Статті в журналах: "Timber composite"

1

Sandhyavitri, Ari, Fakhri Fakhri, Rizki Ramadhan Husaini, Indra Kuswoyo, and Manyuk Fauzi. "Added values of the local timbers materials for main bridge frame structures utilizing laminating composites technology." Journal of Applied Materials and Technology 2, no. 1 (December 4, 2020): 50–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.31258/jamt.2.1.50-58.

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The objectives of this article are to seek the opportunity to enhance the local Indonesia timber material physical performances (encompassing the low-class quality of III and IV timbers with the Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) = 5,000 - 9,000 MPa) utilizing laminated composite technology to become higher-class timber quality (class II) with the Modulus of Elasticity (MOE)> 15,000 MPa so that it can be used as an alternative material for constructing the bridge mainframe structures (girder beams) especially for the Indragiri Hilir regency, Riau Province, Indonesia. This regency needs several hundred small-medium bridges for connecting 20 districts, 39 wards, and 197 villages using local materials such as local timbers. This laminating technology is not a new technology but the utilization of this technology for constructing the main bridges structures is challenging and limited to the implementation in the civil construction industrial sector. This study composed 2 types of the low-class quality (lcq) of timber materials (such as Shorea sp and Shorea peltata Sym) and 2 types of medium class-quality (mcq) ones (Dipterocarpus and Calophyllum) for constructing the main bridge structures. Based on the laboratory test results utilizing 80% of lcq materials and 20% mcq ones, these composite timber materials may increase the timbers MOE by 145% to 166% from the existing MOE value of the mcq solid timbers. Based on the simulations these laminated composites wooden bridge girders 2 x (70x20) m2, these timber materials have passed all the tests and the application of this technology may improve the lcq timber values and it could be used for an alternative material of the bridge girder's main structures.

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Buyuktaskin, Halet Almila Arda, Mehmet Serkan Yatagan, Gulseren Erol Soyoz, Leyla Tanacan, and Morvarid Dilmaghani. "EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE DURABILITY OF LOAD BEARING TIMBER-GLASS COMPOSITES UNDER THE EFFECTS OF ACCELERATED AGING." Journal of Green Building 14, no. 2 (March 2019): 45–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.3992/1943-4618.14.2.45.

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Although timber was used extensively as a structural material for traditional buildings in Turkey in the past, usage of structural timber decreased significantly over time and timber has been largely replaced by other materials. As timber is a natural, durable and sustainable material, it would be desirable to re-introduce timber structural elements to contemporary construction in a form that is appealing to industry. Timber-glass composite structural elements are potentially a good candidate for this purpose. To that end, a series of tests were conducted on load-bearing timber-glass composites in order to understand the long–term structural performance of the composite material under atmospheric conditions; to decrease the recurring cost of repair and maintenance; and to minimize the exhaustion of raw materials and energy. In this paper, the first part of this experimental work is presented, which focuses on the durability of timber-glass composite under the effects of accelerated aging, carried out on small-sized timber-glass composite specimens. Accelerated aging effects were observed under wetting-drying, freezing-thawing, UV effects, resistance to acids and high temperature. The mechanical strength of the timber-glass composite specimens before and after the effect of accelerated aging was measured by adhesion and shear strength tests and a comparative analysis of the results was carried out. The results of the experiments indicate that timber-glass composite is suitable to be used under protection from environmental conditions.

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3

Soalih, Hussien Alkasim, and Serhat Demir. "Current practice and recent developments of shear connectors for timber concrete composite applications: A state of the art review." Journal of Structural Engineering & Applied Mechanics 6, no. 5 (December 31, 2023): 422–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.31462/jseam.2023.05422440.

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Several studies have been made on timber concrete composite shear connectors and most of these connectors are brittle at failure. Ductile shear connectors are not studied as extensively as ordinary shear connectors and the interest to study high ductility shear connectors increased in the past two decades. Recent literature references were chosen and reviewed on construction techniques of timber concrete composite shear connectors. A detailed summary of timber concrete composites, the mechanical properties of connectors, and types of connection systems are presented. Experimentally validated design guides available for timber concrete composite systems are presented and the potential for the development of new simplified connectors is discussed. Finally, recent applications of timber concrete composite connectors and possible areas of future research regarding the development of high ductility and energy dissipation capacity shear connectors are stated.

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4

Xie, Lan, Guojing He, Xiaodong (Alice) Wang, Xiao Tang, and Roberto Crocetti. "Hysteretic performance of angle steel connections in a timber-concrete composite system." BioResources 17, no. 1 (January 5, 2022): 1270–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.17.1.1270-1284.

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Timber–concrete composite systems are widely used in Europe, North America, and Australasia, primarily due to their good mechanical performance in terms of statics, dynamics, and seismic response. In addition, the concrete slab provides excellent protection to the timber, making such systems suitable for outdoor application. The seismic performance of timber–concrete composites is normally governed by their ductility and energy dissipation capacity. However, few design codes address the ductility and energy dissipation capacity of timber–concrete composite systems, owing to a lack of reliable performance data. Therefore, further research on the hysteretic performance of timber–concrete composite systems is necessary. In this study, six timber–concrete composite specimens with an angle steel connection of the same size were investigated using reversed cyclic tests. The corresponding failure modes were observed, and the salient features of the connection, i.e., the stiffness, ductility, and energy dissipation, were computed from the test results. The force mechanism of the timber–concrete composite specimens under reversed cyclic load was analyzed. Equations were presented to calculate the yield force and negative force in the same load step. A comparison of the test results and the theoretical results indicated good agreement.

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5

Senashov, Sergey I., Irina L. Savostyanova, and Alexander N. Yakhno. "Bending of composite timber." Siberian Aerospace Journal 25, no. 1 (July 29, 2024): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.31772/2712-8970-2024-25-1-25-32.

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Technologies and production widely use composite materials now. “Mechanics of deformable solids” was formed as a science based on the study of materials used in the 19th and 20th centuries. Modern composite materials require new theoretical and experimental studies. Determining the stresses and deformations that occur at the points of contact of the matrix with the fibers is a special problem. Composites with a plastic matrix play an important role in modern technology. These materials successfully cope with cracking and significantly slow down the growth of cracks. In this article, the problem of the stress state of a composite beam with an elastic-plastic matrix and elastic fibers located along the axis of the beam is solved. It is assumed that in the zone of contact of the matrix with the fibers, according to the model of Yu. N. Worknov, a constant tangential stress is realized, less than the yield strength of the fiber. One end of the beam is fixed, and a constant force applied to the center of gravity coinciding with the origin of coordinates acts on the second. It is assumed that at the free boundary of the beam and at the points of contact of the beam with the fibers, the stresses reach the plasticity limit. The problem is solved with the help of conservation laws. This makes it possible to find the stress state at an arbitrary point of the section as a calculation of integrals along the outer boundary of the beam and the boundaries of the matrix and fibers.

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6

Utkin, V. A., and I. I. Gotovtsev. "CRESTED SHEAR CONNECTORS APPLICATION TO COMBINE REINFORCED CONCRETE SLAB AND PLANK-NAILED STRUCTURE OF BRIDGE SPAN." Russian Automobile and Highway Industry Journal 17, no. 3 (July 22, 2020): 414–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.26518/2071-7296-2020-17-3-414-427.

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Introduction. The construction of bridges using timber materials is experiencing a real boom throughout the world .The USA is considered to be a leader, where 80% of the bridges are made of timber or materials based on it. In Russia timber bridge construction has been stagnating for the last 50 years, although there is a need for these bridges. Timber structures could solve many problems with Russian roads, especially in remote areas. Timber structures are widely considered to be outdated, so they cannot meet current requirements of load capacity and durability, also they are vulnerable to atmospheric influences, etc. But foreign experience proves the contrary. The article is devoted to the implementation of new plank-nailed spans that meet current requirements of load capacity, reliability and durability.Materials and methods. The authors suggest and describe a new span structure. The span consists of planktimber- nailed-dowel blocks and a reinforced concrete slab generating a composite action. Some special crested shear connectors are suggested as combining elements. The top part works as flexible shear connectors in a reinforced concrete slab. The bottom part works as dowels with steel joints and timbers structures. The investigation of the stress-strain state of the structure has been completed within “compound beam” theory.Results. The application of the cast-in-place reinforced concrete slab allows to protect supporting timber structures against atmospheric influences, dirt, cracking from the sun rays, radiation and provides at least 50-year durability. The timber preservation provides a specified service life. The application of suggested connection with composite action between a reinforced concrete slab and supporting timber structures increases effectiveness of the composite timber concrete structure compared to steel and reinforced concrete structures. Trans-Baikal territory, Irkutsk and Arkhangelsk Regions, Khabarovsk Territory, the Republics of Sakha (Yakutia), Buriatia, Karelia are in the greatest need of the timber concrete composite spans, because they have a lot of forest resources and old timber bridges that are still in service.

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7

Ceccotti, Ario. "Composite concrete-timber structures." Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials 4, no. 3 (2002): 264–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/pse.126.

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8

Buka-Vaivade, Karina, Dmitrijs Serdjuks, and Leonids Pakrastins. "Cost Factor Analysis for Timber–Concrete Composite with a Lightweight Plywood Rib Floor Panel." Buildings 12, no. 6 (June 3, 2022): 761. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings12060761.

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With the growing importance of the principle of sustainability, there is an increasing interest in the use of timber–concrete composite for floors, especially for medium and large span buildings. Timber–concrete composite combines the better properties of both materials and reduces their disadvantages. The most common choice is to use a cross-laminated timber panel as a base for a timber–concrete composite. But a timber–concrete composite solution with plywood rib panels with an adhesive connection between the timber base and fibre reinforced concrete layer is offered as the more cost-effective constructive solution. An algorithm for determining the rational parameters of the panel cross-section has been developed. The software was written based on the proposed algorithm to compare timber–concrete composite panels with cross-laminated timber and plywood rib panel bases. The developed algorithm includes recommendations of forthcoming Eurocode 5 for timber–concrete composite design and an innovative approach to vibration calculations. The obtained data conclude that the proposed structural solution has up to 73% lower cost and up to 71% smaller self-weight. Thus, the proposed timber–concrete composite construction can meet the needs of society for cost-effective and sustainable innovative floor solutions.

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9

Owens, Frank C., R. Daniel Seale, and Rubin Shmulsky. "Strength and stiffness of 8-inch deep mixed hardwood composite timber mats." BioResources 15, no. 2 (February 17, 2020): 2495–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.15.2.2495-2500.

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There is a current and pressing need to develop engineering standards for timber- and other wood-based mats. In 2018 a group of mat producers and users began discussing a potential grading specification standard specific to mats. There are large gaps in the literature regarding the performance of the available raw materials as well as bolt-laminated mat systems. This work represents a novel attempt to begin to assess the mechanical properties of timber mats. Eight-inch deep mixed hardwood timbers were graded according to an experimental specification standard. Then, they were drilled and bolt laminated into 28 three-timber composite mats that were 24 inches (60.96 cm) in width. The bending stiffness (modulus of elasticity [MOE]) and strength (modulus of rupture [MOR]) performance were evaluated with a static bending test. The 5th percentile nonparametric tolerance limit (5% NTL) and design value for fiber stress in bending (Fb) were calculated. The nonparametric design value compared favorably with that of graded timbers, as described in the 2018 National Design Specification (NDS) for wood.

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10

Mlote, Doreen Steven, and Michael Budig. "Load-Bearing Capacities and Pseudo-Ductility of Carbon Fiber-Reinforced New Zealand Pine Timber Beams." Journal of Composites Science 6, no. 8 (August 15, 2022): 239. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jcs6080239.

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Building construction contributes a significant portion to the global consumption of energy and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and decarbonization has become one of the main targets. This has turned much attention to renewable materials, particularly timber construction. Wood is a natural composite, and it causes challenges in its natural state due to its mechanical properties and functionality, which has constrained its use in construction. Laminating wood sections into glue-laminated (glulam) and cross-laminated timber (CLT) components overcomes limitations in dimensions and inconsistencies in its properties. We went beyond these technologies and explored the potential of combining timber of the radiata pine species with synthetic fibers, aiming for hybrid natural–synthetic composite beams. This research illustrated various reinforcement mechanisms and analyzed their structural properties. The results from the experiments showed that carbon fiber-reinforced timber composites have up to 49% additional increase in load-bearing capacity compared to unreinforced beams. An identical amount of strain required less stress, and the composite portrayed a metal-like ductility property, a characteristic referred to as pseudo-ductility. It reduces the material consumption in beams through a more efficient use of materials, particularly around compression areas before tensile rupture. The resulting composites are sustainable yet structurally capable, contributing to the reduction in CO2 emissions in timber construction systems.

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11

Buka-Vaivade, Karina, Dmitrijs Serdjuks, Andrejs Podkoritovs, Leonids Pakrastins, and Viktors Mironovs. "RIGID CONNECTION WITH GRANITE CHIPS IN THE TIMBER-CONCRETE COMPOSITE." ENVIRONMENT. TECHNOLOGIES. RESOURCES. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference 3 (June 16, 2021): 36–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/etr2021vol3.6552.

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Timber-concrete composite panels enables to combine advantages of pure timber and pure concrete panels in one structural member especially in the case, when the rigid timber-concrete connection is provided. The effectiveness of timber and concrete use and load-carrying capacity of the timber-concrete composite panels will grow in the case. The new concept of rigid timber to concrete connection was developed by the using of the granite chips as the keys to provide high quality of the glued connection. Behaviour of the timber-concrete composite panels were investigated by finite element method and laboratorian experiment. Three timber-concrete composite panels in combination with carbon fibre reinforced plastic composite tapes in the tension zone with the span 1.8 m were statically loaded till the failure by the scheme of three-point bending. One specimen was produced by dry method, by gluing together cross-laminated timber panel and prefabricated concrete panel. Timber-concrete connection of the other two specimens was provided by the granite chips, which were glued on the surface of the cross-laminated timber by epoxy, and then wet concrete was placed. Dimensions of the crushed granite pieces changes within the limits from 16 to 25 mm. The current study focuses on determining the effect of the use of granite chips for timber-concrete composite panels with adhesive connection between layers. The effect of the use of granite chips in rigid connection is determined by comparison of mid-span displacements and level of failure load of the two variants of the timber-concrete composite panels. Three-dimensional finite element models of timber-concrete composite with rigid connection was developed and validated by experiment data. Obtained results shown, that the use of the granite chips in rigid timber to concrete connection allow to make a quality rigid connection. Possibility to increase by 28% level of failure load of the timber-concrete composite panels by the adding of granite chips was stated. Maximal vertical mid-span displacements of the panels decrease about 3.8 times at the same time.

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12

Haiman, Miljenko, and Nenad Turčić. "Timber-Lightweight Aggregate Composite Floor Structure." Materials Science Forum 730-732 (November 2012): 486–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.730-732.486.

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Nowadays, composite structures based on wood are frequently used. In civil engineering, mostly timber-concrete composite structures are used, particularly in reconstruction of old timber girder floor structures or manufacture of new ones at the reconstruction of old buildings in areas exposed to frequent earthquakes. In new buildings it is mainly glued laminated timber or lumber, while in reconstruction square timber is used. A timber beam is coupled with a concrete slab made either of conventional or a lightweight concrete. Best results are achieved by coupling timber with lightweight aggregate concrete that has all the properties similar to the timber except for its strength that is much higher and comparable to that of conventional concrete. This paper analyzes a composite timber-lightweight aggregate concrete structure. The basic girder is a T-cross section, with the web made of glulam, and flange made of lightweight concrete with expanded clay aggregate (Liapor). The two materials are coupled by means of mechanical fasteners, allowing joint action of the composite section. Quality of coupling has been determined by experimental tests carried out at the Laboratory of the Technical Mechanics Institute, Faculty of Civil Engineering in Zagreb. Finite element method was used for modelling of composite structures using ABAQUS software. The aim of this study was to determine the advantages of using timber-lightweight aggregate concrete composite structure, compared to solutions in which timber-conventional concrete composite structure or reinforced concrete slab are used.

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13

Holý, Milan, and Lukáš Vráblík. "The Timber-Precast UHPC Composite Connection." Solid State Phenomena 272 (February 2018): 21–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.272.21.

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This paper deals with the connection of timber beams and precast concrete slabs. The connection of timber and concrete has many advantages associated with the efficient use of both materials, not only in terms of their stress. Timber is a natural renewable material. It can be achieved some savings of volume of the concrete by its application and thereby also reducing of the environmental burden. By the combining of the timber and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), it can be designed very subtle, bearable, aesthetic and durable structures. The conventional timber-concrete composite structures are most often realized by joining of the timber beams and the cast in-situ reinforced concrete slabs. However, the cast in-situ slab is not very suitable for UHPC application and it has some structural disadvantages, in particular the need to protect the timber beams against moisture penetration from the fresh concrete mix, the need for formwork, etc. The prefabrication eliminates some disadvantages of the cast in-situ design, increases the quality of the structure and speeds up the construction process. In the case of the timber-concrete composite structures, the prefabrication has a positive impact on the reduction of the concrete shrinkage projections as the development of deflections and the redistribution of internal forces between the connected parts of the cross-section. Some special coupling elements must be used for connection in the case of precast slabs. This paper summarizes the research findings in the field of development of special coupling elements for composite timber-precast concrete structures. The development of the new coupling elements for pedestrian and cyclist timber-UHPC composite footbridges is presented.

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14

Hammad, M. W., H. R. Valipour, T. Ghanbari-Ghazijahani, and M. A. Bradford. "Timber-timber composite (TTC) beams subjected to hogging moment." Construction and Building Materials 321 (February 2022): 126295. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.126295.

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15

Shi, Benkai, Xuesong Zhou, Haotian Tao, Huifeng Yang, and Bo Wen. "Long-Term Behavior of Timber–Concrete Composite Structures: A Literature Review on Experimental and Numerical Investigations." Buildings 14, no. 6 (June 12, 2024): 1770. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings14061770.

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Timber–concrete composite structure is a type of efficient combination form composed of concrete floors and timber beams or floors through shear connectors, and shows good application potential in the floor system of timber buildings. The long-term performance of the timber–concrete composite structures is complex and is affected by the creep of timber and concrete, as well as the long-term slip of the shear connectors. This article presents a comprehensive overview of the research status on the long-term behavior of timber–concrete composite members and different shear connectors. For the shear connectors, the effects of loading levels, environments, and component materials on their creep coefficients are summarized. As to the timber–concrete composite members, both the experimental and numerical investigations are gathered into discussions: the connection types, component materials, loading conditions, and durations in the long-term tests are also discussed; various models for describing long-term behavior of timber, concrete, and connection systems are provided, and then a comprehensive description of the progress of numerical investigations over the last decades is made. In addition, the suggestions for future research are proposed to reach a clearer understanding of the bending mechanisms and mechanical characteristics of timber–concrete composite structures.

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16

Stojic, Dragoslav, and Toma Kajganovic. "Composite timber-concrete road bridge structure." Facta universitatis - series: Architecture and Civil Engineering 5, no. 2 (2007): 141–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/fuace0702141s.

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This work presents preliminary design of the road bridge made of laminated timber. The supporting system of the main bearing elements is made of the laminated timber in the system of arch with three joints; the bridge slab is designed as continuous slab, made of nine equal fields; each pair is made as composite timber-concrete beam, where the road slab is made of concrete and the needle pieces are made of timber. Fundament is based on HW piles. All the elements are designed to Eurocode.

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17

Chybiński, Marcin, and Łukasz Polus. "Structural Behaviour of Aluminium–Timber Composite Beams with Partial Shear Connections." Applied Sciences 13, no. 3 (January 27, 2023): 1603. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app13031603.

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In this paper, the short-term behaviour of innovative aluminium–timber composite beams was investigated. Laminated veneer lumber panels were attached to aluminium beams with screws. Recently conducted theoretical, experimental, and numerical investigations have focused on aluminium–timber composite beams with almost full shear connections. However, no experiments on aluminium–timber composite beams with partial shear connections have yet been conducted. For this reason, composite action in composite beams with different screw spacing was studied in this paper. Four-point bending tests were performed on aluminium–timber composite beams with different screw spacing to study their structural behaviour (ultimate load, mode of failure, load versus deflection response, load versus slip response, and short-term stiffness). The method used for steel–concrete composite beams with partial shear connection was adopted to estimate the load bearing capacity of the investigated aluminium–timber composite beams. The resistance to sagging bending of the aluminium–timber composite beams with partial shear connections from the theoretical analyses differed by 6–16% from the resistance in the laboratory tests. In addition, four 2D numerical models of the composite beams were developed. One model reflected the behaviour of the composite beam with full shear connection. The remaining models represented the composite beams with partial shear connections and were verified against the laboratory test results. Laminated veneer lumber was modelled as an orthotropic material and its failure was captured using the Hashin damage model. The resistance to sagging bending of the aluminium–timber composite beams with partial shear connections from the numerical analyses were only 3–6% lower than the one from the experiments.

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18

Battles, Eoin P., Habib J. Dagher, and Beckry Abdel-Magid. "Durability of Composite Reinforcement for Timber Bridges." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 1696, no. 1 (January 2000): 131–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.3141/1696-54.

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Fiber-reinforced polymeric (FRP) composites are materials that are increasing in use in civil engineering applications. Despite the excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance offered by these organic matrix materials, their susceptibility to the synergistic effects of stress and environmental weathering hinders their widespread acceptance in civil engineering. The durability of a specific formulation of wood-compatible, pultruded, E-glass–phenolic composite is characterized. This composite is unique because its layered structure and void content make it compatible with standard structural wood adhesives. The durability of this wood-compatible FRP reinforcement cannot be directly determined from published work on the durability of E-glass composites because of its unique design. A durability test matrix was generated according to specifications and test standards from the International Conference of Building Officials Evaluation Service, Inc., and from the California Department of Transportation. Physical and mechanical properties that were used as indicators of degradation mechanisms and that applied to the bridge environment included tensile behavior, interlaminar shear strength, void content, and glass-transition temperature. Environmental testing involved exposure to various storage media, such as moisture, saline solutions, and calcium carbonate, followed by mechanical testing. Other exposure treatments included dry heat, cyclic freeze-thaw, accelerated weathering, and natural weathering. In addition to the strength-retention determination after environmental conditioning, control and exposed specimens were examined visually with optical and scanning electron microscopy to determine surface changes and their effect on failure and fracture modes.

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19

Radford, D. W., D. Van Goethem, R. M. Gutkowski, and M. L. Peterson. "Composite repair of timber structures." Construction and Building Materials 16, no. 7 (October 2002): 417–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0950-0618(02)00044-2.

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20

Meierhofer, Ulrich. "A Timber/Concrete Composite System." Structural Engineering International 3, no. 2 (May 1993): 104–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.2749/101686693780612529.

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21

Sartori, T., and R. Crocetti. "Prefabricated timber-concrete composite floors." European Journal of Wood and Wood Products 74, no. 3 (February 1, 2016): 483–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00107-016-1007-4.

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Briuka, Elza, Dmitrijs Serdjuks, Pavel Akishin, Genadijs Sahmenko, Andrejs Podkoritovs, and Raimonds Ozolins. "Behaviour Analysis of Beam-Type Timber and Timber-Concrete Composite Panels." Applied Sciences 14, no. 16 (August 22, 2024): 7403. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app14167403.

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This study addresses the enhancement of material efficiency and reduction in brittleness in timber-to-concrete adhesive connections for beam-type timber and timber-concrete composite panels. The research explores the potential benefits of adding longitudinal timber ribs to cross-laminated timber (CLT) beam-type panels. Three groups of flexure-tested specimens were analysed as follows: (1) timber panels (1400 mm × 400 mm) with two 100 mm thick CLT panels and two 60 mm thick CLT panels reinforced with 150 × 80 mm timber ribs; (2) eight specimens (600 mm × 100 mm × 150 mm) with CLT members (600 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm) connected to a 50 mm concrete layer using granite chips and Sikadur-31 (AB) epoxy adhesive; (3) six CLT panels (1400 mm × 400 mm × 50 mm) bonded to a 50 mm concrete layer, with two panels containing polypropylene microfibres and two panels incorporating polyethene dowels for mechanical connection. Specimens were subjected to three-point bending tests and analysed using the transformed section method, γ-method, and finite element method with ANSYS 2023R2 software. Results indicated a 53% increase in load-carrying capacity for ribbed CLT panels with no additional material consumption, a 24.8–41.1% increase for CLT panels strengthened with a concrete layer, and improved ductility and prevention of disintegration in timber-concrete composites with polypropylene microfibres.

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23

Fujita, Masanori, Micha Kubota, Yuki Okoshi, and Mamoru Iwata. "CO₂ Fixation Using a Composite Steel Timber Structure." Advanced Materials Research 838-841 (November 2013): 381–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.838-841.381.

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One approach to promote forest growth is the pruning and thinning of trees. In the field of building structure, it is necessary to use thinned woods as timber positively. However, timber is too weak to apply to the large-scale buildings. Research and development of a building system to use timber are demanded. Authors propose composite steel-timber structure aiming to spread wood to building construction field considering the global environment. First, distribution volumes of planted forest of each age forest class in Japan and its CO2 fixation are shown, investigating forest resources. Finally, the specific example of a composite steel-timber structure is shown and CO2 fixation at building structure model using a composite steel-timber structure is estimated.

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24

Johns, Kenneth C., and Simon Lacroix. "Composite reinforcement of timber in bending." Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering 27, no. 5 (October 1, 2000): 899–906. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/l00-017.

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A promising use for high performance composite materials is to reinforce timber beams. The present paper studies the use of carbon and glass fibres to reinforce sawn timber sections. Consideration is given to strength phenomena of commercial timber alone and in reinforced sections in bending and shear. Anchorage length considerations for composite strips applied to the underside of simple beams are discussed. Experimental results are presented for three geometries of reinforcement using matched samples of 25 pairs of beams, reinforced and not. Results establish that the wood itself in the composite section shows strength increase, and that the increase in moment resistance of the reinforced beams is far greater than that predicted by simple models.Key words: composite material, timber, reinforcement, bending, shear.

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Bajzecerová, Viktória, Ján Kanócz, Eva Kormaníková, Viktor Karľa, Peter Orolin, and František Vranay. "Normal stress distribution of timber-concrete composite panels with an adhesive shear connection under thermal and humidity loadings." BioResources 16, no. 3 (May 13, 2021): 4862–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.16.3.4862-4875.

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Humidity and temperature conditions have a substantial influence on the stresses and total deformation of timber-concrete composite panels, especially in terms of the high rigidity of the shear connection. In the present research, the normal stresses that resulted from the hygrothermal load of timber-concrete composite panels with an adhesive shear connection were analyzed. Three timber-concrete composite panel specimens were placed in controlled climate conditions. Strains in two orthogonal directions were measured. The stress distribution resulted from an approximate analytical calculation model. The results show that the highest stresses occurred near the shear connection. An increase in timber moisture content by 2.1% was predicted to result in exceeding the flexural tensile strength in the concrete perpendicular to the timber grain direction. At an outdoor temperature range, stresses influenced only by the temperature alone will possibly not cause a failure of timber or concrete. Under winter environmental conditions, the stress in timber can possibly reach 12% of the bending strength of the timber used.

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26

Du, Hao, Xiamin Hu, Zhixiang Sun, and Weijie Fu. "Shear stiffness of inclined screws in timber–concrete composite beam with timber board interlayer." Advances in Structural Engineering 23, no. 16 (July 15, 2020): 3555–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1369433220940814.

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The timber board interlayer is applied as the formwork for the pouring of concrete slab in various practical applications of timber–concrete composite structures, with the rehabilitation of timber buildings, in particular. At present, there are few studies performed to study the shear stiffness of inclined screws in timber–concrete composite beams with timber board interlayer. In this article, eight groups of shear tests were carried out to study the shear stiffness of inclined screws in timber–concrete composite beams with timber board interlayer. The key parameters included the embedment depth of the screw connector into timber, screw diameter, the thickness of concrete slab, and concrete strength. As indicated by the test results, the shear stiffness of the inclined screws was improved as the embedment depth of screw into timber and screw diameter increased. When the embedded depth of screw into concrete remained unchanged, the thickness of concrete slab and concrete strength exhibited no significant impact on the shear stiffness of inclined crossing screws. On the basis of the theory of a beam on a two-dimensional elastic foundation, the calculation method for predicting the shear stiffness of inclined screw in timber–concrete composite beams with interlayer was proposed. The comparisons demonstrated that the shear stiffness of inclined screw can be well predicted using the calculation method.

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27

Szumigała, Maciej, Ewa Szumigała, and Łukasz Polus. "An Analysis of the Load-Bearing Capacity of Timber-Concrete Composite Beams with Profiled Sheeting." Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports 27, no. 4 (December 20, 2017): 143–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/ceer-2017-0057.

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Abstract This paper presents an analysis of timber-concrete composite beams. Said composite beams consist of rectangular timber beams and concrete slabs poured into the steel sheeting. The concrete slab is connected with the timber beam using special shear connectors. The authors of this article are trying to patent these connectors. The article contains results from a numerical analysis. It is demonstrated that the type of steel sheeting used as a lost formwork has an influence on the load-bearing capacity and stiffness of the timber-concrete composite beams.

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28

Strzelecka, Julia, Łukasz Polus, and Marcin Chybiński. "Theoretical and Numerical Analyses of Steel-timber Composite Beams with LVL Slabs." Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports 33, no. 2 (September 27, 2023): 64–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.59440/ceer/172510.

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Recently conducted studies have shown that significant benefits are to be gained by joining steel beams and timber slabs. Steel-timber composite beams present a sustainable solution for the construction industry because of their high strength and stiffness, and lower carbon footprint and self-weight than steel-concrete composite beams. The behaviour of steel-timber composite beams is still being investigated to reduce knowledge gaps. This paper presents theoretical and numerical analyses of steel-timber composite beams consisting of steel girders and laminated veneer lumber slabs. The elastic and plastic resistance to bending were estimated analytically based on the elastic analysis and the rigid-plastic theory. The impact of the composite action, the LVL slab thickness, the cross-section of a steel girder and the steel grade on resistance to bending was evaluated. The load-deflection curve of the composite beam was obtained using a 2D finite element model, in which timber failure was captured using the Hashin damage model. The results of the numerical simulation were in good agreement with the ones of the theoretical analyses.

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29

Du, Hao, Xiamin Hu, Yuchen Jiang, Chenyu Wei, and Wan Hong. "Load-carrying capacity of self-tapping lag screws for glulam-lightweight concrete composite beams." BioResources 14, no. 1 (November 14, 2018): 166–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.15376/biores.14.1.166-179.

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When a lag screw with a large diameter is used as the shear connector in timer-concrete composite beams, the procedure of pre-drilling is required during the construction process. In this paper, a new type of lag screw was proposed to omit the pre-drilling step. To investigate the shear behavior of the self-tapping lag screws for glulam-lightweight concrete composite beams, a total of 18 push-out tests were conducted. Based on the push-out test results, the influences of concrete type, screw diameter, and penetration length of screw into timber on the load-carrying capacity were analyzed in detail. The push-out test results showed that the concrete type had no remarkable effect on the load-carrying capacity. The load-carrying capacity was improved with increased screw diameter and penetration length. In addition, an analytical model for load-carrying capacity of lag screw connectors was proposed based on the push-out test results. By comparisons, it was found that the timber-timber and steel-timber models proposed in Eurocode 5 made very conservative predictions on the load-carrying capacity of lag screws. The results of the analytical method presented in this paper showed a better agreement with the experimental results.

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30

Wang, Siya, Jing Li, Zeyu Li, Yanjia Wang, and Ying Xu. "Research on in-plane lateral performance of a new-type composite timber wall panel with cold-formed steel frames." MATEC Web of Conferences 275 (2019): 01017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201927501017.

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A series of researches on the behaviour of a new structural system, composite timber wall panel with cold-formed steel frames, are investigated under monotonic and reversed cyclic loading. In order to improve the in-plane lateral performance of the composite timber panels, sixteen different optimized composite timber panels were proposed and tested, including increasing the thickness of the sheathings, improvement with steel X-bracings, filling with straw and advance of connection between sheathing and wood framing. The main objective of the investigation is to explore the pervasive mode of failure, determine the quantification of the improvement in lateral performance of these optimized composite timber wall panels and evaluate the benefits of each optimization during the process of failure.

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31

Abd Ghafar, N. H., H. Mohd Ikhsan, NZ Abd Aziz, D. Yeoh, HB Koh, and T. N. Tuan Chik. "Walking test on Glulam-concrete composite floor." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1205, no. 1 (June 1, 2023): 012045. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1205/1/012045.

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Abstract Glulam-concrete composite floor (GCC) is a hybrid flooring system which adopted from timber-concrete (TCC) flooring system concrete by replacing the sawn timber joist to Glulam timber joist. The concrete topping was poured on the concrete topping with stiffness connectors were installed to prevent the slip behaviour. Glulam timber is engineered timber that has a bigger strength compared to swan timber. This study is aims to identify the vibration behaviour of 7.6 m × 4.05 m Glulam Concrete Composite (GCC) floor. The walking tests were performed to get the vibration excitation on the floor. The person was walked horizontal and diagonal from one edge to another edge of the floor. The vibration data was recorded by accelerometer and analysis using ARTeMIS software package. The first natural frequency that obtained from both walking tests, (horizontally and diagonally walking test) were 12.9 Hz and 12.39 Hz, respectively. The natural frequencies were higher that 8 Hz as recommended by Eurocode 5, as acceptable value of limitation of vibration serviceability on the flooring system. As conclusion, the vibration behaviour of GCC floor was acceptable and the floor is comfortable to be used.

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32

Koval, P. S., A. G. Chernykh, E. V. Danilov, V. I. Klevan, and V. V. Belov. "Regarding the performance of composite metal and timber I-beams with a wall of corrugated steel sheet and belts of laminated veneer lumber." Вестник гражданских инженеров 19, no. 6 (2022): 5–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.23968/1999-5571-2022-19-6-5-9.

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The article presents theoretical analysis of the performance of composite metal and timber I-beams with a wall of corrugated steel sheet and belts of laminated veneer lumber (LVL). Based on the classical theory of composite timber beams with compliance joints developed by P. F. Pleshkov and A. R. Rzhanitsyn, there has been derived the linear inhomogeneous differential equation of bending of composite beam made of corrugated steel, timber and timber-based materials. There are indicated the modules requiring of experimental determination of their values for this type of structures (namely, the joint stiffness coefficient, the reduced modulus of solid beam elasticity).

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33

Holschemacher, Klaus, and Hubertus Kieslich. "Retrofitting of Timber Beam Ceilings with the Timber-Concrete Composite Construction." Advanced Materials Research 133-134 (October 2010): 1095–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.133-134.1095.

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Regarding the redevelopment of existing residential buildings the timber-concrete-compo- site (TCC) construction is an innovative possibility to toughen up timber beam ceilings. Thereby a concrete slab is added to the timber beams. Both parts of the construction are connected by using special shear connectors. In this case timber is mainly loaded in tension and concrete is generally loaded in compression. The bearing capacity as well as the serviceability of the ceiling can be improved by this composite construction. The idea of combining the construction materials timber and concrete in the way that they both can take and carry on loads is not new. In Germany it was mentioned in 1939 for the first time. The cityscape of Central European towns is mainly characterized by buildings constructed before the 50th of the last century. The protection of the historical main structure of these buildings is getting more important today. Floors built up till that time were primarily made of timber. Research in Germany has been intensified during the last decade. This paper will show the specific properties of timber-concrete composite floors. Several metallic combing agents exist currently. Type and distance of the connection members influence the load bearing behavior of the composite construction. The main types used in Germany will be presented in this paper. The possible ways of calculating timber-concrete composite ceilings will be given and the design basis will be explained.

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34

Fujita, Masanori, and Mamoru Iwata. "Bending Test of the Composite Steel-Timber Beam." Applied Mechanics and Materials 351-352 (August 2013): 415–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.351-352.415.

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In the field of building construction, mass consumption of wood materials contributes to reforestation and becomes the environmental burden reduction. However, an application to conventional timber structures only such as house has a quantitative limit. A newly developed timber structure that is able to make a large-scale building is expected. A composite steel-timber structure will be one of the effective methods to expand the structural variations. In this paper, the bending test of composite steel-timber beam classified typical joint methods is conducted to grasp basic structural performance.

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35

Gilbert, Benoit P., Hong Guan, Tuan Ngo, and Alex Remennikov. "Shear performance of glued and screwed timber-steel composite connections for composite timber-steel beams." Construction and Building Materials 450 (November 2024): 138762. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138762.

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36

Abramowicz, Małgorzata, Marcin Chybiński, Łukasz Polus, Piotr Szewczyk, and Tomasz Wróblewski. "Dynamic Response of Steel–Timber Composite Beams with Varying Screw Spacing." Sustainability 16, no. 9 (April 26, 2024): 3654. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su16093654.

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Steel–timber composite beams are a relatively new type of composite structure. They have many important advantages, owing to which they may be considered a sustainable solution. Their connectors may be demountable, which makes it possible to separate steel girders from LVL panels at the end of their service life. After disassembly, the structural elements can be recycled. One of their advantages is that they are lighter than steel–concrete composite beams. However, this may result in the poor performance of floors with steel–timber composite elements subjected to dynamic loadings. For this reason, the dynamic characteristics of floors should be investigated to verify the serviceability limit state of human-induced vibrations. In this study, the dynamic response of the three steel–timber composite beams with varying screw spacing was captured and used to validate their numerical models. The frequencies obtained from the numerical analyses correspond to the experimental results. A very high agreement between the vibration mode shapes was obtained because the MAC index values were close to 1. The validated numerical model of a single steel–timber beam may be used in future studies to create a complex numerical model of a steel–timber composite floor.

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37

Buka-Vaivade, K., D. Serdjuks, D. Zvirina, and L. Pakrastins. "Experimental analysis of timber-concrete composite behaviour with synthetic fibres." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2423, no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 012014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2423/1/012014.

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Abstract With the growing importance of the principles of sustainable construction, the use of load-bearing timber-concrete composite structures is becoming increasingly popular. Timber-concrete composite offers wider possibilities for the use of timber in construction, especially for large-span structures. The most significant benefit from combining these materials can be obtained by providing a rigid connection between the timber and concrete layers, which can be obtained by the adhesive timber-to-concrete connection produced by the proposed stone chips method. A sustainable solution involves the abandonment of steel longitudinal reinforcement. The use of such a solution in practice is often associated with fears of a fragile collapse. Therefore, the issue of how to increase the safety factor of the proposed material is topical now. The experimental investigation is made to determine the effect of synthetic fibre use on timber-concrete composite behaviour by testing a series of timber-concrete composite specimens with and without fibres in the concrete layer. The obtained results show that adding 0.5 % of synthetic macro fibres allows to abandon the use of longitudinal steel reinforcement and prevents the formation of large cracks in concrete and the disintegration of the concrete layer in case of collapse.

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38

Buka-Vaivade, Karina, Liga Gaile, Dmitrijs Serdjuks, Aleksejs Tatarinovs, and Leonids Pakrastins. "Non-Destructive Quality Control of the Adhesive Rigid Timber-to-Concrete Connection in TCC Structures." Buildings 12, no. 12 (December 6, 2022): 2151. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/buildings12122151.

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One of the limitations of using glued connections in practice is related to the need for connection quality control. Still, the need for the non-destructive quality control of finished products to determine the compliance of the developed structure with the designed one still exists. Considering the small amount of research on timber–concrete composites with glued connections, there is a lack of research on non-destructive methods for the quality control of rigid connections in timber–concrete composite structures. During the literature analysis, no information was found on the possibilities of testing the quality of the rigid timber-to-concrete connection. Therefore, two well-known methods—operational modal analysis and ultrasonic testing—were tested to verify the possibilities of applying these methods in determining defects in the rigid glued connection between the concrete and timber layers in the timber–concrete composite structures. A series of small-scale specimens produced by the stone chips method with and without artificially made defects in the timber-to-concrete adhesive connection was tested by both methods. Operational modal analysis shows significant changes in mode shape, frequency values, and spectral density diagrams. Despite the sufficiently large reflection of the ultrasonic signal on the timber and concrete boundary, the transmitted signal is sufficient to perform local ultrasonic tests for detecting defects in the adhesive connection. Thus, it is concluded that the principles of both methods can be applied in practice, and further research is needed to develop testing technology.

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39

Dackermann, Ulrike, Jian Chun Li, Rajendra Rijal, and Bijan Samali. "A Vibration-Based Approach for the Estimation of the Loss of Composite Action in Timber Composite Systems." Advanced Materials Research 778 (September 2013): 462–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.778.462.

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This paper presents a novel approach for the determination of the loss of composite action for timber composite systems using only measurements from non-destructive vibration testing. Traditionally, the composite action of a system is evaluated from static load testing using deflection measurements. However, static load testing is expensive, time consuming and inappropriate for existing flooring systems. The method proposed in this paper is based on the Damage Index (DI) method, which uses changes in modal strain energies, to detect locations and severities of damage. In the proposed method, a new Loss of Composite Action Index (LCAI), which is derived from direct mode shape measurements obtained from dynamic testing, is introduced to evaluate the loss of composite action. The proposed method is tested and validated on numerical and experimental models of a timber composite beam structure, which consists of two timber components that are connected with different numbers of screws to simulate various degrees of partial composite states. The results obtained from the new method are very encouraging and show a clear trend of the proposed dynamic-based LCAI in indicating the loss of composite action in the investigated timber composite structure.

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40

Stojic, Dragoslav, and Radovan Cvetkovic. "Design of connections in composite timber-concrete structures." Facta universitatis - series: Architecture and Civil Engineering 4, no. 2 (2006): 127–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/fuace0602127s.

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This work deals with composite timber concrete structures. By combining timber and concrete in new type of composite material and using the best properties both materials, the high tensile strength of a timber and the high compressive strength of a concrete, depending of different building conditions we can find a lot o reasons for decision to apply this type of the structure in comparison to concrete or steel structure. Here, design methods and procedures for determination of load bearing capacity bar shaped connectors (fasteners) very often used as element connecting timber and concrete in composite structures will be given. The procedure will be exposed and explained according to the new fashioned methods collected as set of Euro-norms in Eurocode 5. The design equations in Eurocode 5 derived from Johansen's work are based on a rigid plastic behavior of the fastener under bending moments and the timber under embedding stresses and take into account the plastic moment capacity of the fastener.

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41

Kuklík, Petr, Anna Kuklíková, and Anna Gregorová. "Timber-Concrete Composite Structures with Semi-Rigid Connections." Key Engineering Materials 677 (January 2016): 282–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.677.282.

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This paper deals with behavior of timber-concrete composite structures with mechanical connection systems. The paper is focused to two different connection systems: using dowel-type fasteners and using special surface connector. Behavior of dowel-type connection system is based on modification of Johansen ́s equations valid for timber to timber connections. Behavior of connection system with special surface connector is evaluated by experiments and numerical simulations.

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42

Rossi, A., A. Javadian, I. Acosta, E. Özdemir, N. Nolte, N. Saeidi, A. Dwan, et al. "HOME: Wood-Mycelium Composites for CO₂-Neutral, Circular Interior Construction and Fittings." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1078, no. 1 (September 1, 2022): 012068. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1078/1/012068.

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Abstract Office and retail interior fittings have a relatively short service life of 5-7 years. In this context, composite materials are often used, hindering possibilities of reuse or recycling. This research explores novel bio-composite materials and subsequently a construction method for CO2-neutral, circular interior fittings for office spaces. Based on the potential of fungal mycelium as a rapidly renewable, regenerative, affordable, low-carbon building material, bio-composite construction methods are explored in conjunction with timber-based additive manufacturing using continuous fibres. As mycelium has potentially excellent sound-absorbing properties but low load-bearing capacity, composite construction of timber veneer and mycelium allows to increase the structural capabilities of resulting components, while relying entirely on bio-based value chains. We describe the production process as well as the material development, including robotically aided processes for additive manufacturing of veneer reinforcement grids and compatibility studies of different mycelial species and substrates, and their bonding capabilities with veneer. We further present initial results on the mechanical characterization of the composite material, and its comparison to conventional mycelium composites. Minimal structural, acoustic, and functional requirements for different interior fitting elements are studied and compared to the characteristics of the proposed composite, highlighting the range of applications of the presented wood-mycelium composites.

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43

Lewis, Miles. "Composite Vernacular Constructions." Built Heritage 3, no. 4 (December 2019): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/bf03545717.

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AbstractVernacular building is the building for ordinary people, constrained by the practicalities of environmental conditions and physical materials, and influenced by traditional culture, but not mediated by professional architects and engineers. Combinations of earth and timber, such as wattle and daub, are found in the vernacular in almost every part of the world, but are a source of great confusion to archaeologists and scholars. Archaeologists are misled by the remains, in which the earth may have survived but the timber usually does not. Techniques such as Lehmwickel are never recognised in archaeological work. There is no common system of naming or classification, and English speakers regularly describe any combination of earth and timber in walling as ‘wattle and daub’. Many of these techniques have been changed by the impact of modern technology, notably pole and pug construction (which is often confused with wattle and daub, though it is quite different in principle); this is essentially a 19th century development because it relies upon plentiful and cheap nails. The purpose of this paper is to establish a common terminology in English, and where possible in other relevant languages, so that misinterpretations are avoided and scholarship can proceed on an orderly basis.

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44

Winandy, Jerrold E. "Advanced Wood- and Bio-Composites: Enhanced Performance and Sustainability." Advanced Materials Research 29-30 (November 2007): 9–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.29-30.9.

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Use of wood-based-composites technology to create value-added commodities and traditional construction materials is generally accepted worldwide. Engineered wood- and lignocellulosiccomposite technologies allow users to add considerable value to a diverse number of wood- and lignocellulosic feedstocks including small-diameter timber, fast plantation-grown timber, agricultural fibre and lignocellulosic residues, exotic-invasive species, recycled lumber, and timber removals of hazardous forest-fuels. Another potential advantage of this type of economic- and materials-development scenario is that developing industrial composite processing technologies will provide producers an ability to use, and to adapt with, an ever-changing quality level of wood and/or other natural lignocellulosic feedstocks. However, the current level of performance of our state-of-the-art engineered composite products sometimes limit broader application into commercial, non-residential and industrial construction markets because of both real and perceived issues related to fire, structural-performance, and service-life. The worldwide research community has recognized this and is currently addressing each of these issues. From a performance standpoint, this developing knowledge has already and will continue to provide the fundamental understanding required to manufacture advanced engineered composites. From a manufacturing and a resource sustainability standpoint, with this evolving fundamental understanding of the relationships between materials, processes, and composite performance properties we now can in some cases, or may soon be able to, recognize the attributes and quality of an array of bio-based materials then adjust the composite manufacturing process to produce high-performance composite products. As this fundamental understanding is developed, we will increasingly be able to produce advanced, high-performance wood- and bio-composites. Then we must use those technologies as tools to help forest and land managers fund efforts to restore damaged eco-systems and which in turn may further promote sustainable forest management practices.

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45

Auclair, Samuel C., Luca Sorelli, and Alexander Salenikovich. "A new composite connector for timber-concrete composite structures." Construction and Building Materials 112 (June 2016): 84–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.025.

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46

Nie, Yatong, Amir Karimi-Nobandegani, and Hamid R. Valipour. "Experimental behaviour and numerical modelling of timber-timber composite (TTC) joints." Construction and Building Materials 290 (July 2021): 123273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123273.

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47

Mushina, Jalal, NorHayati Abd Ghafar, David Yeoh, Wissam Mushina, and Koh Heng Boon. "Vibration Behaviour of Natural Timber and Timber Concrete Composite Deck System." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 713 (January 3, 2020): 012023. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/713/1/012023.

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48

Giongo, Ivan, Gianni Schiro, and Daniele Riccadonna. "Innovative pre-stressing and cambering of timber-to-timber composite beams." Composite Structures 226 (October 2019): 111195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compstruct.2019.111195.

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49

Giongo, Ivan, Gianni Schiro, Kevin Walsh, and Daniele Riccadonna. "Experimental testing of pre-stressed timber-to-timber composite (TTC) floors." Engineering Structures 201 (December 2019): 109808. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.109808.

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50

Holý, Milan, David Čítek, Petr Tej, and Lukáš Vráblík. "The Experimental Timber–UHPC Composite Bridge." Sustainability 13, no. 9 (April 27, 2021): 4895. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13094895.

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This paper describes the development of an innovative timber–concrete composite bridge system and especially focuses on the evaluation of the load tests of an experimental bridge structure. The load-bearing structure was designed as glue-laminated timber beams connected with only 60-mm-thick precast bridge deck segments made of ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC). To verify the production details and behavior of the designed structure, we built a full-scale experimental structure and performed a load test. The load test was arranged as a four-point bending test. First, we performed the overall load test until failure. Some bridge deck segments were consequently cut from the structure in order to run further load tests of the bridge deck in the transversal direction. The results of the experiments were evaluated in detail and compared with analytical calculations.

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