uma nova família de TEs denominada hosimary que surgiu da análise de sequências inicialmente descritas por nosso grupo de pesquisa, e que foram denominadas hosim e hosec. Através de análise de PCR sequências homólogas a hosim e hosec foram buscadas no genoma de 51 espécies de drosofilídeos e foram detectadas apenas em espécies do subgrupo melanogaster de Drosophila e em Zaprionus indianus. Entre essas espécies o número de cópias observadas mostrou-se variável, sendo que a maioria das sequências mostrou-se potencialmente codificadora. A alta similaridade entre essas sequências de dois gêneros distintos, juntamente com inconsistências observadas entre a filogenia da espécie hospedeira e dos TEs, pode ser um indicativo de transferência horizontal desses elementos. Adicionalmente, as sequências apresentaram uma similaridade maior que 90%, e baixa similaridade com outros elementos descritos, o que nos levou a sugerir que essas sequências devam constituir uma nova família, a qual denominamos hosimary. A outra família analisada neste trabalho inclui os elementos hobo e hoboVA (ou hoboVAHS), que podem estar envolvidos em um fenômeno de hipermutabilidade observado por nosso grupo de pesquisa. Através da análise de expressão transcricional dos elementos foram detectados transcritos senso e antisenso, sugerindo a atuação de um mecanismo de interferência por RNA (iRNA) como controlador da atividade destes elementos. Através de hibridização in situ de embriões inteiros o padrão de expressão de hobo e hoboVAHS revelou similaridades com padrões observados para genes do desenvolvimento. Isso nos levou a sugerir a existência de sequências cis-reguladoras nos elementos que podem estar interagindo com genes do hospedeiro. A presença destas sequências cis-reguladoras em TEs pode ter implicações evolutivas, uma vez que podem ser geradoras de variabilidade genética.
Transposable elements (TEs) are ubiquitous and abundant in several analyzed genomes. In this work two TE families (hosimary and hobo), belonging to the hAT superfamily, were studied. Here is described a new family, called hosimary, that was arised of analyzes of two sequences initially described by our research group (hosim e hosec). By performing PCR analysis in 50 drosophilidae species, sequences homologous to hosim and hosec were detected in Drosophila species of the melanogaster subgroup and in Zaprionus indianus. The number of copies observed among these species showed to be variable and most sequences presented coding potential. High similarity between these sequences, which belong to two distinct genera, as well as some inconsistencies among the phylogeny of the host species and the TEs were observed. This can be an indicative of horizontal transfer of these elements. Additionally, the sequences presented more than 90% of mutual similarity and no significant similarity with other already described element. This led us to suggest this new transposon family, that we called hosimary. The other family analyzed in this work includes the hobo and hoboVA (or hoboVAHS) elements. These elements may be involved in a hypermutability phenomenon observed by our research group. Sense and antisense transcripts were detected by transcriptional expression analysis, which suggests an RNA interference mechanism (iRNA) controlling the activity of these elements. in situ hybridization of whole mount embryo analysis showed similarity of the hobo and hoboVAHS expression pattern with patterns observed in developmental genes. This led us to suggest the existence of cis-regulatory sequences into the elements that can be interacting with the host genes. The presence of these cis-regulatory sequences in TEs can be related to evolutionary issues since they can be responsible for genetic variability.

Os elementos de transposição (TEs) são segmentos de DNA que têm a capacidade de mover-se e replicar-se dentro do genoma. Estão presentes em praticamente todos os organismos, compreendendo uma fração significativa do genoma dos mesmos. Duas classes de TEs são amplamente reconhecidas, os retrotransposons (classe I), que se transpõem por um intermediário de RNA, e os transposons (classe II) que usam DNA como intermediário direto da transposição. A diversidade, complexidade e ubiqüidade dos elementos transponíveis, a ampla variação fenotípica e molecular produzida em seus hospedeiros como conseqüência de sua transposição, assim como a transmissão horizontal da informação genética entre espécies indicam que essas seqüências desempenham uma importante função no processo evolutivo dos genomas, justificando a importância do seu estudo nos diversos organismos. O presente trabalho procurou explorar a história evolutiva de diferentes elementos de transposição em Drosophila visando contribuir para o entendimento do processo de co-evolução dessas seqüências com o genoma hospedeiro. Nosso principal foco foi investigar a evolução de retrovírus endógenos de Drosophila. Evidenciamos a ocorrência de um grande número de eventos de transmissão horizontal entre espécies. Muitos desses retrovírus podem ainda estar ativos e potencialmente serem agentes infecciosos, o que pode ajudar a explicar o grande número de eventos de transferência horizontal que encontramos. Investigamos também, a distribuição e evolução de uma família de transposons de DNA não autônomos, os quais podem ser considerados elementos do tipo MITEs (Miniature Inverted-repeat Transposable Elements). Nossas análises confirmaram que diferentes processos têm contribuído para a evolução e distribuição dos TEs nos genomas, como transmissão vertical, perda estocástica, polimorfismo ancestral, introgressão e transferência horizontal.
Transposable elements (TEs) are segments of DNA that have the ability to move and replicate within the genome. They are present in nearly all organisms, composing a significant fraction of their genomes. Two classes of TEs are widely recognized, the retrotransposons (class I) that transpose through a RNA intermediate and transposons (class II) that use DNA as a direct intermediate of transposition. The diversity, complexity and ubiquity of transposable elements, the extensive phenotypic and molecular variation produced in their hosts as a consequence of its transposition, as well as genetic horizontal transmission between species, indicate that TEs play an important role in evolution of genomes, substantiating the importance their study in different organisms. This study aimed to explore the evolutionary history of different transposable elements in Drosophila to contribute to the understanding of the co-evolution of these sequences with the host genome. Our main focus was to investigate the evolution of Drosophila endogenous retroviruses and we found several examples of horizontal transfer between species. Some of these retroviruses may still be active and are potentially infectious agents, which help to explain the high number of horizontal transfer events. We also investigate the distribution and evolution of a non-autonomous family of DNA transposons, which can be considered as MITEs (Miniature Inverted-repeat Transposable Elements). Our analyses confirm that several processes have contributed to the evolution and distribution of transposable elements in the genomes, such as vertical transmission, stochastic loss, ancestral polymorphism with independent assortment of copies during speciation, introgression and horizontal transfer.

Els elements transposables (TEs) són seqüències repetitives amb el tret definitori de canviar la seva posició al genoma. Ocupen fraccions importants dels genomes eucariotes, y, tot i que solen considerar-se paràsits genètics, també s'especula amb la possibilitat de que tinguessin alguna funció cel·lular que encara ens és desconeguda. Tot i així, sembla evident que tenen un paper important com facilitadors de l'evolució, ja que generen variabilitat al genoma de l'hoste. El TE Galileo està implicat en la generació de reordenacions cromosòmiques adaptatives naturals a l'espècie Drosophila buzzatii, en la que hauria generat variabilitat amb valor adaptatiu per a l'hoste. A més, tots els elements Galileo trobats en treballs anteriors eren defectius – composats bàsicament d'estructures similars a la dels elements Foldback – i no es van poder establir relacions d'homologia amb ninguna seqüència coneguda. Amb aquest rerefons, en aquesta tesi es va plantejar caracteritzar l'element genètic mòbil Galileo en diferents espècies de Drosophila i analitzar la seva dinàmica evolutiva. D'aquesta forma, en una primera fase es van buscar elements Galileo complets en diferents espècies del gènere Drosophila: D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis, D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura i D. persimilis, fent servir tant mètodes bioinformàtics com experimentals (depenent de si el genoma analitzat estava seqüenciat o no). Les còpies trobades presenten llargues Repeticions Invertides Terminals (TIR) de fins a 1,2 Kb, una elevada identitat amb seqüències de Galileo descrites anteriorment i, a més, contenen una zona codificant que ha permès classificar Galileo com a membre de la superfamília de l'element P. Posteriorment, mitjançant anàlisis filogenètiques, hem trobat l'existència de subfamílies de Galileo en tres espècies (D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis) i evidència d'activitat transposicional recent (D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura, D. persimilis i D. mojavensis). En una segona fase de la tesi, hem dut a terme experiments amb part de la proteïna que es codifica a Galileo i hem comprovat que interacciona amb les TIR de Galileo, confirmant que aquesta seqüència és la responsable de la reacció de transposició. Finalment, hem analitzat en detall la diversitat de Galileo al genoma de D. mojavensis i hem detectat una diversitat estructural molt important, on l'intercanvi de seqüències entre elements pareix força freqüent per l'evolució dels TEs.
Los elementos transponibles (TEs) son secuencias repetitivas cuya característica definitoria es la capacidad de cambiar de posición en el genoma. Ocupan fracciones muy importantes de los genomas de eucariotas, y aunque se suelen considerar parásitos genéticos, también se especula con la posibilidad de que pudieran tener alguna función celular que aún nos es desconocida. No obstante, parece evidente que tienen un papel importante como facilitadores de la evolución, al generar variabilidad en el genoma del huésped. El TE Galileo está implicado en la generación de reordenaciones cromosómicas adaptativas naturales en la especie Drosophila buzzatii, con lo que habría generado variabilidad adaptativa para el huésped. Además, todos los elementos Galileo encontrados en trabajos anteriores eran defectivos – compuestos básicamente de estructuras similares a las de los elementos Foldback – y no se pudieron establecer relaciones de homología con ninguna secuencia conocida. Con este trasfondo, en esta tesis se planteó caracterizar el elemento genético móvil Galileo en diferentes especies de Drosophila y analizar su dinámica evolutiva. De esta manera, en una primera fase se buscaron elementos Galileo completos en en diferentes especies del género Drosophila: D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis, D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura y D. persimilis, utilizando métodos tanto bioinformáticos como experimentales (dependiendo de si el genoma analizado estaba secuenciado o no). Las copias encontradas presentan largas Repeticiones Invertidas Terminals (TIR) de hasta 1,2 Kb, una elevada identidad con secuencias de Galileo descritas con anterioridad y, además, contienen una zona codificante que ha permitido clasificar Galileo como miembro de la superfamilia del elemento P. Posteriormente, mediante análisis filogenéticos, hemos encontrado la existencia de subfamilias de Galileo en tres especies (D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis) y evidencias de actividad transposicional reciente (D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura, D. persimilis y D. mojavensis). En una segunda fase de la tesis, hemos llevado a cabo experimentos con parte de la proteína que codifica Galileo y hemos comprobado que interacciona con las TIR de Galileo, confirmando que esta secuencia es la responsable de la reacción de transposición. Finalmente, hemos analizado en detalle la diversidad de Galileo en el genoma de D. mojavensis y hemos detectado una diversidad estructural muy importante, lo que sugiere que el intercambio de secuencias entre elementos podría ser bastante frecuente para la evolución de los TEs.
Transposable elements (TE) are repetitive sequences whose ability to change their location in the genome defines them. They made up a important proportion of the eukaryotic genomes, and although they are often considered as genetic parasites, it has been also argued that they might have some still unknown cellular function. Nevertheless, it is clear that they play a role as drivers of their host evolution, due to the fact that TEs generate genetic variability. The TE Galileo is involved in the generation of adaptive chromosomal rearrangements in natural populations of Drosophila buzzatii, indicating that it would be a driver of adaptation in its host. Moreover, all Galileo elements found in previous works were incomplete – mainly composed by Foldback-like structures – and homology relationships could not be established with any known sequence. With this background, this thesis was proposed to characterise the mobile genetic element Galileo in different Drosophila species and analyse its evolutionary dynamics. Thus, in a first phase we searched for complete copies of Galileo in different species of the Drosophila genus: D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis, D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, using both bioinformatic and experimental methods (depending on whether the analysed genome was available or not). The copies found present long TIR (up to 1.2 Kb), high sequence identity with previously found Galileo sequences and, moreover, they harbour coding sequences that have allowed the classification of Galileo as a member of the P-element superfamily. Subsequently, by means of phylogenetic analyses, we have found that there are Galileo subfamilies in three different species (D. buzzatii, D. mojavensis, D. virilis) and evidence of recent transpositional activity (in D. willitoni, D. ananassae, D. pseudoobscura, D. persimilis and D. mojavensis). In a second phase of the thesis, we have conducted experiments with part of the Galileo protein and detected specific binding to the Galileo TIR, confirming that this sequence is responsible for the transposition reaction. Finally, we have thoroughly studied the Galileo variability in the D. mojavensis genome and found a striking structural variation, suggesting that the exchange of sequences among different Galileo copies might be quite common and important for TEs evolution.

Els elements transposables (ETs) són unitats genètiques mòbils presents en pràcticament tots els organismes eucariotes seqüenciats. La seva capacitat de moure’s, juntament amb el seu caràcter repetitiu, els converteix en importants mutàgens amb l’habilitat de crear noves variants genètiques susceptibles a la selecció. Donat que el seu potencial mutagènic pot posar en perill la fitness de l’hoste, els organismes eucariotes han desenvolupat diferents estratègies de regulació per controlar la mobilització d’ETs. Cal destacar la importància d’aquestes estratègies en línia germinal, on les mutacions poden ser transmeses d’una generació a l’altra. En ovaris de Drosophila, el principal mecanisme de regulació d’ETs és la via dels piRNAs, que contribueix al seu silenciament transcripcional i post-transcripcional. La forta regulació a la que els ETs estan sotmesos es pot veure relaxada sota diferents condicions d’estrès, com és el cas de la hibridació interespecífica. Diversos estudis han descrit noves insercions d’ETs en híbrids interespecífics, tant d’animals com de plantes. En el cas que ens ocupa, els híbrids de Drosophila buzzatii i Drosophila koepferae, investigacions prèvies del nostre grup van detectar la mobilització d’almenys 28 ETs. No obstant, els mecanismes responsables d’aquesta activació són encara desconeguts, tot i que els estudis més recents del camp semblen apuntar a una desregulació a nivell d’expressió. També es desconeixen els efectes que la proliferació d’ETs pot tenir sobre el genoma dels híbrids. En aquest treball, comencem avaluant l’impacte de la hibridació sobre la mida del genoma dels híbrids de Drosophila buzzatii i Drosophila koepferae al llarg de quatre generacions d’encreuaments híbrids (un primer d’interespecífic seguit de quatre retroencreuaments). Demostrem l’existència d’una expansió genòmica sexe-específica, que afecta només les femelles del primer retroencreuament. Aquests resultats representen la primera evidència d’un augment de la mida del genoma en híbrids interespecífics d’espècies animals. La nostra hipòtesi és que una desregulació a nivell transcripcional té lloc a les femelles de la F1, donant lloc a noves insercions que es detecten a la següent generació. Per tal de testar aquesta hipòtesi, hem realitzat dos estudis d’expressió d’ETs, emprant dues aproximacions diferents. Primer, duem a terme una anàlisi en profunditat de l’expressió del retrotransposó Helena (un dels ETs que transposen en els nostres híbrids) en ambdós sexes i diferents teixits. Demostrem que l’expressió d’Helena en teixit somàtic no és alterada degut a la hibridació, mentre que en gònades s’observen efectes sexe-específics. En testicles de la F1, observem una repressió d’Helena, concordant amb l’absència de canvi en la mida del genoma dels mascles. En ovaris, sembla que Helena es desregula en mosques joves, però els nivells d’expressió baixen en mosques de major edat. Posteriorment, descrivim una anàlisi a nivell transcriptòmic, on s’avalua si els resultats d’Helena són extrapolables a l’expressió global dels ETs. Per esbrinar quins mecanismes estan involucrats en la desregulació d’ETs, analitzem també les poblacions de piRNAs d’espècies parentals i híbrids. Els nostres resultats demostren que els testicles de la F1 tendeixen a presentar nivells d’expressió més baixos que D. buzzatii, probablement degut a un augment dels nivells de piRNAs. En ovaris, l’efecte més comú és la sobreexpressió d’ETs, que podria ser explicada per incompatibilitats en la via dels piRNA entre les dues espècies parentals. De fet, les proteïnes d’aquesta via es troben entre les més divergents entre les dues espècies. D’altra banda, alguns casos de desregulació poden ser explicats per diferències entre els nivells de piRNAs entre els citoplasmes de D. buzzatii i D. koepferae, com en el cas de la disgènesi híbrida. Finalment, cal destacar que són necessàries altres explicacions per explicar el patró global de desregulació, com ara un funcionament anormal d’altres vies de regulació d’ETs o de la modificació d’histones.
Transposable elements (TEs) are mobile genetic units present in almost all the eukaryotic sequenced genomes. Their mobilizing capacity, together with their repetitive nature, makes them powerful endogenous mutators able to create novel genetic variants, which will be then subject to selection. However, their mutagenic potential can also endanger their host’s fitness, which has led to the development of several regulatory strategies against TE mobilization in eukaryotic organisms. These are especially important in the germline, where mutations can be transmitted to the offspring. In Drosophila ovaries, TEs are mainly regulated by a small RNA-mediated silencing mechanism, the piRNA (Piwi-interacting RNA) pathway, which affects transcriptional and post-transcriptional TE silencing. This strong regulation can be relaxed under several stress conditions, including interspecific hybridization, a genomic stressor that promotes TE mobilization. Several cases of transposition events have been described in hybrids of different species, including both animals and plants. In the case that concerns us, D. buzzatii–D. koepferae hybrids, a previous survey in our group detected mobilization of at least 28 TEs. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying this TE release remain elusive, although recent studies on hybrid TE expression seem to point to a transcriptional deregulation. Furthermore, little is known about the effects this phenomenon can have in the genome of the hybrid progeny. In this work, we first assess the impact that hybridization-induced TE proliferation has on the genome size of D.buzzatii–D. koepferae hybrids, throughout four generations of hybridization (an interspecific cross followed by three backcrosses). We demonstrate the existence of a sex-specific genome expansion, that affects only females at the first backcross. These results provide the first evidence of genome size increase in interspecific hybrids of animal species. We hypothesize that a TE deregulation at a transcriptional level occurs in F1 females, leading to new TE insertions that result in a genome size increase in the following generation. In order to test this hypothesis, we address two TE expression studies in the same hybrids, using two different approaches. First, we perform an in-depth analysis of the expression of one of the mobilized transposons, Helena, in both sexes and different tissues. We show that Helena expression in somatic tissues is not altered after hybridization, whereas in gonads sex-biased effects are observed. Indeed, Helena is repressed in F1 testes, in concordance with the unaltered genome size in males. In ovaries, an early Helena overexpression seems to occur in young flies, being then controlled in older ones. We subsequently performed a global analysis using a transcriptomic approach, in order to evaluate if the results for Helena could be extended to other TEs. To disentangle the molecular mechanisms involved in TE deregulatiom, we analysed the piRNA populations of parental species and hybrids. We show that F1 testes indeed tend to present a TE expression lower than D. buzzatii, which is coupled with a global increase of piRNA amounts. In ovaries, TE overexpression is the more common effect, and seems to be mainly due to differences in piRNA production strategies between parental species. Actually, the piRNA pathway proteins are divergent between parental species and could be at the origin of the hybrid instability. Moreover, differences in piRNA amounts between D. buzzatii and D. koepferae cytoplasms could also account for some cases of deregulation, as occurs in hybrid dysgenesis syndrome. Finally, other explanations are needed to account for the whole pattern of deregulation, such as the failure of histone modification’s deposition or of other TE silencing pathways.