Статті в журналах: "The Southern Ocean"

1

Cunningham, Stuart A. "Southern Ocean circulation." Archives of Natural History 32, no. 2 (October 2005): 265–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2005.32.2.265.

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The Discovery Investigations of the 1930s provided a compelling description of the main elements of the Southern Ocean circulation. Over the intervening years, this has been extended to include ideas on ocean dynamics based on physical principles. In the modern description, the Southern Ocean has two main circulations that are intimately linked: a zonal (west-east) circumpolar circulation and a meridional (north-south) overturning circulation. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current transports around 140 million cubic metres per second west to east around Antarctica. This zonal circulation connects the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans, transferring and blending water masses and properties from one ocean basin to another. For the meridional circulation, a key feature is the ascent of waters from depths of around 2,000 metres north of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to the surface south of the Current. In so doing, this circulation connects deep ocean layers directly to the atmosphere. The circumpolar zonal currents are not stable: meanders grow and separate, creating eddies and these eddies are critical to the dynamics of the Southern Ocean, linking the zonal circumpolar and meridional circulations. As a result of this connection, a global three-dimensional ocean circulation exists in which the Southern Ocean plays a central role in regulating the Earth's climate.

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2

Smith, H. J. "OCEANS: Carbonate Deficit in the Southern Ocean." Science 289, no. 5480 (August 4, 2000): 697b—697. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5480.697b.

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3

Smirnov, A., B. N. Holben, D. M. Giles, I. Slutsker, N. T. O'Neill, T. F. Eck, A. Macke, et al. "Maritime Aerosol Network as a component of AERONET – first results and comparison with global aerosol models and satellite retrievals." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques Discussions 4, no. 1 (January 8, 2011): 1–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amtd-4-1-2011.

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Abstract. The Maritime Aerosol Network (MAN) has been collecting data over the oceans since November 2006. Over 80 cruises were completed through early 2010 with deployments continuing. Measurements areas included various parts of the Atlantic Ocean, the Northern and Southern Pacific Ocean, the South Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and inland seas. MAN deploys Microtops hand-held sunphotometers and utilizes a calibration procedure and data processing traceable to AERONET. Data collection included areas that previously had no aerosol optical depth (AOD) coverage at all, particularly vast areas of the Southern Ocean. The MAN data archive provides a valuable resource for aerosol studies in maritime environments. In the current paper we present results of AOD measurements over the oceans, and make a comparison with satellite AOD retrievals and model simulations.

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4

Smirnov, A., B. N. Holben, D. M. Giles, I. Slutsker, N. T. O'Neill, T. F. Eck, A. Macke, et al. "Maritime aerosol network as a component of AERONET – first results and comparison with global aerosol models and satellite retrievals." Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 4, no. 3 (March 21, 2011): 583–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-4-583-2011.

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Abstract. The Maritime Aerosol Network (MAN) has been collecting data over the oceans since November 2006. Over 80 cruises were completed through early 2010 with deployments continuing. Measurement areas included various parts of the Atlantic Ocean, the Northern and Southern Pacific Ocean, the South Indian Ocean, the Southern Ocean, the Arctic Ocean and inland seas. MAN deploys Microtops hand-held sunphotometers and utilizes a calibration procedure and data processing traceable to AERONET. Data collection included areas that previously had no aerosol optical depth (AOD) coverage at all, particularly vast areas of the Southern Ocean. The MAN data archive provides a valuable resource for aerosol studies in maritime environments. In the current paper we present results of AOD measurements over the oceans, and make a comparison with satellite AOD retrievals and model simulations.

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5

Heimdal, Thea H., Galen A. McKinley, Adrienne J. Sutton, Amanda R. Fay, and Lucas Gloege. "Assessing improvements in global ocean pCO₂ machine learning reconstructions with Southern Ocean autonomous sampling." Biogeosciences 21, no. 8 (April 30, 2024): 2159–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-21-2159-2024.

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Abstract. The Southern Ocean plays an important role in the exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and oceans and is a critical region for the ocean uptake of anthropogenic CO2. However, estimates of the Southern Ocean air–sea CO2 flux are highly uncertain due to limited data coverage. Increased sampling in winter and across meridional gradients in the Southern Ocean may improve machine learning (ML) reconstructions of global surface ocean pCO2. Here, we use a large ensemble test bed (LET) of Earth system models and the “pCO2-Residual” reconstruction method to assess improvements in pCO2 reconstruction fidelity that could be achieved with additional autonomous sampling in the Southern Ocean added to existing Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) observations. The LET allows for a robust evaluation of the skill of pCO2 reconstructions in space and time through comparison to “model truth”. With only SOCAT sampling, Southern Ocean and global pCO2 are overestimated, and thus the ocean carbon sink is underestimated. Incorporating uncrewed surface vehicle (USV) sampling increases the spatial and seasonal coverage of observations within the Southern Ocean, leading to a decrease in the overestimation of pCO2. A modest number of additional observations in Southern Hemisphere winter and across meridional gradients in the Southern Ocean leads to an improvement in reconstruction bias and root-mean-squared error (RMSE) of as much as 86 % and 16 %, respectively, as compared to SOCAT sampling alone. Lastly, the large decadal variability of air–sea CO2 fluxes shown by SOCAT-only sampling may be partially attributable to undersampling of the Southern Ocean.

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6

Keane, James Tuttle. "Southern Ocean mixing." Nature Geoscience 10, no. 11 (October 30, 2017): 805. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo3057.

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7

Mantoura, Samia. "Southern Ocean saturated." Nature Climate Change 1, no. 707 (June 18, 2007): 18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/climate.2007.15.

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8

Gordon, Arnold L. "Southern Ocean polynya." Nature Climate Change 4, no. 4 (March 26, 2014): 249–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2179.

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9

Rae, James W. B., and Wally Broecker. "What fraction of the Pacific and Indian oceans' deep water is formed in the Southern Ocean?" Biogeosciences 15, no. 12 (June 21, 2018): 3779–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-3779-2018.

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Abstract. In this contribution we explore constraints on the fractions of deep water present in the Indian and Pacific oceans which originated in the northern Atlantic and in the Southern Ocean. Based on PO4* we show that if ventilated Antarctic shelf waters characterize the Southern contribution, then the proportions could be close to 50–50. If instead a Southern Ocean bottom water value is used, the Southern contribution is increased to 75 %. While this larger estimate may best characterize the volume of water entering the Indo-Pacific from the Southern Ocean, it contains a significant portion of entrained northern water. We also note that ventilation may be highly tracer dependent: for instance Southern Ocean waters may contribute only 35 % of the deep radiocarbon budget, even if their volumetric contribution is 75 %. In our estimation, the most promising approaches involve using CFC-11 to constrain the amount of deep water formed in the Southern Ocean. Finally, we highlight the broad utility of PO4* as a tracer of deep water masses, including descending plumes of Antarctic Bottom Water and large-scale patterns of deep ocean mixing, and as a tracer of the efficiency of the biological pump.

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10

Kay, Jennifer E., Casey Wall, Vineel Yettella, Brian Medeiros, Cecile Hannay, Peter Caldwell, and Cecilia Bitz. "Global Climate Impacts of Fixing the Southern Ocean Shortwave Radiation Bias in the Community Earth System Model (CESM)." Journal of Climate 29, no. 12 (June 10, 2016): 4617–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-15-0358.1.

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Abstract A large, long-standing, and pervasive climate model bias is excessive absorbed shortwave radiation (ASR) over the midlatitude oceans, especially the Southern Ocean. This study investigates both the underlying mechanisms for and climate impacts of this bias within the Community Earth System Model, version 1, with the Community Atmosphere Model, version 5 [CESM1(CAM5)]. Excessive Southern Ocean ASR in CESM1(CAM5) results in part because low-level clouds contain insufficient amounts of supercooled liquid. In a present-day atmosphere-only run, an observationally motivated modification to the shallow convection detrainment increases supercooled cloud liquid, brightens low-level clouds, and substantially reduces the Southern Ocean ASR bias. Tuning to maintain global energy balance enables reduction of a compensating tropical ASR bias. In the resulting preindustrial fully coupled run with a brighter Southern Ocean and dimmer tropics, the Southern Ocean cools and the tropics warm. As a result of the enhanced meridional temperature gradient, poleward heat transport increases in both hemispheres (especially the Southern Hemisphere), and the Southern Hemisphere atmospheric jet strengthens. Because northward cross-equatorial heat transport reductions occur primarily in the ocean (80%), not the atmosphere (20%), a proposed atmospheric teleconnection linking Southern Ocean ASR bias reduction and cooling with northward shifts in tropical precipitation has little impact. In summary, observationally motivated supercooled liquid water increases in shallow convective clouds enable large reductions in long-standing climate model shortwave radiation biases. Of relevance to both model bias reduction and climate dynamics, quantifying the influence of Southern Ocean cooling on tropical precipitation requires a model with dynamic ocean heat transport.

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11

BUSALACCHI, ANTONIO J. "The role of the Southern Ocean in global processes: an earth system science approach." Antarctic Science 16, no. 4 (November 30, 2004): 363–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954102004002196.

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The Southern Ocean is unique among the world's oceans in its linkage across the other major ocean basins, its rich and unusual marine ecosystem, and its interaction between the physical climate system and the biogeochemistry of the region. This paper provides an overview and conclusions of a meeting at the Royal Society in London in which an Earth System Science approach was taken to our present and future understanding of the Southern Ocean. A brief summary of what Southern Ocean science has achieved to date, challenges that need to be confronted, and the key questions for the future within an Earth System Science approach are provided.

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12

DeVries, Tim, and François Primeau. "Dynamically and Observationally Constrained Estimates of Water-Mass Distributions and Ages in the Global Ocean." Journal of Physical Oceanography 41, no. 12 (December 1, 2011): 2381–401. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo-d-10-05011.1.

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Abstract A data-constrained ocean circulation model is used to characterize the distribution of water masses and their ages in the global ocean. The model is constrained by the time-averaged temperature, salinity, and radiocarbon distributions in the ocean, as well as independent estimates of the mean sea surface height and sea surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The data-constrained model suggests that the interior ocean is ventilated primarily by water masses forming in the Southern Ocean. Southern Ocean waters, including those waters forming in the Antarctic and subantarctic regions, make up about 55% of the interior ocean volume and an even larger percentage of the deep-ocean volume. In the deep North Pacific, the ratio of Southern Ocean to North Atlantic waters is almost 3:1. Approximately 65% of interior ocean waters make first contact with the atmosphere in the Southern Ocean, further emphasizing the central role played by the Southern Ocean in the regulation of the earth’s climate. Results of the age analysis suggest that the mean ventilation age of deep waters is greater than 1000 yr throughout most of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, reaching a maximum of about 1400–1500 yr in the middepth North Pacific. The mean time for deep waters to be reexposed at the surface also reaches a maximum of about 1400–1500 yr in the deep North Pacific. Together these findings suggest that the deep North Pacific can be characterized as a “holding pen” of stagnant and recirculating waters.

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13

Bitz, C. M., P. R. Gent, R. A. Woodgate, M. M. Holland, and R. Lindsay. "The Influence of Sea Ice on Ocean Heat Uptake in Response to Increasing CO2." Journal of Climate 19, no. 11 (June 1, 2006): 2437–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli3756.1.

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Abstract Two significant changes in ocean heat uptake that occur in the vicinity of sea ice cover in response to increasing CO2 are investigated with Community Climate System Model version 3 (CCSM3): a deep warming below ∼500 m and extending down several kilometers in the Southern Ocean and warming in a ∼200-m layer just below the surface in the Arctic Ocean. Ocean heat uptake caused by sea ice retreat is isolated by running the model with the sea ice albedo reduced artificially alone. This integration has a climate response with strong ocean heat uptake in the Southern Ocean and modest ocean heat uptake in the subsurface Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean warming results from enhanced ocean heat transport from the northern North Atlantic. At the time of CO2 doubling, about 1/3 of the heat transport anomaly results from advection of anomalously warm water and 2/3 results from strengthened inflow. At the same time the overturning circulation is strengthened in the northern North Atlantic and Arctic Oceans. Wind stress changes cannot explain the circulation changes, which instead appear related to strengthened convection along the Siberian shelves. Deep ocean warming in the Southern Ocean is initiated by weakened convection, which is mainly a result of surface freshening through altered sea ice and ocean freshwater transport. Below about 500 m, changes in convection reduce the vertical and meridional temperature gradients in the Southern Ocean, which significantly reduce isopycnal diffusion of heat upward around Antarctica. The geometry of the sea ice cover and its influence on convection have a strong influence on ocean temperature gradients, making sea ice an important player in deep ocean heat uptake in the Southern Ocean.

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14

Howard, William, D. Roberts, A. Moy, J. Roberts, T. Trull, S. Bray, and R. Hopcroft. "Ocean acidification impacts on southern ocean calcifiers." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 6, no. 46 (February 1, 2009): 462001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1307/6/46/462001.

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15

Stössel, Achim. "On the impact of sea ice in a global ocean circulation model." Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/s0260305500013884.

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This paper investigates the long-term impact of sea ice on global climate using a global sea-ice–ocean general circulation model (OGCM). The sea-ice component involves state-of-the-art dynamics; the ocean component consists of a 3.5° × 3.5° × 11 layer primitive-equation model. Depending on the physical description of sea ice, significant changes are detected in the convective activity, in the hydrographic properties and in the thermohaline circulation of the ocean model. Most of these changes originate in the Southern Ocean, emphasizing the crucial role of sea ice in this marginally stably stratified region of the world's oceans. Specifically, if the effect of brine release is neglected, the deep layers of the Southern Ocean warm up considerably; this is associated with a weakening of the Southern Hemisphere overturning cell. The removal of the commonly used “salinity enhancement” leads to a similar effect. The deep-ocean salinity is almost unaffected in both experiments. Introducing explicit new-ice thickness growth in partially ice-covered gridcells leads to a substantial increase in convective activity, especially in the Southern Ocean, with a concomitant significant cooling and salinification of the deep ocean. Possible mechanisms for the resulting interactions between sea-ice processes and deep-ocean characteristics are suggested.

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16

Stössel, Achim. "On the impact of sea ice in a global ocean circulation model." Annals of Glaciology 25 (1997): 111–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0260305500013884.

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This paper investigates the long-term impact of sea ice on global climate using a global sea-ice–ocean general circulation model (OGCM). The sea-ice component involves state-of-the-art dynamics; the ocean component consists of a 3.5° × 3.5° × 11 layer primitive-equation model. Depending on the physical description of sea ice, significant changes are detected in the convective activity, in the hydrographic properties and in the thermohaline circulation of the ocean model. Most of these changes originate in the Southern Ocean, emphasizing the crucial role of sea ice in this marginally stably stratified region of the world's oceans. Specifically, if the effect of brine release is neglected, the deep layers of the Southern Ocean warm up considerably; this is associated with a weakening of the Southern Hemisphere overturning cell. The removal of the commonly used “salinity enhancement” leads to a similar effect. The deep-ocean salinity is almost unaffected in both experiments. Introducing explicit new-ice thickness growth in partially ice-covered gridcells leads to a substantial increase in convective activity, especially in the Southern Ocean, with a concomitant significant cooling and salinification of the deep ocean. Possible mechanisms for the resulting interactions between sea-ice processes and deep-ocean characteristics are suggested.

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17

Katavouta, Anna, and Richard G. Williams. "Ocean carbon cycle feedbacks in CMIP6 models: contributions from different basins." Biogeosciences 18, no. 10 (May 27, 2021): 3189–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-18-3189-2021.

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Abstract. The ocean response to carbon emissions involves the combined effect of an increase in atmospheric CO2, acting to enhance the ocean carbon storage, and climate change, acting to decrease the ocean carbon storage. This ocean response can be characterised in terms of a carbon–concentration feedback and a carbon–climate feedback. The contribution from different ocean basins to these feedbacks on centennial timescales is explored using diagnostics of ocean carbonate chemistry, physical ventilation and biological processes in 11 CMIP6 Earth system models. To gain mechanistic insight, the dependence of these feedbacks on the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is also investigated in an idealised climate model and the CMIP6 models. For the carbon–concentration feedback, the Atlantic, Pacific and Southern oceans provide comparable contributions when estimated in terms of the volume-integrated carbon storage. This large contribution from the Atlantic Ocean relative to its size is due to strong local physical ventilation and an influx of carbon transported from the Southern Ocean. The Southern Ocean has large anthropogenic carbon uptake from the atmosphere, but its contribution to the carbon storage is relatively small due to large carbon transport to the other basins. For the carbon–climate feedback estimated in terms of carbon storage, the Atlantic and Arctic oceans provide the largest contributions relative to their size. In the Atlantic, this large contribution is primarily due to climate change acting to reduce the physical ventilation. In the Arctic, this large contribution is associated with a large warming per unit volume. The Southern Ocean provides a relatively small contribution to the carbon–climate feedback, due to competition between the climate effects of a decrease in solubility and physical ventilation and an increase in accumulation of regenerated carbon. The more poorly ventilated Indo-Pacific Ocean provides a small contribution to the carbon cycle feedbacks relative to its size. In the Atlantic Ocean, the carbon cycle feedbacks strongly depend on the AMOC strength and its weakening with warming. In the Arctic, there is a moderate correlation between the AMOC weakening and the carbon–climate feedback that is related to changes in carbonate chemistry. In the Pacific, Indian and Southern oceans, there is no clear correlation between the AMOC and the carbon cycle feedbacks, suggesting that other processes control the ocean ventilation and carbon storage there.

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18

Angel, Martin V. "Southern Ocean pelagic ecosystems." Archives of Natural History 32, no. 2 (October 2005): 281–300. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2005.32.2.281.

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In 1902 the Discovery sailed into an ocean that was almost totally unknown biologically. Even so, its living resources of seals had been extensively hunted almost to the point of extinction. Exploitation of the whales was about to begin. The expedition resulted in the discovery of 23 new zooplankton species; 5% of the presently known mesozooplankton fauna. The results were worked up within six years, and paved the way for the next century of research. The ultimate target was to provide the scientific basis for the sustainable management of the Southern Ocean especially the whale stocks. This paper summarizes the knowledge base at the start of the expedition and how the various strands of research became woven into our understanding of the biological oceanography of the Southern Ocean. The science has been both technology driven and technology limited. It failed to convince decision-makers in time to prevent the gross overexploitation of the whales, but the Antarctic Treaty now provides a framework of protection. However, within the last two decades we have come to realize that it is not just whales that are at risk, and that the remoteness of the Southern Ocean is proving no protection against the pervasiveness of anthropogenic influences.

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19

Able, Kenneth W., and Anatole P. Andriashev. "Southern Ocean Paraliparis (Liparididae)." Copeia 1988, no. 1 (February 5, 1988): 261. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1445950.

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20

Sallée, Jean-Baptiste, Kevin Speer, Steve Rintoul, and S. Wijffels. "Southern Ocean Thermocline Ventilation." Journal of Physical Oceanography 40, no. 3 (March 1, 2010): 509–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2009jpo4291.1.

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Abstract An approximate mass (volume) budget in the surface layer of the Southern Ocean is used to investigate the intensity and regional variability of the ventilation process, discussed here in terms of subduction and upwelling. Ventilation resulting from Ekman pumping is estimated from satellite winds, the geostrophic mean component is assessed from a climatology strengthened with Argo data, and the eddy-induced advection is included via the parameterization of Gent and McWilliams, together with eddy mixing estimates. All three components contribute significantly to ventilation. Finally, the seasonal cycle of the upper ocean is resolved using Argo data. The circumpolar-averaged circulation shows an upwelling in the Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) density classes, which is carried north into a zone of dense Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) subduction. Although no consistent net production is found in the light SAMW density classes, a large subduction of Subtropical Mode Water (STMW) is observed. The STMW area is fed by convergence of a southward and a northward residual meridional circulation. The eddy-induced contribution is important for the water mass transport in the vicinity of the Antartic Circumpolar Current. It balances the horizontal northward Ekman transport as well as the vertical Ekman pumping. While the circumpolar-averaged upper cell structure is consistent with the average surface fluxes, it hides strong longitudinal regional variations and does not represent any local regime. Subduction shows strong regional variability with bathymetrically constrained hotspots of large subduction. These hotspots are consistent with the interior potential vorticity structure and circulation in the thermocline. Pools of SAMW and AAIW of different densities are found along the circumpolar belt in association with the regional pattern of subduction and interior circulation.

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21

Mills, Eric L. "From Discovery to discovery: the hydrology of the Southern Ocean, 1885–1937." Archives of Natural History 32, no. 2 (October 2005): 246–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/anh.2005.32.2.246.

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The work at sea of George Deacon on the RRS William Scoresby and RRS Discovery II between 1927 and 1937 resulted in the publication of “The hydrology of the Southern Ocean” (1937) and a description of the Southern Ocean and the names of its water masses that are still in use. Deacon's interpretations were publicized by Sverdrup, Johnson and Fleming in the text The oceans (1942), but their origin is in earlier work, mainly German, between 1898 and 1922, in which Gerhard Schott, Erich von Drygalski, Alfred Merz, and Georg Wüst, and especially Wilhelm Brennecke, added significantly to knowledge of the meridional circulation of the Atlantic Ocean. Deacon's great contribution was to systematize the physical oceanography of the Southern Ocean and to show that it was part of a global system.

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22

Ma, Hao, and Lixin Wu. "Global Teleconnections in Response to Freshening over the Antarctic Ocean." Journal of Climate 24, no. 4 (February 15, 2011): 1071–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jcli3634.1.

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Abstract In this paper, coupled ocean–atmosphere responses to freshening over the Antarctic Ocean are investigated in a fully coupled model with a series of sensitivity experiments. In the model, 1.0 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1) of freshwater flux is uniformly imposed over the Antarctic Ocean for 400 yr, while the ocean and atmosphere remain fully coupled both locally and elsewhere. The model explicitly demonstrates that a freshening of the Antarctic Ocean can induce a significant local cooling coupled with an intensification of the westerly winds and expansion of sea ice. Furthermore, the cooling can extend to the entire southern extratropical and tropical oceans coupled with an intensification of southeasterly trades and the equatorial trade winds. Some modest warm anomalies also occur in the northern extratropical oceans, forming a sharp interhemispheric SST contrast. A series of sensitivity experiments are conducted to understand the mechanisms responsible for transmitting the southern high latitude cooling to the tropics and the Northern Hemisphere. Experimental results demonstrate the important role of the surface coupled wind–evaporation–SST feedback and in turn changes of the subtropical–tropical meridional overturning circulation in conveying the southern high-latitude temperature anomalies to the tropics. The interhemispheric seesaw originates from the tropical–northern extratropical atmospheric teleconnection and is sustained by the subductive process of Antarctic subsurface warming. The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation is intensified in the first few decades of the freshwater forcing over the Antarctic Ocean because of a shutdown of the Antarctic deep convection, but it subsequently decreases because of the spreading of the fresh anomalies from the Southern Ocean to the Northern Ocean.

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23

Nof, Doron, and Agatha M. de Boer. "From the Southern Ocean to the North Atlantic in the Ekman Layer?" Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 85, no. 1 (January 1, 2004): 79–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-85-1-79.

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Since the Southern Ocean encompasses the entire circumference of the globe, the zonal integral of the pressure gradient vanishes implying that the (meridional) geostrophic mass flux is zero. Conventional wisdom has it that, in view of this, the northward Ekman flux there must somehow find its way to the northern oceans, sink to the bottom (due to cooling) and return southward either below the topography or along the western boundary. Using recent (process oriented) numerical simulations and a simple analytical model, it is shown that most of the Ekman flux in the Southern Ocean does not cross the equator, nor does it sink in the northern oceans. Rather, the water that constitutes the link between the Southern Ocean and the deep water formation in the Northern Hemisphere originates in the eastern part of the southern Sverdrup interior. The associated path which takes the water from one hemisphere to the other resembles the letter “S”, where the top of the letter corresponds to the sinking region in the Northern Hemisphere and the bottom to the origin in the Southern Ocean. Although it is true that the amount of water that is cross crossing the equator is equal to the integrated Ekman flux in the northernmost part of the Southern Ocean, it is merely the amount (and not the origin of the water) that is equal in these two cases. The width of the transhemispheric current in the south iswhere τ is the wind stress, ∂τ/∂y the curl of the wind, β the familiar variation of the Coriolis with latitude, f0 the mean Coriolis parameter, and L is the width of the basin.

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24

Thomas, M. A., P. Suntharalingam, L. Pozzoli, S. Rast, A. Devasthale, S. Kloster, J. Feichter, and T. M. Lenton. "Quantification of DMS aerosol-cloud-climate interactions using ECHAM5-HAMMOZ model in current climate scenario." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions 10, no. 2 (February 5, 2010): 3087–127. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-10-3087-2010.

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Abstract. The contribution of ocean dimethyl sulfide (DMS) emissions to changes in cloud microphysical properties is quantified seasonally and globally for present day climate conditions using an aerosol-chemistry-climate general circulation model, ECHAM5-HAMMOZ, coupled to a cloud microphysics scheme. We evaluate DMS aerosol-cloud-climate linkages over the southern oceans where anthropogenic influence is minimal. The changes in the number of activated particles, cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC), cloud droplet effective radius, cloud cover and the radiative forcing are examined by analyzing two simulations: a baseline simulation with ocean DMS emissions derived from a prescribed climatology and one in which the ocean DMS emissions are switched off. Our simulations show that the model realistically simulates the seasonality in the number of activated particles and CDNC, peaking during Southern Hemisphere (SH) summer coincident with increased phytoplankton blooms and gradually declining with a minimum in SH winter. In comparison to a simulation with no DMS, the CDNC level over the southern oceans is 128% larger in the baseline simulation averaged over the austral summer months. Our results also show an increased number of smaller sized cloud droplets during this period. We estimate a maximum decrease of up to 15–18% in the droplet radius and a mean increase in cloud cover by around 2.5% over the southern oceans during SH summer in the simulation with ocean DMS compared to when the DMS emissions are switched off. The global annual mean top of the atmosphere DMS aerosol all sky radiative forcing is −2.03 W/m2, whereas, over the southern oceans during SH summer, the mean DMS aerosol radiative forcing reaches −9.32 W/m2.

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25

Thomas, M. A., P. Suntharalingam, L. Pozzoli, S. Rast, A. Devasthale, S. Kloster, J. Feichter, and T. M. Lenton. "Quantification of DMS aerosol-cloud-climate interactions using the ECHAM5-HAMMOZ model in a current climate scenario." Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics 10, no. 15 (August 10, 2010): 7425–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-7425-2010.

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Abstract. The contribution of ocean dimethyl sulfide (DMS) emissions to changes in cloud microphysical properties is quantified seasonally and globally for present day climate conditions using an aerosol-chemistry-climate general circulation model, ECHAM5-HAMMOZ, coupled to a cloud microphysics scheme. We evaluate DMS aerosol-cloud-climate linkages over the southern oceans where anthropogenic influence is minimal. The changes in the number of activated particles, cloud droplet number concentration (CDNC), cloud droplet effective radius, cloud cover and the radiative forcing are examined by analyzing two simulations: a baseline simulation with ocean DMS emissions derived from a prescribed climatology and one in which the ocean DMS emissions are switched off. Our simulations show that the model realistically simulates the seasonality in the number of activated particles and CDNC, peaking during Southern Hemisphere (SH) summer coincident with increased phytoplankton blooms and gradually declining with a minimum in SH winter. In comparison to a simulation with no DMS, the CDNC level over the southern oceans is 128% larger in the baseline simulation averaged over the austral summer months. Our results also show an increased number of smaller sized cloud droplets during this period. We estimate a maximum decrease of up to 15–18% in the droplet radius and a mean increase in cloud cover by around 2.5% over the southern oceans during SH summer in the simulation with ocean DMS compared to when the DMS emissions are switched off. The global annual mean top of the atmosphere DMS aerosol all sky radiative forcing is −2.03 W/m2, whereas, over the southern oceans during SH summer, the mean DMS aerosol radiative forcing reaches −9.32 W/m2.

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26

Liu, Ling Ling, and Rui Xin Huang. "The Global Subduction/Obduction Rates: Their Interannual and Decadal Variability." Journal of Climate 25, no. 4 (February 8, 2012): 1096–115. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011jcli4228.1.

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Abstract Ventilation, including subduction and obduction, for the global oceans was examined using Simple Ocean Data Assimilation (SODA) outputs. The global subduction rate averaged over the period from 1959 to 2006 is estimated at 505.8 Sv (1 Sv ≡ 106 m3 s−1), while the corresponding global obduction rate is estimated at 482.1 Sv. The annual subduction/obduction rates vary greatly on the interannual and decadal time scales. The global subduction rate is estimated to have increased 7.6% over the past 50 years, while the obduction rate is estimated to have increased 9.8%. Such trends may be insignificant because errors associated with the data generated by ocean data assimilation could be as large as 10%. However, a major physical mechanism that induced these trends is primarily linked to changes in the Southern Ocean. While the Southern Ocean plays a key role in global subduction and obduction rates and their variability, both the Southern Ocean and equatorial regions are critically important sites of water mass formation/erosion.

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27

GON, OFER, JAMES MACLAINE, MARTIN A. COLLINS, GWYNNETH MATCHER, and JOHN J. POGONOSKI. "The type series of Poromitra crassiceps (Pisces, Melamphaidae) with lectotype designation." Zootaxa 5389, no. 4 (December 21, 2023): 473–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.5389.4.5.

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The type series of Poromitra crassiceps (Günther, 1878) was thought to include specimens from four localities in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Southern oceans. Comparison of the extant syntypes with the original description revealed that the specimen from the Pacific Ocean was not included in the original type series; one syntype from the Atlantic Ocean was never incorporated into the collection of the Natural History Museum, London, and is considered lost, and another cannot be identified due to its bad condition. The fourth syntype, from the Southern Ocean and in the best condition, is designated lectotype of this species. Molecular analysis of tissue samples collected by us as well as publically available COI sequences showed that only one species, P. crassiceps, is currently known from the Southern Ocean. Specimens from this ocean named P. atlantica (Norman, 1929) in the literature and in collections are probably misidentifications of P. crassiceps. The validity of P. atlantica needs confirmation from fresh material from the type locality.

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28

Demuynck, Pieter, Toby Tyrrell, Alberto Naveira Garabato, Mark Christopher Moore, and Adrian Peter Martin. "Spatial variations in silicate-to-nitrate ratios in Southern Ocean surface waters are controlled in the short term by physics rather than biology." Biogeosciences 17, no. 8 (April 22, 2020): 2289–314. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-17-2289-2020.

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Abstract. The nutrient composition (high in nitrate but low in silicate) of Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW) forces diatom scarcity across much of the global surface ocean. This is because diatoms cannot grow without silicate. After formation and downwelling at the Southern Ocean's northern edge, SAMW re-emerges into the surface layers of the mid- and low-latitude oceans, providing a major nutrient source to primary producers in those regions. The distinctive nutrient composition of SAMW originates in the surface waters of the Southern Ocean, from which SAMW is formed. These waters are observed to transition from being rich in both silicate and nitrate in high-latitude areas of the Southern Ocean to being nitrate-rich but silicate-depleted at SAMW formation sites further north. Here we investigate the key controls of this change in nutrient composition with an idealised model, consisting of a chain of boxes linked by a residual (Ekman- and eddy-induced) overturning circulation. Biological processes are modelled on the basis of seasonal plankton bloom dynamics, and physical processes are modelled using a synthesis of outputs from the data-assimilative Southern Ocean State Estimate. Thus, as surface water flows northward across the Southern Ocean toward sites of SAMW formation, it is exposed in the model (as in reality) to seasonal cycles of both biology and physics. Our results challenge previous characterisations of the abrupt northward reduction in silicate-to-nitrate ratios in Southern Ocean surface waters as being predominantly driven by biological processes. Instead, our model indicates that, over shorter timescales (years to decades), physical processes connecting the deep and surface waters of the Southern Ocean (i.e. upwelling and entrainment) exert the primary control on the spatial distribution of surface nutrient ratios.

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29

Shi, Jia-Rui, Lynne D. Talley, Shang-Ping Xie, Qihua Peng, and Wei Liu. "Ocean warming and accelerating Southern Ocean zonal flow." Nature Climate Change 11, no. 12 (November 29, 2021): 1090–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01212-5.

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30

Keller, David P., Iris Kriest, Wolfgang Koeve, and Andreas Oschlies. "Southern Ocean biological impacts on global ocean oxygen." Geophysical Research Letters 43, no. 12 (June 25, 2016): 6469–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2016gl069630.

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31

Amrhein, Daniel E., Carl Wunsch, Olivier Marchal, and Gael Forget. "A Global Glacial Ocean State Estimate Constrained by Upper-Ocean Temperature Proxies." Journal of Climate 31, no. 19 (October 2018): 8059–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-17-0769.1.

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We use the method of least squares with Lagrange multipliers to fit an ocean general circulation model to the Multiproxy Approach for the Reconstruction of the Glacial Ocean Surface (MARGO) estimate of near sea surface temperature (NSST) at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; circa 23–19 thousand years ago). Compared to a modern simulation, the resulting global, last-glacial ocean state estimate, which fits the MARGO data within uncertainties in a free-running coupled ocean–sea ice simulation, has global-mean NSSTs that are 2°C lower and greater sea ice extent in all seasons in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Increased brine rejection by sea ice formation in the Southern Ocean contributes to a stronger abyssal stratification set principally by salinity, qualitatively consistent with pore fluid measurements. The upper cell of the glacial Atlantic overturning circulation is deeper and stronger. Dye release experiments show similar distributions of Southern Ocean source waters in the glacial and modern western Atlantic, suggesting that LGM NSST data do not require a major reorganization of abyssal water masses. Outstanding challenges in reconstructing LGM ocean conditions include reducing effects from model biases and finding computationally efficient ways to incorporate abyssal tracers in global circulation inversions. Progress will be aided by the development of coupled ocean–atmosphere–ice inverse models, by improving high-latitude model processes that connect the upper and abyssal oceans, and by the collection of additional paleoclimate observations.

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32

Manton, M. J., Y. Huang, and S. T. Siems. "Variations in Precipitation across the Southern Ocean." Journal of Climate 33, no. 24 (December 15, 2020): 10653–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-20-0120.1.

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AbstractThe Southern Ocean lies beneath a unique region of the global atmosphere with minimal effects of landmasses on the zonal flow. The absence of landmasses also means that in situ observations of precipitation are limited to a few ocean islands. Two reanalyses and two satellite-based gridded datasets are analyzed to estimate the character of the distribution of precipitation across the region. The latitudinal variation is computed across three longitudinal sectors, representing the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. The most recent ECMWF reanalysis (ERA5) is found to produce the most accurate estimate of the mean profile and seasonal cycle of precipitation. However, there is little consistency in the estimates of trends in monthly anomalies of precipitation. A more consistent description of precipitation trends is found by using linear regression of the precipitation anomaly with the local mean sea level pressure anomaly, the southern annular mode, and the Southern Oscillation index. In broad terms, precipitation is found to be decreasing at lower latitudes and increasing at higher latitudes, which is consistent with earlier climate model simulations on the impacts of anthropogenic climate change.

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33

Watanabe, Hiromi Kayama, Chong Chen, Daniel P. Marie, Ken Takai, Katsunori Fujikura, and Benny K. K. Chan. "Phylogeography of hydrothermal vent stalked barnacles: a new species fills a gap in the Indian Ocean ‘dispersal corridor’ hypothesis." Royal Society Open Science 5, no. 4 (April 2018): 172408. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsos.172408.

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Phylogeography of animals provides clues to processes governing their evolution and diversification. The Indian Ocean has been hypothesized as a ‘dispersal corridor’ connecting hydrothermal vent fauna of Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Stalked barnacles of the family Eolepadidae are common associates of deep-sea vents in Southern, Pacific and Indian oceans, and the family is an ideal group for testing this hypothesis. Here, we describe Neolepas marisindica sp. nov. from the Indian Ocean, distinguished from N. zevinae and N. rapanuii by having a tridentoid mandible in which the second tooth lacks small elongated teeth. Morphological variations suggest that environmental differences result in phenotypic plasticity in the capitulum and scales on the peduncle in eolepadids. We suggest that diagnostic characters in Eolepadidae should be based mainly on more reliable arthropodal characters and DNA barcoding, while the plate arrangement should be used carefully with their intraspecific variation in mind. We show morphologically that Neolepas specimens collected from the South West Indian Ridge, the South East Indian Ridge and the Central Indian Ridge belong to the new species. Molecular phylogeny and fossil evidence indicated that Neolepas migrated from the southern Pacific to the Indian Ocean through the Southern Ocean, providing key evidence against the ‘dispersal corridor’ hypothesis. Exploration of the South East Indian Ridge is urgently required to understand vent biogeography in the Indian Ocean.

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34

Cheon, Woo Geun, Chang-Bong Cho, Arnold L. Gordon, Young Ho Kim, and Young-Gyu Park. "The Role of Oscillating Southern Hemisphere Westerly Winds: Southern Ocean Coastal and Open-Ocean Polynyas." Journal of Climate 31, no. 3 (January 18, 2018): 1053–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jcli-d-17-0237.1.

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Abstract An oscillation in intensity of the Southern Hemisphere westerly winds is a major characteristic of the southern annular mode. Its impact upon the sea ice–ocean interactions in the Weddell and Ross Seas is investigated by a sea ice–ocean general circulation model coupled to an energy balance model for three temporal scales and two amplitudes of intensity. It is found that the oscillating wind forcing over the Southern Ocean plays a significant role both in regulating coastal polynyas along the Antarctic margins and in triggering open-ocean polynyas. The formation of coastal polynya in the western Weddell and Ross Seas is enhanced with the intensifying winds, resulting in an increase in the salt flux into the ocean via sea ice formation. Under intensifying winds, an instantaneous spinup within the Weddell and Ross Sea cyclonic gyres causes the warm deep water to upwell, triggering open-ocean polynyas with accompanying deep ocean convection. In contrast to coastal polynyas, open-ocean polynyas in the Weddell and Ross Seas respond differently to the wind forcing and are dependent on its period. That is, the Weddell Sea open-ocean polynya occurs earlier and more frequently than the Ross Sea open-ocean polynya and, more importantly, does not occur when the period of oscillation is sufficiently short. The strong stratification of the Ross Sea and the contraction of the Ross gyre due to the southward shift of Antarctic Circumpolar Current fronts provide unfavorable conditions for the Ross Sea open-ocean polynya. The recovery time of deep ocean heat controls the occurrence frequency of the Weddell Sea open-ocean polynya.

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35

Iudicone, Daniele, Keith B. Rodgers, Richard Schopp, and Gurvan Madec. "An Exchange Window for the Injection of Antarctic Intermediate Water into the South Pacific." Journal of Physical Oceanography 37, no. 1 (January 1, 2007): 31–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/jpo2985.1.

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Abstract Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) occupies the intermediate horizon of most of the world oceans. Formed in the Southern Ocean, it is characterized by a relative salinity minimum. With a new, denser in situ National Oceanographic Data Center dataset, the authors have reanalyzed the export characteristics of AAIW from the Southern Ocean into the South Pacific Ocean. These new data show that part of the AAIW is exported from the subpolar frontal region by the large-scale circulation through an exchange window of 10° width situated east of 90°W in the southeast corner of the Pacific basin. This suggests the origin of this water to be in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. A set of numerical modeling experiments has been used to reproduce these observed features and to demonstrate that the dynamics of the exchange window is controlled by the basin-scale meridional pressure gradient. The exchange of AAIW between the Southern and Pacific Oceans must therefore be understood in the context of the large basin-scale dynamical balance rather than simply local effects.

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36

Ladant, Jean-Baptiste, Christopher J. Poulsen, Frédéric Fluteau, Clay R. Tabor, Kenneth G. MacLeod, Ellen E. Martin, Shannon J. Haynes, and Masoud A. Rostami. "Paleogeographic controls on the evolution of Late Cretaceous ocean circulation." Climate of the Past 16, no. 3 (June 9, 2020): 973–1006. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-973-2020.

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Abstract. Understanding of the role of ocean circulation on climate during the Late Cretaceous is contingent on the ability to reconstruct its modes and evolution. Geochemical proxies used to infer modes of past circulation provide conflicting interpretations for the reorganization of the ocean circulation through the Late Cretaceous. Here, we present climate model simulations of the Cenomanian (100.5–93.9 Ma) and Maastrichtian (72.1–66.1 Ma) stages of the Cretaceous with the CCSM4 earth system model. We focus on intermediate (500–1500 m) and deep (> 1500 m) ocean circulation and show that while there is continuous deep-water production in the southwestern Pacific, major circulation changes occur between the Cenomanian and Maastrichtian. Opening of the Atlantic and Southern Ocean, in particular, drives a transition from a mostly zonal circulation to enhanced meridional exchange. Using additional experiments to test the effect of deepening of major ocean gateways in the Maastrichtian, we demonstrate that the geometry of these gateways likely had a considerable impact on ocean circulation. We further compare simulated circulation results with compilations of εNd records and show that simulated changes in Late Cretaceous ocean circulation are reasonably consistent with proxy-based inferences. In our simulations, consistency with the geologic history of major ocean gateways and absence of shift in areas of deep-water formation suggest that Late Cretaceous trends in εNd values in the Atlantic and southern Indian oceans were caused by the subsidence of volcanic provinces and opening of the Atlantic and Southern oceans rather than changes in deep-water formation areas and/or reversal of deep-water fluxes. However, the complexity in interpreting Late Cretaceous εNd values underscores the need for new records as well as specific εNd modeling to better discriminate between the various plausible theories of ocean circulation change during this period.

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37

Clem, Kyle R., Marilyn N. Raphael, Susheel Adusumilli, Rebecca Baiman, Alison F. Banwell, Sandra Barreira, Rebecca L. Beadling, et al. "Antarctica and the Southern Ocean." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 103, no. 8 (August 2022): S307—S340. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-22-0078.1.

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38

Roman Gonzalez, Alejandro. "Sclerochronology in the Southern Ocean." Polar Biology 44, no. 8 (July 1, 2021): 1485–515. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00300-021-02899-0.

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AbstractThis manuscript aims to provide a comprehensive review of the work done by Antarctic sclerochronology research across different taxa (arthropods, bivalves, brachiopods, bryozoans, cephalopods, hard and soft corals, gastropods, echinoderms and teleost fish), provide an analysis of current challenges in the discipline and start a discussion of what sclerochronology can offer for Antarctic research in future. The Southern Ocean ecosystem remains largely unstudied in part for its remoteness, extreme climate and strong seasonality. This lack of knowledge, some of it even on basic biological information, it is especially worrying due to ongoing climate-driven changes that the Southern Ocean ecosystem is experiencing. Lack of long-term in situ instrumental series has also being a detriment to understand long-term feedbacks between the physical environment and the ecosystem. Sclerochronology, the study of periodic accretional patterns in the hard body structures of living organisms, has contributed to a wide range of Antarctic research disciplines (e.g. paleoclimate reconstructions, population structure analysis, environmental proxies). This review highlights a disparity in research focus by taxa with some groups (e.g. bivalves, teleost fish) attracting most of the research attention, whereas other groups (e.g. gastropod) have attracted much little research attention or in some cases it is almost non-existent (e.g. echinoderms). Some of the long-lived species considered in this review have the potential to provide the much-needed high-resolution eco-environmental proxy data and play an important role in blue carbon storage in the Sothern Ocean. Another issue identified was the lack of cross-validation between analytical techniques. Graphic abstract

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39

Stammerjohn, Sharon, Ted A. Scambos, Susheel Adusumilli, Sandra Barreira, Germar H. Bernhard, Deniz Bozkurt, Seth M. Bushinsky, et al. "Antarctica and the Southern Ocean." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 102, no. 8 (August 1, 2021): S317—S356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/bams-d-21-0081.1.

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40

Raymond, Ben, Michelle Marshall, Gabrielle Nevitt, Chris L. Gillies, John van den Hoff, Jonathan S. Stark, Marcel Losekoot, Eric J. Woehler, and Andrew J. Constable. "A Southern Ocean dietary database." Ecology 92, no. 5 (May 2011): 1188. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/10-1907.1.

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41

Molenaar, E. J. "CCAMLR and Southern Ocean Fisheries." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 16, no. 3 (September 1, 2001): 465–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/15718080120493137.

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42

Molenaar, Erik Jaap. "CCAMLR and Southern Ocean Fisheries." International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law 16, no. 3 (2001): 465–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/157180801x00171.

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AbstractThe Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR Convention) forms the core of the regulatory regime for Southern Ocean fisheries. This article analyses the scope and extent of the Convention and the competence of the bodies established under it while also addressing the role of states and other international intergovernmental organisations with relevant competence. As part of the Antarctic Treaty System (ATS), the CCAMLR Convention is characterised by a unique sovereignty situation. The analysis thereof is complemented by a comparison with (other) regional fisheries management organisations (RFMOs) and illustrated by the difficulties in addressing illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. The article concludes inter alia that the CCAMLR Convention is unlike other RFMOs due to the special natural characteristics, its integration into the ATS and the ensuing sovereignty situation, and its conservationist objective. This notwithstanding, it seems justifiable to treat the CCAMLR Convention as "something more" than an RFMO for the purpose of international instruments on fisheries.

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43

E. Davis. Jr., William. "Heard Island: Southern Ocean Sentinel." Pacific Conservation Biology 13, no. 2 (2007): 145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pc070145.

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Heard Island is one of the most remote places on earth. It is of volcanic origin (and currently volcanically active) on the submarine Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean, roughly 4 000 km south-west of Australia, 1 500 km from Antarctica, 3 750 km from Africa, and 7 500 km from India. The island is 367 km2 in area at latitude 53�S, south of the Antarctic Polar Front (Antarctic Convergence), is 70% covered with glaciers, and has a geologic, biologic and human history of substantial interest. Because of its remoteness, relative recent discovery (1853), and infrequent human visitation, it is pristine with no human-introduced plants or mammals.

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44

Merrett, N. R., O. Gon, and P. C. Heemstra. "Fishes of the Southern Ocean." Copeia 1992, no. 1 (February 3, 1992): 260. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1446568.

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45

Rintoul, Stephen, Michael Meredith, Oscar Schofield, and Louise Newman. "The Southern Ocean Observing System." Oceanography 25, no. 3 (September 1, 2012): 68–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2012.76.

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46

Morrison, Adele K., Thomas L. Frölicher, and Jorge L. Sarmiento. "Upwelling in the Southern Ocean." Physics Today 68, no. 1 (January 2015): 27–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/pt.3.2654.

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47

Gordon, Arnold L., and Josefino C. Comiso. "Polynyas in the Southern Ocean." Scientific American 258, no. 6 (June 1988): 90–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0688-90.

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48

Marinov, I., A. Gnanadesikan, J. R. Toggweiler, and J. L. Sarmiento. "The Southern Ocean biogeochemical divide." Nature 441, no. 7096 (June 2006): 964–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature04883.

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49

Ott, Norbert, and Hans Werner Schenke. "Southern Ocean Mapping Program Restarts." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 88, no. 31 (July 31, 2007): 311. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007eo310003.

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50

Showstack, Randy. "Oxygen dip in southern ocean." Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union 83, no. 13 (2002): 146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/eo083i013p00146-03.

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