Статті в журналах з теми "Teachers, Foreign Arab countries Attitudes"

The sociocultural backdrop of international students coming to a foreign country from different cultural and social environments plays a key role in shaping their attitude towards learning. The article explores and compares the motivational drives of international students from the Arab countries and India, which underlie their attitude to academic activities and academic progress. We used the method of systematic literature review, a questionnaire survey, comparative, quantitative, and qualitative analyses to obtain data on the value systems, traditions, and worldview of international students, which will make it possible for educators to appreciate the cultural contexts these students are embedded in. Social and cultural awareness of different aspects of the students’ value systems will enable teachers in host countries to contribute effectively to international student integration into the educational process.

Arab and Jewish teachers’ attitudes regarding punitive and non-punitive methods to correct students’ misbehaviour were examined. The study used data from 538 classroom teachers in Israel. Teachers’ attitudes are examined using the Dimensions of Discipline Inventory. The results revealed that teachers highly approve the use of non-punitive discipline methods. Still, many teachers supported the use of punitive discipline methods to correct students’ misbehaviour. Punitive discipline methods were more supported by Arab teachers compared to Jewish teachers, especially when the violence was directed toward a teacher. These results may reflect teachers’ lack of knowledge; many teachers use corporal punishment and other punitive discipline methods because they lack the alternative skills and tools to deal with students misbehaviour. Hence, it is essential to help teachers cope effectively with difficult situations without resorting to violence. Training opportunities for teachers in Israel and other countries need to be expanded.

The Israeli educational milieu contains two different cultures with separate educational systems: the Arab culture, distinguished by its traditional and collectivist orientation despite undergoing a process of modernization, and the Jewish Western-democratic, individualistic culture. This study describes a unique multiculturalistic phenomenon whereby Arab students, who have been educated in the context of the Arab family and school culture, “pass through” a Western-oriented teacher education program and then return to teach in their own culture. The study traces the development of awareness regarding the impact of cultural factors on education among several groups: Arab (and some Jewish) teacher trainees prior to, during, and after their university training; experienced Arab teachers working in the field; and Arab experts in education. The study focuses on the Arab teacher trainees’ ability to make sense of the knowledge presented in the training program, in light of their own prior knowledge and beliefs as well as other difficulties related to studying in a foreign language and unfamiliar style. Changes in the Arab teacher trainees’ beliefs and attitudes are traced as they construct bodies of knowledge along the path toward becoming teachers, and their notions of how the newly acquired knowledge can be applied in the Arab community are also investigated.

In the Arab world, there is a lack of research investigating the use of virtual games to support learning English as a foreign language (EFL). The aim of this study was to examine EFL learners' attitudes towards the integration of the Second Life virtual game as a collaborative instructional tool. A descriptive inquiry method was followed, and data gathered using a questionnaire that had been tested for validity and reliability. Forty-one undergraduates, enrolled in two computer-assisted language learning classes, at a school of education represent the study sample. Findings indicated that the majority were in favor of using virtual worlds as collaborative learning contexts. Recommendations include that: 1) EFL teachers be trained to utilize virtual games; 2) EFL learners be encouraged to utilize virtual portals as collaborative learning opportunities to engage with target foreign language speakers around the world, and 3) EFL instructors create learning tasks requiring learners to interact with other language speakers in virtual games to ensure rich language exposition. Moreover, it is recommended that further studies consider a qualitative design that makes use of in-depth observations and interviews to explore learners’ attitudes about the integration of this technology in an EFL context.

Characterizing the smoking habit in specific populations is important for health planners and policy-makers. We studied the smoking patterns of schoolteachers in Saraqeb, Syrian Arab Republic and found that 52.1% of males and 12.3% of females were current smokers. Male daily smokers smoked 20 +/- 1 cigarettes per day, females 10 +/- 4. Males had smoked for, on average, 16 +/- 1 years, females for 9 +/- 4 years. Daily smokers buying foreign brands spent 22.0% of their monthly income on cigarettes, while those smoking local brands spent 12.2%. Most teachers who smoked did so openly at school. Smoking among teachers should receive attention because it is closely related to the attitudes and practices of young people towards smoking

Mediating the Middle East engages social and political constructions that articulate sentiment within the United States, with consequences not only to foreign policies and relationships, but also to experiences of Arab and Muslim citizens. Engagement with media narratives is expected to become particularly relevant when people do not share a resonating identity or direct experience with the community being projected. I position this research as an entry into how we might understand the primacy of dominant media narratives in shaping norms that contribute to discriminatory practices. Through this analysis, I focus on the concerns of Arab and Muslim Americans, considering the consequences of negative media characterizations of Islam, of Arab communities, and of the Middle East. This study builds on a national survey of adult United States citizens (n = 1416), with a targeted proportion of Arab American residents. These attitudes toward fellow citizens as well as foreign countries are considered in relation to extent of engagement with popular culture, specifically action-adventure given its role in Hollywood narratives featuring the Middle East. Attitudes toward Arab and Muslim communities within the United States as well as in the Middle East are demonstrated to be related to this form of media engagement.

This study aims to explain the role of IMLA in developing Arabic teacher competences. Indeed a teacher is a precious profession, carrying valuable tasks to educate and build character of the nation. Teacher is a precious profession to create a good life. Therefore, teacher should develop their competences including Arabic language teacher. The intended competences in Arabic language learning are language competence, communicative competence, and cultural competence. IMLA is the abbreviation of (Ittiha>d Mudarrisi al-Lughah al-‘Arabiyyah), a organization established to build and develop Arabic teachers’ competences in Indonesia. This opportunity is given to Arabic teachers in IMLA organization to affiliate with its agendas, management, and association in local, national, and international scope. There are many information will be gained through the various agendas to develop teachers’ competence. For the example is like attending seminars, workshops, and other trainings held by the organization. IMLA organization is able to connect local teachers and lecturers to the foreign ones especially from Arabic emirate countries.

Education in bilingual schools aims to equip learners with balanced bilingualism, increased (bi)cultural capital and a global mindset. Nevertheless, in a growing number of countries only local children attend such institutions, where foreign teachers are the almost exclusive manifestations of ‘globalness’. Dynamics among foreign and local teachers and students shape learners’ attitudes, their learning outcome and identity formation to an unexpected degree. This often produces unhealthy perceptions and behaviour towards among the groups and the taught languages as well, eventually students not benefiting from bilingual education to the expected extent, if at all. One of the oldest and one of the newest bilingual schools in Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia, were observed for this study. Local and foreign teachers of these schools contributed with their experiences in the form of unstructured interviews, while classroom observations shed light on students’ attitudes. The findings reveal that students respect local educators more and display more respect and discipline with them. However, pupils are usually more emotionally attached to foreign teachers, confiding in them and seeking their company on a daily basis, yet refusing to be disciplined and to study for their classes. Students’ unbalanced attitudes towards the two groups of teachers generated unease between the educators as well. This paradox created an unhealthy milieu in the schools and discouraged the development of a healthy perspective on (foreign) languages and identity. Teachers’ attitudes further compromised learners’ behaviour, as local educators stressed nationalism, while foreigners pressed towards the development of a more global mentality. Unfortunately, as none of the institutions had any policies to address this dilemma, eventually students developed behaviours contrary to the intended by the schools.

By using spontaneous metaphor research, our paper investigates prospective primary school teachers’ attitudes and relations toward the culture of English-speaking countries and learning English as a foreign language. Metaphors reveal people’s subconscious ideas and understandings towards their beliefs and attitudes, in this case, towards the culture of English-speaking countries. The participants consisted of student teachers specialising in English (N=12) or another specialisation (N=20). In addition, students’ English proficiency was also reflected in this grouping, which helped to demonstrate the effects of prior English knowledge and experiences. An elicitation sheet with the unfinished sentence, “Foreign language learning is like ... because ...” was used as the tool of data collection. The data were analysed qualitatively by coding, categorising, and finalising the metaphors. The present paper focuses exclusively on the data in connection with the concept of culture while analyses of the other concepts are described in Kisné Bernhardt and Furcsa (2020). The findings of the metaphor research revealed different attitudes according to teacher students’ specialisations and therefore contribute to a deeper understanding of selecting appropriate approaches to English teaching. In our paper, we first describe the importance and role of cultural beliefs in language teaching, then we focus on various aspects of metaphor research. The sociocultural dimension of metaphor research aims at investigating the involvement of sociocultural factors in the process of conceptualisation. In the second part of the paper, the findings of our metaphor research are presented.

The outbreak of the civil war in Libya was part of the ‘Arab Spring’: a series of instances of Arab societies against non-democratic authorities of their countries. From the per-spective of the West, it is another conflict after the Cold War era, one in which there are no two conventional armies fighting against each other, but its start is ‘asymmetric’. The Gaddafi regime's bloody crackdown on insurgents made the international community stand in the defence of the civilian population. At the same time, with the experience of wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, there was reluctance to deploy western troops in Libya. It was clearly shown in the public opinion polls: Gaddafi was being condemned and Libyan civilians were being supported, but it was refused to expose the West to military losses. Libyan rebels also demanded more armament rather than reinforcing their forces with foreign army units. Therefore, the intervention of Western countries in Libya took the form acceptable to the public: air attacks on the forces loyal to Gaddafi.

Abstract This study investigates the effects of the socio-cultural factors on the motivation of female and male students in 14 Arab and non-Arab countries through 14 studies. The findings indicate that both genders in the two groups share some interests of motivation for learning English, but they differ in some cultural factors that influence or hinder their learning. The findings of this research found that female students′ integrative motivation and attitudes towards English are higher than male students. The present study suggests a serious need for conducting qualitative or mixed method studies to investigate this phenomenon and to propose practical alternatives to increase male students' language motivation to learn English especially the integrative type. Pedagogical implications for teachers and suggestions for further research are included.

The present study explores teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Asia, their attitudes toward teaching English, the roles of teaching the English language, motivations, benefits, implications, and the reason they are highly recognized in non-English speaking countries. The researcher applied the qualitative method through semi-structured interviews with (n=4) Ghanaian teachers working in three countries in Asia as EFL instructors; their strengths and weaknesses were investigated. The result of semi-structured interviews revealed that Ghanaian teachers' primary role in Asia is to teach English and literacy skills. Moreover, the reasons they chose to work in Asia are higher salaries and better working conditions. Their inability to speak the local language and culture diversity were their weaknesses. Native and Non-native English teachers' preferences, which directly/indirectly affect English teaching, are discussed.  The respondents' positive attitude toward English teaching overseas is also investigated and presented. This empirical study revealed the globalization of English in the 21st century.

Aim/Purpose: ICT integration into classroom pedagogical practices is considered an essential aspect of learning processes in developed countries but there are issues in developing countries regarding funding, infrastructure, access, and teacher skills and professional learning. This article presents some aspects of the findings of a study in one remote region within a developing country after the implementation of a widescale ICT initiative. This study investigates issues for implementing ICT in schools in relation to teacher and school leader attitudes, access and ICT use, and improvements needed in Papua which is one of the most remote regions of Indonesia. The paper frames these issues within the context of successful online learning initiatives in developing countries and foreign aid implementation literature, with these aspects being under-researched, especially in significantly remote developing country locations. Background: Developing countries like Indonesia have progressively introduced online learning into school management and classrooms within government planning frameworks and with initial support from foreign aid providers. While there is research available regarding ICT implementation in more urbanized contexts within developing countries, there is a gap in terms of large-scale research which is focused on more remote regions and is supported by foreign aid. Methodology: Mixed methods including surveys and interviews were used to investigate research questions concerning teachers’ and principals’ attitudes, ICT access and use, and perceptions about improvements needed. SPSS software was used for surveys and descriptive analysis, and interviews were analysed through manual coding processes. Contribution: ICT access and e-learning in schools are increasingly becoming relevant in developing country contexts, and this research paper is a preliminary large-scale study that makes a contribution through highlighting issues experienced in more remote locations. This includes specific internet and power issues and transport inaccessibility problems, which highlight the need for locally-based and ongoing coaching of teachers within schools and regions. The paper also draws on the literature about online learning in developing countries and foreign aid towards some possible success directions in isolated contexts, an under-researched area. The importance of education systems establishing ICT skills levels for students integrated across subjects, for well-coordinated planning involving partnerships with hardware and internet providers, as well as the need for school leaders being trained in establishing teacher peer support groups for ongoing coaching, are learnings for Papua and other remote locations from the comparative developing countries literature Findings: The findings highlight teachers’ and school leaders’ positive attitudes to ICT in education, although the results indicate that ICT was frequently applied for administrative purposes rather than for teaching and learning. Principals and teachers highlighted some improvements that were needed including systematic training in computer skills and professional learning about the integration of ICT with teaching and learning, especially in relation to pedagogical practices, as well as the need for improved infrastructure and equipment. Recommendations for Practitioners: The study highlights issues and potential success factors as evident in remote regions of developing countries that have achieved recognition for widescale ICT implementation in schools. This includes issues in relation to policy makers and education authorities working with foreign aid funders. Of significant importance is the need for coordinated and collaborative strategic planning including in relation to sustained professional learning towards student-oriented ICT pedagogies and skilling principals to establish a positive culture and teacher peer coaching. Particularly relevant to developing countries in remote locations is the importance of additionally addressing specific infrastructure and maintenance issues. Recommendation for Researchers: Regarding ICT and its use for student learning, more research is needed in developing countries and, in particular, in more remote locations where specific issues, differing from those encountered in capital cities, may be evident for teachers and principals. Impact on Society: Teachers and principals in remote locations of Indonesia such as Papua have generally positive attitudes about the benefits of online learning but need greater ICT access for students in the classroom and also professional development regarding pedagogical practices to support students in learning effectively through online processes. Future Research: Updated and more detailed comparative research with other developing countries, especially those with remote locations, would be beneficial to more comprehensively identify Papua’s current stage of development and to design appropriate future interventions.

The purpose of this study is to identify how Ecuadorian university teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) tackle intercultural teaching practice in their classrooms. To this end, we studied the reported intercultural practices of 68 EFL university teachers from Ecuadorian Region 4. Quantitative data drawn from a questionnaire were analysed through descriptive statistics. The results suggest that the activities put into practice emphasize the development of intercultural attitudes rather than knowledge or skills. Furthermore, the data indicate that these teachers often focus on the culture of certain English-speaking countries, but they do not pay sufficient attention to other foreign cultures and give little importance to the students’ local culture, and to the comparison between cultures. In conclusion, these teachers’ reported practices suggest they would benefit from using strategies to introduce and discuss interculturality in their lessons, to raise intercultural awareness and to help their students develop the appropriate skills to deal with intercultural encounters. Indications are provided in this respect.

The research aimed to make learning the Arabic language in Indonesian Foreign Schools more effective, efficient and enjoyable, as well as to produce Indonesian diaspora students who possess a strong sense of nationalism and respect for diversity by developing teaching material models that are based on multicultural-based character education values. The research was designed using a research and development model and was conducted in two stages: (1) identifying the needs of students and teachers for Arabic teaching materials that contain multicultural-based character education values; (2) creating a model of Arabic teaching materials that incorporate the values of multicultural-based character education in Indonesian Foreign Schools. The study found a need to develop Arabic teaching materials in Indonesian Foreign Schools, particularly in Arab countries. The development of teaching materials is necessary for two aspects: (1) related to Arabic teaching materials that are based on the values of national character education, in line with learning objectives, and contextually relevant to the present time; (2) in terms of character education, by creating teaching materials that contain character education values such as religious values, nationalism, honesty, independence, cooperation, integrity, hard work, and responsibility.

The ever-increasing role of Internet tools in everyday life is undeniable in our information society. Their impact has been especially significant in Foreign Language Teaching (FLT). Are virtual environments conducive to the development of foreign language competences among EFL students? The present study has the double aim of raising the awareness of the relevant actors with regards to the potential of IT as a powerful means of enhancing the effectiveness of FLT and of determining the right balance needed for a harmonious integration of IT with more traditional methods and techniques in the teaching process. We attempt to give an answer to such questions as: “Is digital technology needed in FLT? Does the value of using IT depend on the context?” The answers given are grounded on the well-supported pronouncements of the contemporary literature dealing with the subject and on data that have an institutional backing reflecting the experience of some advanced countries. Further on a presentation of the opinions and practice of the high-school teachers of foreign languages in Korca, collected through a questionnaire, will be followed by a critical assessment of the results, together with suggestions on how teachers can avoid some of the pitfalls that attend the application of IT in a foreign language class. A synthesis of the dimensions opened up by the integration of IT in the teaching process will conclude this research, highlighting its importance as a means of relating the language classroom to the modern world.

A survey and interviews conducted with 150 pupils (aged 13 to 15 years) studying French in a Scottish and a Canadian secondary school revealed many commonalities in the motivational profiles that emerged. However a stepwise discriminant function analysis also revealed some differences. The Canadian pupils’ attributions of success and tendency towards negative attitudes to teachers suggest an overall higher degree of teacher dependency. They also showed a higher interest in foreign languages consistent with higher ratings for instrumental orientation, which may be linked with socio-political differences between the countries in the perceived value of learning another language. Group interviews conducted with volunteers from each sample provided qualitative data for the differentiated and the non-differentiated variables. Findings of the study, it is suggested, reinforce the importance of addressing the social aspect of foreign language study particularly among adolescents.

Contrasting studies of foreign language teacher education have become a growing interest among educationists and researchers in different countries (Yoder, 1992; McKay & Montgomery, 1995; Baker & Giacchino-Baker, 2000; Stachowski & Sparks, 2007; Firmin, M. W., Firmin, R & MacKay, F. M., 2008; LaFond & Dogancay-Aktuna, 2009; Ozek, 2009). Such studies emphasize the importance of comparing and understanding different education programs and enables student teachers to think more globally with respect to their language career. These contrasting studies investigate different aspects of foreign language (FL) teaching programs. The present study reports a comparison of the student teachers of an American and Turkish university regarding their satisfaction and readiness in language teaching, and their attitudes towards language teaching theories and teacher education program. The study aims to discover the teacher trainees’ perceptions with an in-depth understanding and compare the differences among them. Therefore, the researcher employed an interconnection of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Data were collected through self-report questionnaires and interviews. The results indicated that there were some significant differences between the subjects in two groups regarding their readiness, their attitudes towards their education programs and their self-perceptions as teacher candidates.

This study attempts to diagnose the changes witnessed by the American foreign policy in the Middle East, in both of Presidents George W. Bush and Barack Obama administrations, this phase witnessed shift at the level of the visions, beliefs and attitudes. which reflected on the nature of the of dealing with the issues of the region , and embodied the most prominent features of change to adopt the U.S. policy toward the countries of the region in a general principle encapsulates policies , texture pressure in order to establish the values of democracy and human rights as a philosophy and a general principle , and inwardly save its interests in the Middle East , the United States sought for six decades in middle east countries to achieve stability on the expense of democracy , and through the support of totalitarian existing regimes , and cracking down on the opposition .but the events of September 11 forced them to change the approach to foreign policy encouraging democracy and claim to impose reforms. the study exposed to the George W. Bush hard doctrine, unilateral, military tool that give superiority to the implementation of the objectives of its foreign policy, on the contrast of president Obama doctrine with its realistic approach, which sees the need to combine all the tools of foreign policy to implement its objectives, Also this study return to realistic policy in its alliances and legitimacy, as well as dealt approach U.S. political discourse towards the Muslim world, and seek the main topics like, the war on Iraq in 2003and its impact on reformation in the Middle East .And the U.S. position on the Arab Spring, specifically the Syrian revolution. Also this study deals with U.S policy towards Iran Nuclear file, and The Arab-Israeli conflict .The study concluded that foreign policy changes occurred in George W. Bush second presidency is differ from his first presidency, and this transformation take a wider dimension and more comprehensive in Barack Obama's presidency.

Different countries in their educational systems have accumulated extensive experience in using project technology in education. This technology is an alternative to traditional lecture teaching: it helps to connect theoretical material with practice in real life; to change the roles of students and teachers: students have the opportunity to become an active subject in the educational process, and teachers are engaged in organizing, managing and directing this process, and not just broadcasting ready-made information. The purpose of the article is an analytical review of the options for implementing project-based learning for students in Finland, France, Australia, China and the USA described in foreign peer-reviewed journals. A brief excursion into the history of the origin and development of the project-based learning method is given. The main characteristics of different approaches to its application are highlighted, which differ in the attitudes towards solving certain problems, the choice of goals and means of implementing educational projects. The article is an attempt to comprehend and generalize the world experience in the application of project technology in education. The materials of the publication provide an opportunity for managers of the education system of different levels and practicing teachers to get acquainted with the potential and diversity of project-based learning practices in order to adopt the best of them and the most acceptable for Ukrainian realities, adapting them to the conditions of specific educational institutions.

Madrasah is one form of Islamic educational institution that has a long history, originated from an informal education in the form of da'wah Islamiyah, then increased in the form of halaqah, until finally developed in the institution of formal education in the form of madrasah. Among one of the Islamic educational institutions that teach Arabic is Madrasah starting from Ibtida'iyah, Tsanawiyah, and Aliyah levels. In these three levels of education Arabic is presented in a classical manner with different materials tailored to their respective levels. Politically-internationally, Arabic has now been recognized as an international language and is also used as one of the official diplomatic languages ​​in the United Nations (UN) forum. Some non-Arab countries in the world, such as Malaysia, have even acknowledged Arabic in their country and give an appreciation of the existence of Arabic writing in public places. As a branch of science that stands alone, Arabic has a unique systematic and structure. Arabic learning is generally the same as other foreign language learning, which aims to achieve four kinds of skills, namely listening, speaking, reading, and writing. The skill is achieved by a learning process involving important elements such as curriculum, teaching materials, teachers, teaching methods and learning, as well as learning facilities.

The present work is a contribution to the term of Inter-cultural education that presents enormous interest worldwide and more in the countries of Southern Europe. One of these countries that face intensely the migrant problem, is Greece. The number of refugees’ children who finish up a school level in Greece, and in the same time they try to survive is extremely high. For this reason, the aid of supported structures of education for foreign students in Greece, is needed. However, the importance of the intercultural education in Greece with the simultaneous reduction of funds on Greek education, caused a lot of discussions. As an outcome it is aimed to observe the opinions and the attitudes of teachers that are involved in the intercultural educational process in Greece. A parallel research will be carried out also the in public elementary schools of Chios island, that entertain foreign students. Finally, from the results of this research, would try to infer safe conclusions from specific assumptions.

The pandemic affected the most on the student population in the shortest time. The number of students whose studies were discontinued in March 2020 was about 300 million. The number reached to 1.6 billion on April 2020. To provide basic education for the students during the pandemic, many countries transferred to a mandate of distance learning for the education system. Use of different platforms for distance learning has helped reduce learning gaps. The Corona virus has forced educational systems to enter in a mode of digital transformation and to leave physical classrooms. The impact of this situation was felt at every level of the education system, from kindergartens to universities. This situation creates not only challenges, but many opportunities. Learning in the global open space creates new learning environments and the use of new learning materials.A case study was conducted in Israel. Self-prepared questionnaires were given to 123 educators who teach in elementary schools, middle schools and high schools Teachers who participated in case study teach exact sciences (mathematics, physics, science, and technology), multi-text subjects (language, literature and history) and foreign languages (Arabic and English). The purpose of the case study is to examine the habits of using tools for distance learning, to examine whether there is a difference in the habits of using technological tools between teachers at different age groups, to examine teachers' attitudes to distance learning assessment tools and to examine teachers' recommendations for different subjects and different age groups.The findings indicate that middle school and high school teachers prefer close help and support during online learning. High school and middle school teachers would prefer to continue distance learning even when face-to-face teaching is possible, unlike teachers who teach in elementary schools who prefer face-to-face teaching. The recommendations of high school teachers also indicated that it is necessary to increase the support system during online learning. When we examined the differences between the different subjects, we saw that teachers of science and mathematics subjects feel that most students do not take an active part during the lesson. Despite this, teachers that teach humanities subjects report that they feel that students are actively participating in online learning processes. Teachers report that changes must be done in assessment's methods. Teachers also report that during distance learning it is more difficult to follow students' progress.

AbstractIn all educational contexts, technological developments and changes in pedagogical theory mean that any picture of current practice and attitudes must be dynamic. In many countries, the learning outcomes of foreign language courses now include intercultural communicative competence (ICC), although the precise model for teaching ICC varies even across the English-speaking world. Internet-mediated approaches are widely used to support intercultural learning. In China, the geographical scale of the country and the speed and extent of contemporary socio-economic evolution, allied to long-established and distinctive cultures of learning, make the interface of new technologies and intercultural learning objectives particularly interesting and significant. A small-scale study of college teachers’ and learners’ perceptions of intercultural classroom instruction, with a special focus on Internet mediation, was conducted in mid-2007, using questionnaires and semi-structured questions, to explore the professional, personal and technical issues associated with Internet-mediated learning of languages and cultures. The results show that textbooks remain the predominant authority, while Internet tools are used as a source of information rather than a means of communication. Findings suggest recognition by teachers and students of the potential of the medium, and of the validity of intercultural goals for foreign language classes, although there are some divergences between the views of teachers and students. However, it is suggested that national policy, local incentives and resources and above all educational traditions do not yet allow optimal use of Internet-mediated approaches.

High-quality education is one of the main goals of Russia today. To reach it, the educational authorities, textbook and study guides authors and teachers should cooperate to identify the main problems and find their solution. One of the serious challenges of the Russian students is poor knowledge of foreign languages that reduces their chances to continue their education abroad. One of the ways to improve knowledge of a foreign language is to provide motivational and up-to-date educational resources including textbooks and visual aids. This research analyzes ESL textbooks from the point of view of Russia’s image presentation. Several cognitive strategies of the country’s image presentation have been singled out, among the most frequent are inclusion of phenomena of Russian culture along with culture-bound information of other countries; stereotypical representation of Russian culture without modern socio-cultural context; emphasis on Russian scientific achievements; presentation of traditional and historic facts; and emphasis on Russian politics. Students’ attitudes to culture bound materials are revealed in a survey. Recommendations to textbook authors and teachers are provided.

The study aimed at exploring the attitudes and perceptions of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers at public schools in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, in achieving the Kingdom’s ‘2030 Vision’ which relates to the development of education in general and to the EFL discipline in particular. The study adopted the descriptive approach by utilizing a survey tool for the study which consisted of nineteen items divided into four constructs. The study sample consisted of 550 female and 450 male, Saudi government schools EFL teachers from the main regions of the Kingdom. The results of the statistical analysis of the responses of the participants indicated overwhelmingly a high level of positive attitude towards professional development in the teaching of English Language (EL), reaching 91% as well as a near unanimity in the responses of the participants which was reflected in the lack of statistically significant relationship between the responses of the participants towards implementing 2030 vision through the achievement of professional development as well as working towards establishing international networking with teachers of English in various countries around the world. The results also indicated that there are still certain obstacles that may adversely affect the implementation of the vision of Saudi Arabia in 2030. Thus, the researchers have made several recommendations including conducting future research studies that will look into further areas not covered by this study.

This study aims to analyze the need to develop a model of Arabic teaching materials containing the values ​​of multicultural-based character education, especially in Indonesian Foreign Schools (Sekolah Indonesia Luar Negeri) in Jeddah, Riyadh, and Makkah. In this needs analysis, the researcher describes the data obtained from the questionnaires of students and teachers who teach Arabic subjects with 39 respondents. This study indicates that Arabic teaching materials in Indonesian Foreign Schools, especially in Arab countries, need to be developed. Developing Arabic teaching materials with multicultural values ​​is very important to make learning Arabic at Indonesian Foreign Schools easier, more effective, fun, and produce Indonesian diaspora students who have a spirit of nationalism and respect plurality. The development of these teaching materials is manifested in three aspects, namely (1) related to Arabic language teaching materials based on the values ​​of national character education by learning objectives and contextual with the times; (2) aspects of application technology, namely by developing Arabic teaching materials equipped with multimedia learning media such as audio, video, animation, and others to make it easier to learn; (3) aspects of character education, namely Arabic teaching materials that contain character education values, such as religious values, nationalism, honesty, independence, cooperation, integrity, hard work, and responsibility

Problem-based learning is a teaching method in which students’ learn through the complex and open ended problems. These problems are real world problems and are used to encourage students’ learning through principles and concept. PBL is both a teaching method and approach to the curriculum. It can develop critical thinking skill, problem solving abilities, communication skills and lifelong learning. The purpose of this study is to give the general idea of PBL in the context of language learning, as PBL has expanded in the areas of law, education, economics, business, social studies, and engineering. It encourages students to develop skills that can be useful for their future and in practical life within a team environment. For the language classroom in Arab countries, where English is spoken as a foreign language PBL can be very useful. Trained teachers can design problems to meet the needs of the learners, that can be useful to improve English practically in social context.

Recently Michael Scheuer, a former twenty-two-year CIA analyst and headof the agency’s Bin Laden Unit, gave an interview with John Barry of Newsweek.Scheuer observes that a new generation of middle-class, well-educatedMuslims are taking up arms to fight for al-Qaeda. Furthermore, he points outthat the main reason why bin Laden remains at large is because Washingtonrefuses to acknowledge – and tell Americans – that its longstanding policiestoward the Muslim world are the root of the problem. The main quote is:Our leaders say he [bin Laden] and his followers hate us because of whowe are, because we have early primaries in Iowa every four years andallow women in the workplace. That’s nonsense. I don’t think he wouldhave those things in his country. But that’s not why he opposes us. I readbin Laden’s writings and I take him at his word. He and his followers hateus because of specific aspects of U.S. foreign policy. Bin Laden lays themout for anyone to read. Six elements: our unqualified support for Israel;our presence on the Arabian peninsula, which is land they deem holy; ourmilitary presence in other Islamic countries; our support of foreign statesthat oppress Muslims, especially Russia, China and India; our long-termpolicy of keeping oil prices artificially low to the benefit of Western consumersbut the detriment of the Arab people; and our support for Arabtyrannies who will do that.1 (emphasis added)Scheuer’s analysis is supported by opinion polls of the Muslim public.A survey by the Project on International Public Attitudes (PIPA) in April ...

English language is considered as a global language, and with every single day, its users are increasing especially in the Arab world. The present study is exploratory in nature, investigating the effect of motivations on students’ English proficiency. It was meant to see whether there is any significant correlation between this variable as well as students’ English proficiency in the secondary level in Morocco. Additionally, it examines the extent to which there would be differences in language skills, domains and final foreign-language grades among high-school students completing a second year of English as a foreign-language in a foreign context such as the Moroccan one. Oral and written proficiency measures were adopted and administered by the researcher himself and with the help of participating teachers in addition to language supervisors (inspectors). The participants in this study are second year Moroccan EFL students enrolled for the school year 2017.The study incorporates quantitative as well as qualitative approach and has used a proficiency test, questionnaires besides an observational instrument to collect data from respondents. Initially, a total number of about 101 students participated in the study but only 78-ended taking part in the study. The data obtained has been quantitatively and qualitatively analyzed with ANOVA test of Fisher and the statistical package for the social sciences (SPSS). From the findings of the data, the study concludes that Moroccan students have overall differences among the two proficiency groups (High, Low) and study disciplines (Science or Letter). Conclusions and implications about connections among foreign-language proficiency language skills, attitudes, motivations are presented as well as discussed.

In this digitized era, English as a Foreign Languag (EFL) teachers in Indonesia, as in many other countries are anxious to exploit the potential of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to enhance the teaching and learning process. Given the increasing pressure exerted by technological developments on language education, it is important to understand the underlying factors behind teachers’ decisions regarding ICT. Regarding this matter, this study investigates the development as well as the effects of ICT applied in English Department in teaching and learning process. The use of weblog is being applied in the Academic Writing classes for a couple of years now. Students are equipped with the method of teaching through blog. So far, the use of ICT in the classroom often part of a teacher-centered class but it is easy to exploit these tools in learner-centered activities. For this particular case, students have freedom to control themselves in using the internet technology, even though it is still under teachers instructions. The method applied in this study is combination of the qualitative and quantitative. Evidence has been collected through a literature search, students questionnaires and semi interviews designed. The factors which was found to be most importans to these students were; having the lesson more interesting, easier, more fun for them, more diverse, more enjoyable and on top of that is more motivating.

The role of students’ native language (L1) in the second language (L2) classrooms has been a debatable issue for a long time in the field of English Language teaching as a foreign language (EFL). The present study which took place in the United Arab Emirate (UAE), more specifically, at Umm Al-Quwain Educational Zone,(UAQ) aimed at investigating both students’ and teachers’ perceptions and attitudes towards the use of (L1) in the EFL classrooms. To achieve this, the researcher used both qualitative and quantitative research methods. Thus, it surveyed one hundred fifty (150) secondary students and fifty (50) teachers of English and observed three (3) EFL classes. The data were collected through two questionnaires and classroom observations. The classroom observations were intended to reflect the quantity of (L1) use in the (L2) classrooms. The data collected through the questionnaires were analyzed with the aid of frequency and percentage, those collected through the open-ended question of the questionnaires and the classroom observations were sorted and summarized.The findings obtained from classroom observations indicated that the respondents support the well-planned use of Arabic (L1) in certain situations in the EFL classrooms. The questionnaire results revealed that (72%) of the students and (54%) of the teachers felt that Arabic (L1) should be used in their EFL classrooms. The findings also showed that (71% ) of the students and (56%) of the teachers thought that cultural, religious, traditional and political concepts and ideas should be taught by referring to the students’ native language (L1).What is more, almost all the respondents objected to using the (L1) excessively and untimely in (EFL ) classes. The quantitative data on the percentage of (L1) in EFL classes showed that most of the respondents preferred only 10 % use of mother tongue (L1) in a 50- minute class. No teachers and students answered higher than 20% and 40% respectively. In view of these findings, teachers as well as text writers and curricula planners and designers should take the learners’ native language (L1) as a teaching / learning tool.

Many nationsfused withone anotherin history and felt the need to learn each other’s languages due tothis fusion. Turks and Arabs have lived together for centuries and united under the roofs of the same states due to their intersection in many common aspects. Their mutual efforts to learn each other’s languages as a result of developing relations and common grounds havepersevered till the present. In addition to Turks’ efforts to learn Arabic, there have been intense efforts of Arabas to learn Turkish. The endeavors to learn and teach Turkish, which rose with Divan-u Lugati’t-Turk in the past, are now carried out in an abundance of resources in modern areas through technological tools.Although Arabs and Turks lived together for many years, they have had difficulties and problems in learning each other’s languages as their language come from different language families. This study focused on problems encountered in teaching Turkish to Arab students. Data on the problemsexperienced by Turkishlanguage teachers who teach in schools and training centers in Baghdad were collected through interviews. Exam papers, homework, and other works of the students were examined. A survey for teachers was conducted in this regard. The study focused on the problems identified as 14 items in line with the examinations.Keywords: Foreign language, Teaching Turkish, Teaching Turkish in Baghdad.IntroductionOur world is developing rapidly in every aspect. Interactions on matters such as social, economic, education, etc., among nations are at a high level. These interactions have created the need to learn foreign languages. The need for foreign language increased the importance of foreign language education. There have always been problems in teaching language to foreigners. In general, students experience difficulties in differences between their language and the foreign language they try to learn. The problems in this study usually consisted of such problems. Comparison between the foreign language to be learned,and the native language will make it easier to determine the will arise later. Comparisons allow the teacherand the learner to anticipate the difficulty,make preparations,and carry out studies accordingly(Bölükbaş, 2001).Teaching Turkish to the Arabs beganwith the Divan-ü Lügati't-Türk,written by Kasgarli Mahmut. Turks and Arabs felt the need to learn each other's languages because they have lived together for many years.Among the reasons for long life and fusion, there were reasons such as common religion, common land, trade, common goals, cultural affinity, and social life similarity. Both languages have affected each other with the impact of living together. The influence of Turkish on Arabic is seen in the dialects of Arabic rather than the academic Arabic called “Fusha.”The abundance and still intense use of Turkish words in Iraqi dialect among the public revealed the influence of Turkish. As it is known, there were more expeditions to the eastern countries during the reign of Yavuz Sultan Selim,and the Arab population in the Ottoman State increased as a result of these campaigns. However, the most important event of this period was thatthe

Purpose of the Study: The reforms occurred in foreign and domestic education systems over the past decades and the focus on humanistic, student-centered, and developing educational technologies have changed attitudes towards students exhibiting extraordinary abilities. Educational institutions, educational and social programs, public organizations, and foundations have emerged, which have identification, training, and development of gifted students as their main goal. Nowadays, working with gifted students appears to be an important and prioritized educational policy worldwide. The purpose of the article is to identify a new type of teacher-researcher who will be able to work with gifted students and analyze his or her professional skills. Methodology: The leading approach to the study of this problem is a method of historical and logical analysis of regulatory documents of foreign governments and research papers of leading scientists dealing with gifted education issues. Results: The main results of the study are identifying the teachers’ professional and personal positions to work with gifted students and revealing the pedagogical conditions to create educational environment for the development of students' talent. The readiness of a teacher to work with gifted students has been considered. Applications: The authors focus on the specifics of working with gifted students as well as on the analysis of problems of gifted students’ education in different countries. Novelty: The article can be useful for professors, teachers, students, and readers who are interested in the problems of gifted students' education.

In the complex geopolitical situation of the beginning of the 21 century and with the change of the vector of interests towards the countries of the East, attention to all aspects of the life of the peoples of these countries is increasing due to the urgent need to understand their cultures, lifestyle, and the world around them. These peoples are increasingly active in the international arena, their role in various fields is becoming more noticeable, and it is important to interact with them at various levels. To do this, it is necessary to know what this people lives by, what their priority is, what is important or secondary for them. The complexity of intercultural communication lies in the fact that the national character and mentality of representatives of different linguistic cultures is based on the existing realities of a particular people’s life, its moral values and attitudes, through which various ethnic communities identify themselves and fix their place and purpose in this world. Symbols and images reflecting these ideas take either a material or verbal shell and convey an ethnic picture of the world of a particular people, which is completely different from the ideas of other ethnic groups about what surrounds them. To understand a representative of another linguistic consciousness, mastering the vocabulary and grammar of a foreign language may not be accurate enough. Significant elements of language in their semantic part also contain an extra-linguistic component, the socalled background knowledge, which can be gleaned from the history, mythology, literature, folklore of the people with whom we are interacting. This extra-linguistic component, according to the author, is of great importance for understanding the national mentality and national character. It helps to identify other driving forces of the actions of different peoples in the process of intercultural communication, along with their political and economic interests. In this article, the author considers one of the symbols of the national mentality of the Arabs – the coffee tree and its derivative – a coffee drink, which plays an important role in creating a national collective portrait of the Arabic society, as well as makes an attempt to show how and why they occupied such an important place in the Arab national consciousness.

<p class="0abstract">The higher education system around the world is being rapidly developed towards digitalization – from computers to laptops, from laptops to tablets and smartphones. Accordingly, traditional delivery of instruction is being shifted towards blended learning that is being gradually replaced with distance learning, i.e. higher education is moving forward with mobile learning (m-learning) technologies. The introduction of mobile learning became the most topical event in 2020 in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, due to which many countries had to completely move to distance learning in higher education. The purpose of the study is to analyze the prospects for the widespread use of mobile applications in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL) in Russia to Russian and Arab learners. In the course of the study, an online survey based on a questionnaire consisting of four open and closed questions was conducted. An empirical method was applied to collect the research data. The survey was conducted at the Department of Foreign Languages of the Engineering Academy of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (EA PFUR). The total research sample included 200 participants and consisted of: 50 potential employers, 50 Russian and Arab students of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia studying Linguistics (training program code 035700), 50 faculty members, namely teachers of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, the Institute of Foreign Languages of the Moscow State Pedagogical University and the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, as well as 50 administrative staff of the Peoples' Friendship University of Russia. The purpose of the survey was to collect information about the use of mobile applications (Smartphone Apps) and the introduction of mobile learning technology (m-learning) in the process of teaching EFL to students. According to the results of the survey, instructors are actively using mobile technologies in their professional activities and all participants in the learning process are receptive to their introduction in education. At the same time, respondents believe that technical challenges are the major obstacle to the adoption of mobile applications; these problems must be overcome in order to enable more productive use of mobile applications. In this regard, the study of mobile applications that are suitable for specific aspects of learning a foreign language, such as spoken language, reading comprehension, listening or writing, can be considered a promising research area.</p>

Motivation can be considered as one of influential factors in foreign language (FL) learning as it helps to sustain learner’s interest during long and tedious learning process of FL. According to Deci and Ryan (2000), motivation can be categorized into two types; intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The present study aims to investigate intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors of a group of university students in an urban area to learn English. The present study applied a mixed method approach by administering a set of questionnaires and interviews. In addition to a relatively high level of motivation among the participants, the findings of present study show an interest in English language skills and positive attitudes to native speakers of English, English speaking countries, and English learning as intrinsic motivational factors to learn English. On the other hand, the chances of getting better jobs and personal development as extrinsic factors which motivate students to learn English. The present study recommends English teachers as well as educational institutions to provide teaching and learning materials which suited to improve students’ motivation.

Curriculum material is generally considered the subject matter of information, talents, dispositions, understandings, and principles that make up research programs in the field. At a more complex level, the curricula need to contain historical and socio-political strengths, traditions, cultural views, and goals with wide differences in sovereignty, adaptation, and local understanding that encompass a diversity of cultures, laws, metaphysics, and political discourse This study aims to develop a curriculum with local content as a new approach in early childhood science learning. The Local Content Curriculum (LCC) is compiled and developed to preserve the uniqueness of local culture, natural environment, and community crafts for early childhood teachers so that they can introduce local content to early childhood. Research and model development combines the design of the Dick-Carey and Dabbagh models with qualitative and quantitative descriptive analysis. 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The profession of teacher requires a qualitative and special preparation for a specific activity. Therefore, the importance of professional and general competencies of relevant specialists working and intending to work in educational institutions is emerging.The document “Common European Principles for Teacher Competencies and Qualifications” (2005) emphasizes the provision that all educators must be able to work effectively in three overlapping areas of activities: working with information, technology and knowledge, working with people (students, colleagues and other partners), working with society and in society at local, regional, national, European and global levels (Saulėnienė, Žydžiūnaitė, & Katiliūtė, 2006). In order to work successfully, the educator must have cognitive, functional, personal and ethical competencies.In Lithuania, changes and updates of regulations, models and conception of the training and activity of teachers are regularly updated (2004; 2010; 2012; 2015; 2016; 2017; 2018). Teachers’ competencies are summarized in the “Description of Professional Competencies of Teachers” (January 15, 2007); the description highlights common cultural, vocational pedagogical and general competences. In many Lithuanian higher education institutions that train qualified educators, since 2000 the method of improving the action research is used in the study process. This method of qualitative research is also highly appreciated and successfully used by different types of schools in the process of specialist education in many foreign countries. This method is also applicable to general education institutions. This method is described and analysed by Lewin (1948), Corey (1953), Grundy (1988), Callhoun (1994), McLaughlin (1997), Lanshear and Knobel (2004), Kemmis and McTaggart (2005), Creswell (2008), Mills and Ainassian (2009) and others.The aim of this article is to analyse the teachers’ opinion on the application of action research in the study process.To achieve the goal, three objectives have been set:1. to discuss the coherence between the European Qualifications Framework (2005) and the Competences of the Lithuanian teachers (2007);2. to highlight the essence of the method of action research;3. to examine how the students themselves – present and future educators – evaluate the method of action research that proves advantageous to acquire and develop competences.The research analysed 102 reports – final study projects on the improvement of the activity of educators prepared by the students – future educators – of one of Lithuanian higher education institutions from 2007 to 2017. The research was carried out in May 2018.It has been established that in the process of the action research, the educators mostly improved these general competencies of – research activities, reflecting and learning to learn, communication and cooperation; these professional pedagogical competencies as the development of professional development, the use of information technology, recognition of understanding the pupil and his/her progress, motivating and supporting students, planning and improving the content of the subject, teaching/learning process management, assessment of student achievements and progress.In all of the 102 projects submitted by the students, the application of this method in the study process at the higher education institution was positively evaluated.It was emphasized that during this research not only the new knowledge was gained, but also the participants of the research, the learners, have themselves developed and improved, as well the researchers – students – future educators have improved.

It is known that the export of educational services is one of the promising direction in the devel-opment of the education system. On one hand the arrival of foreign students for education demonstrates the relevance of national education, on the other hand it makes possible to identify the most important areas of the system and the ways of its improvement. As a result, educational institutions are being increasingly included in the competition for attract-ing foreign students. Certainly, each country has its particularities in realization of the educational services export caused by national traditions and the modern state of society. In main aspects the Republic of Belarus conserves the traditions of the Soviet Union to provide not only the quality of professional training but also to form personality with certain world outlook. But now all over the world the export of educational services is associated with the possibility of expanding the cultural, economic and political influence on other countries. It is seems that in this conditions experience of the Republic of Belarus (of course, purified from ideology), can be useful for reproduction by other coun-tries. As practice shows the providing of educational services just through training without the pur-poseful work aimed at the assimilation of a certain kind of knowledge and skills is ineffective. Certainly, living and studying in the country of language sooner or later leads to the fact that a foreign citizen will learn a language in some degree, will know the culture and traditions, but as it’s shown in the article the existence of barriers impeding this process must be taken into account. The increase of the quantity of visitors is accompanied by the formation of local diasporas which actually reproduce the socio-cultural atmosphere of native countries and their value attitudes. In these conditions we consider that the most important task is the modernization of the educational process to maximize the integration of the con-tent of training and education with its socio-cultural aspect. To optimize the process of introducing of socio-cultural knowledge in this article we propose the model for the implementation of multicultural education of foreign students. According to the results of experimental and theoretical studies we produce a model of multicultural education including various measures aimed at improving of the quality of education and facili-tating foreign students’ successful socialization in the Republic of Belarus. It should be emphasized that even having a good level of professional training the teachers know the culture of foreign students poorly and, as a consequence, the educational process is monocultural, with-out reliance on a scale of values of students, which badly influences the integration and cultural understand-ing of the country As it is known, the task of the formation of tolerance between bearers of different cul-tures is one of the most actual for modern civilization. It appears that the model proposed in the article will contribute to its solution. In conclusion we’d like to emphasize that the problem of training of foreign students is relevant for all countries. There is a necessity to introduce a system of training which could integrate the capabilities of its socio-cultural aspect with educational one to train the specialists capable to solve professional tasks for the benefit of their country and for "alma mater" country. Key words: multicultural education, export of educational services, national education, tertiary education.

The increasing use of technology for the teaching-learning activity has seen a significant change in the learning approach across the globe including the teaching of English as a foreign/second language. In this context, the teacher makes use of online classes along with the formal or in class approach for EFL learning. Consequently, the blended learning approach has seen an influx of research and considered as a potential area of research for the teachers. As opposed to the sheer use of e-learning, blended learning promotes the use of different technological equipment for EFL instructions in addition to the traditional method or face to face approach. Therefore, several higher learning centers have already started using blended learning to teach EFL learners. However, this phenomenon is more prevalent in the developed nations as compared to the developing countries like Saudi Arabia. Therefore, the author aims to determine the attitudes and perceptions of EFL learners towards the use of blended learning, as an ultimate recipient and recommends it for further implementation based on the findings of this study. The questionnaire has randomly been administered among a total of 70 undergraduate EFL learners of Qassim University, Saudi Arabia. The questionnaire consists of 10 closed ended items. Based on the collected responses of EFL learners against each item a quantitative analysis has been done using SPSS 26. The results indicate that most EFL learners believe that it has a positive impact and make learning more interesting. Further, the study has been concluded with the recommendations and practical implication in EFL learning based on the obtained results.

The problem of forming spiritual and moral values in the educational practice of Germany in the second half of the twentieth century is of theoretical interest and practical value for Russian teachers in terms of using the experience accumulated by foreign colleagues in the course of reforming the national school. The hypothesis of the study was that the various forms of work practiced by teachers of the two countries – the GDR and the FRG, – during this period contributed to the formation of spiritual and moral values among the youth of the two German states. The following research methods were used: literature analysis, scientific and pedagogical interpretation of information contained in sources; comparative method; axiological method that allows to identify the positive content in the scientific subject. Main results of the study. The fundamental difference in socio-political and ideological attitudes that took place in the GDR and the FRG in 1949-1989 determined to a decisive extent the choice of forms and content of educational work carried out in educational institutions in both countries. In the GDR, there was a single comprehensive public school, which was under the full ideological and administrative control of the ruling Socialist United Party of Germany. Special attention was paid to educating the younger generation in the spirit of devotion to the ideals of socialism, rejection of religion and the values of bourgeois society. The Union of Free German Youth and the children's pioneer organization named after Ernst Telman were actively used in the process of socialist education of young people. At the same time, they actually copied the forms and methods of work of the corresponding organizations that operated in the USSR, – the Komsomol and the Lenin Pioneer organization. In Germany, on the contrary, there was a significant number of types of secondary educational institutions, many of which were non-governmental: private, Waldorf, Catholic and Evangelical, etc. Ideological education, aimed, among other things, at the assimilation of spiritual and moral values, was carried out mainly at school, in accordance with the guidelines adopted in this educational institution. The study allowed us to characterize the features of the formation of spiritual and moral values in the educational practice of Germany in the second half of the twentieth century. The significance of the results obtained is that they to a certain extent factual enrich modern Russian historical and pedagogical science. The main conclusion of the study is that in the GDR, the concept of the goal of education was inextricably linked with collective interests and orientation to the socialist ideology, while the liberal-democratic ideology in the FRG gave absolute priority to the individual over the collective. A scientifically formulated study of this approach provides a perspective for further research.

The purpose of the article is to develop a domestic model of society's attitude to disability in the Republic of Kazakhstan. To achieve this goal, the works of a number of foreign and domestic scientists devoted to the attitude of society towards persons with disabilities or developmental disabilities were analyzed. Existing models of approaches to disability in the countries of near and far abroad, as well as in Kazakhstan, were identified and analyzed. It has been established that in world practice there are more than ten models of approaches to disability. It is noted that the existing models of attitudes towards disability have not only certain similarities, but also differences. Practice has shown that society's attitude towards disability depends on social, political conditions, economic opportunities of the state, legislation in the sphere of education, value orientations and accepted cultural norms of society. The study showed that there is no information about domestic scientific works devoted to the issues of training and education of persons with disabilities in Kazakhstan until the 70s of the twentieth century. It was revealed that there are studies on the problems of education and upbringing of persons with disabilities, regulatory support, the formation of the humanistic potential of inclusive education. However, theoretical models of society's attitude towards disabled people and disability have not been developed in Kazakhstan. As a result of the research, the authors have developed theoretical models of approaches to disability in the Republic of Kazakhstan, which cover the time period from the beginning of the 20th century to the present and are most suitable for the historical development of the Republic of Kazakhstan: a medical model (early 20th century and 70s of the 21st century), a social model (80s of the XX century and the beginning of the XXI century), model of inclusion (the beginning of the XXI century to the present). The developed theoretical models of approaches to disability contribute to the success of the development of inclusive education in Kazakhstan. In conclusion, the authors conclude that the developed models of attitudes towards disability in the Republic of Kazakhstan will make a significant contribution to the development of inclusive education and will have practical significance for teachers of inclusive education, educational psychologists, researchers, employees of educational institutions on the training of teaching staff.

With a view to gathering insights for EFL proficiency development amongst Saudi EFL learners, this study reviews the empirical literature on the influence of four key psychological factors on learning English as a foreign language. Specifically, the study addressed the following question: In what ways do the psychological factors of attitude, self-efficacy, anxiety and motivation influence the development of English proficiency amongst university learners in EFL settings?. To this end, 49 research articles published between 1990 and 2021 were selected for a systematic review of the selected factors. The selected studies were conducted in diverse university EFL learning contexts spanning 18 countries. Of this number, the highest numbers of studies (in descending order) falling within the criteria of the review were conducted within the Iranian (9), Chinese (8), Turkish (6) and Saudi (5) contexts. The study found that the psychology of EFL learners at the university level is complex and that there are multiple factors linked to the reviewed factors which need to be taken into account by policymakers, curriculum designers, teacher trainers and teachers to ensure effective EFL learning. The findings of most of the reviewed studies suggest that EFL learning is positively perceived by learners, although obstacles to effective EFL learning do exist and attitudes towards learning English seem to be influenced by a wide range of factors including parental support, gender, level of study, community support and motivation. The reviewed research also suggests a link between strategy-use and EFL learners’ self-efficacy and anxiety management. A key implication of these findings for improving the EFL learning experience in the Saudi context is the need to carry out more qualitative and in-depth studies that can help to map and address the actual issues affecting EFL learners. Further, intervention-based, rather than purely survey-based, research can enable Saudi EFL education providers to understand what pedagogical interventions and strategies can work most effectively in the local settings. Longitudinal studies would also enable researchers to understand whether attitudes, self-efficacy, anxiety and motivation evolve over time, and if they do, then what are the factors influencing such development, whether positive or negative. These understandings are key to creating a transformative EFL learning experience for Saudi university students which in turn determines their prospects of success in the academic setting and future employability.

The article deals with the educational project «American Talks», implemented during 2018-2019 by the non-governmental organization Ukrainian Association for American Studies and the Department of Modern and Contemporary History of Foreign Countries of the Faculty of History, Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv. A series of meetings, lectures, discussions on topical issues of American history and politics, Ukrainian-American relations, the place of personality in the modern world, the formation of leaders and their role in American society are covered. Lecture-discussion «Education at American Universities» by Associate Professor Alexander Komarenko was devoted to discussing opportunities for Ukrainian youth to study at American universities, financing American university education, system of management and coordination of educational projects, correlation of local and federal educational systems. The event in the Framework event within the American Talks project, organized by the Chairman of the Board of NGOs Ukrainian Association for American Studies, Associate Professor Makar Taran, on «The USA and China in the 21st Century: Global Competition of the Superpower of the Present and the Superpower of the Future», was devoted to the most important aspects of the current relations between the two superpowers, prospects for their development and the implications of these processes for international relations. It was emphasized that the US-China relations are the most important bilateral relations of global importance and their significance for the whole world, and for Ukraine in particular, will only grow. An opportunity to become a woman in the American society as an individual, her prospects for education and professional development, and family attitudes toward women who have a successful career was addressed by an event titled «Women’s Careers in the United States: Benefits, Challenges, Opportunities» with American filmmaker, lawyer Sharon Rowven, and producer, director and screenwriter Andrea Blaugrund Nevins. In May 2019, at the Faculty of History of Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv, a lecture-discussion was held by a well-known American journalist, a civil servant of Ukrainian descent, ex-director of the Ukrainian Voice of America service, Adrian Karmazin. This meaningful event was attended by students, studying under the American and European Studies program, as well as alumni, teachers of History Faculty, representatives of the Ukrainian Association for American Studies, specialists in international relations and counteraction to Russian hybrid information warfare against Ukraine. Ukrainian-American Educational Dialogue – a discussion about university-based humanitarian education in Ukraine and the USA between students and teachers of the American and European Studies program at the Taras Shevchenko National University and Nazareth College (State of New York, USA), aimed at informing US colleagues about the history and current development of Ukrainian university education, sharing experience in higher education in the humanities and discussing prospects for cooperation.

Increasing preoccupations and interest manifested for the Romanian language as a foreign language compose a focused and clear expression in the volume “Romanian as a foreign language. Methodology and cultural applicability”, launched at the Turku University publishing house, Finland (2018). The editors, Paul Nanu (Department of Romanian Language and Culture, University of Turku, Finland) and Emilia Ivancu (Department of Romanian Studies of the Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznań, Poland) with this volume, continue a series of activities dedicated to the promotion of the Romanian language and culture outside the country borders. This volume brings together a collection of articles, previously announced and briefly presented at a round table organized by the two Romanian lectors, as a section of the International Conference “Dialogue of cultures between tradition and modernity”, (Philological Research and Multicultural Dialogue Centre, Department of Philology, Faculty of History and Philology, “1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia). The thirteen authors who sign the articles are teachers of Romanian as a foreign language, either in the country or abroad. The challenge launched by the organisers pointed both at the teaching methods of Romanian as a foreign language – including the authors’ reflections upon the available textbooks (Romanian language textbooks) and the cultural implications of this perspective on the Romanian language. It is probably no accident that the first article of the aforementioned volume – “Particularities of teaching Romanian as a foreign language for the preparatory year. In quest of “the ideal textbook’’ (Cristina Sicoe, University of the West, Timișoara) – brings a strict perspective upon that what should be, from the author’s point of view, “the ideal textbook”. The fact that it does not exist, and has little chances ever to exist, could maybe be explained by the multitude of variables which appear in practice, within the didactic triangle composed by teacher – student – textbook. The character of the variables is the result of particular interactions established between the components of the triad. A concurrent direction is pointed out by the considerations that make the object of the second article, “To a new textbook of Romanian language as a foreign language’’ (Ana-Maria Radu-Pop, University of the West, Timișoara). While the previous article was about an ideal textbook for foreign students in the preparatory year of Romanian, this time, the textbook in question has another target group, namely Erasmus students and students from Centres of foreign languages. Considering that this kind of target group “forms a distinct category”, the author pleads for the necessity of editing adequate textbooks with a part made of themes, vocabulary, grammar and a part made of culture and civilization – the separation into parts belongs to the author – that should consider the needs of this target group, their short stay in Romania (three months to one year) and, last but not least, the students’ poor motivation. These distinctive notes turn the existent RFL textbooks[1] in that which the author calls “level crossings”, which she explains in a humorous manner[2]. Since the ideal manual seems to be in no hurry to appear, the administrative-logistic implications of teaching Romanian as a foreign language (for the preparatory year) should be easier to align with the standards of efficiency. This matter is addressed by Mihaela Badea and Cristina Iridon from the Oil & Gas University of Ploiești, in the article “Administrative/logistic difficulties of teaching RFL. Case study”. Starting from a series of practical experiences, the authors are purposing to suggest “several ideas to improve existent methodologies of admitting foreign students and to review the ARACIS criteria from March 2017, regarding external evaluation of the ‘Romanian as a foreign language’ study programme”. Among other things, an external difficulty is highlighted (common to all universities in the country), namely the permission to register foreign students until the end of the first semester of the academic year, meaning around the middle of February. The authors punctually describe the unfortunate implications of this legal aspect and the regrettable consequences upon the quality of the educational act. They suggest that the deadline for admitting foreign students not exceed the 1st of December of every academic year. The list of difficulties in teaching Romanian as a foreign language is extremely long, reaching sensitive aspects from an ethical perspective of multiculturalism. This approach belongs to Constantin Mladin from Ss. Cyril and Methodius University in Skopje, Macedonia, who writes about “The role of the ethical component in the learning process of a foreign language and culture. The Macedonian experience”. Therefore, we are moving towards the intercultural competences which, as the author states, are meant to “adequately and efficiently round the acquired language competences”. In today’s Macedonian society, that which the author refers to, a society claimed to be multiethnic, multilingual and pluriconfessional, the emotional component of an intercultural approach needs a particular attention. Thus, reconfigurations of the current didactic model are necessary. The solution proposed and successfully applied by Professor Constantin Mladin is that of shaking the natural directions in which a foreign language and culture is acquired: from the source language/culture towards the target language/culture. All this is proposed in the context in which the target group is extremely heterogeneous and its “emotional capacity of letting go of the ethnocentric attitudes and perceptions upon otherness” seem to lack. When speaking about ‘barriers’, we often mean ‘difficulty’. The article written by Silvia Kried Stoian and Loredana Netedu from the Oil & Gas University of Ploiești, called “Barriers in the intercultural communication of foreign students in the preparatory year”, is the result of a micro-research done upon a group of 37 foreign students from 10 different countries/cultural spaces, belonging to different religions (plus atheists), speakers of different languages. From the start, there are many differences to be reconciled in a way reasonable enough to reduce most barriers that appear in their intercultural communication. Beneficial and obstructive factors – namely communication barriers – coexist in a complex communicational environment, which supposes identifying and solving the latter, in the aim of softening the cultural shock experienced within linguistic and cultural immersion. Several solutions are recommended by the two authors. An optimistic conclusion emerges in the end, namely the possibility that the initial inconvenient of the ethnical, linguistic and cultural heterogeneity become “an advantage in learning the Romanian language and acquiring intercultural communication”. Total immersion (linguistic and cultural), as well as the advantage it represents as far as exposure to language is concerned, is the subject of the article entitled “Cultural immersion and exposure to language”, written by Adina Curta (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia). Considered to be a factor of rapid progress and effectiveness of acquisition, exposure to language that arises from the force of circumstances could be extended to that what may be named orchestrated exposure to language. This phrase is consented to reunite two types of resources, “a category of statutory resources, which are the CEFRL suggestions, and a category of particular resources, which should be the activities proposed by the organizers of the preparatory year of RFL”. In this respect, we are dealing with several alternating roles of the teacher who, besides being an expert, animator, facilitator of the learning process or technician, also becomes a cultural and linguistic coach, sending to the group of immersed students a beneficial message of professional and human polyvalence. A particular experience is represented by teaching the Romanian language at the Sapienza University of Rome, Italy. This experience is presented by Nicoleta Neșu in the article “The Romanian language, between mother tongue and ethnic language. Case study”. The particular situation is generated by the nature of the target group, a group of students coming, on the one hand, from Romanian families, who, having lived in Italy since early childhood, have studied in the Italian language and are now studying the Romanian language (mother tongue, then ethnic language) as L1, and, on the other hand, Italian mother tongue students who study the Romanian language as a foreign language. The strategies that are used and the didactic approach are constantly in need of particularization, depending on the statute that the studied language, namely the Romanian language, has in each case. In the area of teaching methodology for Romanian as a foreign language, suggestions and analyses come from four authors, namely Eliana-Alina Popeți (West University of Timișoara), “Teaching the Romanian language to students from Romanian communities from Serbia. Vocabulary exercise”, Georgeta Orian (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia) “The Romanian language in the rhythm of dance and hip-hop music”, Coralia Telea (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia), “Explanation during the class of Romanian as a foreign language” and Emilia Ivancu (Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznań, Poland), “Romanian (auto)biographic discourse or the effect of literature upon learning RFL”. The vocabulary exercise proposed to the students by Eliana-Alina Popeți is a didactic experiment through which the author checked the hypothesis according to which a visual didactic material eases the development of vocabulary, especially since the textual productions of the students, done through the technique that didactics calls “reading images”, were video recorded and submitted to mutual evaluation as well as to self-evaluation of grammar, coherence and pronunciation. The role of the authentic iconographic document is attested in the didactics of modern languages, as the aforementioned experiment confirms once again the high coefficient of interest and attention of the students, as well as the vitality and authenticity of interaction within the work groups. It is worth mentioning that these students come from the Serbian Republic and are registered in the preparatory year at the Faculty of Letters, History and Theology of the West University of Timișoara. Most of them are speakers of different Romanian patois, only found on the territory of Serbia. The activity consisted of elaborating written texts starting from an image (a postcard reproducing a portrait of the Egyptian artist Eman Osama), imagining a possible biography of the character. In the series of successful authentic documents in teaching-learning foreign languages, there is also the song. The activities described by Georgeta Orian were undertaken either with Erasmus students from the preparatory year at the “1 Decembrie 1989” University of Alba Iulia, or with Polish students (within the Department of Romanian Studies in Poznań), having high communication competences (B1-B2, or even more). There were five activities triggered by Romanian songs, chosen by criteria of sympathy with the interests of the target group: youngsters, late teenagers. The stake was “a more pleasant and, sometimes, a more useful learning process”, mostly through discovery, through recourse to musical language, which has the advantage of breaking linguistic barriers in the aim of creating a common space in which the target language, a language of “the other”, becomes the instrument of speaking about what connects us. The didactic approach, when it comes to Romanian as a foreign language taught to students of the preparatory year cannot avoid the extremely popular method of the explanation. Its story is told by Coralia Telea. With a use of high scope, the explanation steps in in various moments and contexts: for transmitting new information, for underlining mechanisms generating new rules, in evaluation activities (result appreciation, progress measurements). Still, the limits of this method are not left out, among which the risk of the teachers to annoy their audience if overbidding this method. Addressing (Polish) students from the Master’s Studies Program within the Romania Philology at the Adam Mickiewicz University of Poznań, Emilia Ivancu crosses, through her article, the methodological dimensions of teaching Romanian as a foreign language, entering the curricular territory of the problematics in question by proposing an optional course entitled Romanian (auto)biographic discourse”. Approaching contact with the Romanian language as a foreign language at an advanced level, the stakes of the approach and the proposed contents differ, obviously, from the ones only regarding the creation and development of the competence of communication in the Romanian Language. The studied texts have been grouped into correspondence/epistolary discourse, diaries, memoires and (auto)biography as fiction. Vasile Alecsandri, Sanda Stolojan, Paul Goma, Neagoe Basarab, Norman Manea, Mircea Eliade are just a few of the writers concerned, submitted to discussions with the help of a theoretical toolbox, offered to the students as recordings of cultural broadcasts, like Profesioniștii or Rezistența prin cultură etc. The consequences of this complex approach consisted, on the one hand, of the expansion of the readings for the students and, on the other hand, in choosing to write dissertations on these topics. A “tangible” result of Emilia Ivancu’s course is the elaboration of a volume entitled România la persoana întâi, perspective la persoana a treia (Romania in the first person, perspectives in the third person), containing seven articles written by Polish Master’s students. Master’s theses, a PhD thesis, several translations into the Polish language are also “fruits” of the initiated course. Of all these, the author extracted several conclusions supporting the merits and usefulness of her initiative. The volume ends with a review signed by Adina Curta (1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba Iulia), “The Romanian language, a modern, wanted language. Iuliana Wainberg-Drăghiciu – Textbook of Romanian language as a foreign language”. The textbook elaborated by Iuliana Wainberg-Drăghiciu (“1 Decembrie 1918” University of Alba Iulia) respects the CEFRL suggestions, points at the communicative competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic) described for levels A1 and A2, has a high degree of accessibility through a trilingual dictionary (Romanian-English-French) which it offers to foreign students and through the phonetic transcription of new vocabulary units.

Educational conditions reflect society’s cultural traditions and political system, in turn affecting society’s development. The development of the younger generation is guided by way of education, for which reason working out educational policy requires the participation of society’s various interest groups. This article analyses changes in the teaching of history in the transitional period from the Soviet era to restored independent statehood. The development of subject content, the complicated role of the history teacher, the training of history teachers, and the start of the renewal of textbooks and educational literature are examined. The aim is to ascertain in retrospect the developments that took place prior to the restoration of Estonia’s independence, in other words the first steps that laid the foundation for today’s educational system. Legislation, documents, publications, and media reports preserved in the archives of the Ministry of Education and Research and the Archival Museum of Estonian Pedagogics were drawn upon in writing this article, along with the recollections of teachers who worked in schools in that complicated period. These recollections were gathered by way of interviews (10) and questionnaires (127). Electronic correspondence has been conducted with key persons who participated in changes in education in order to clarify information, facts, conditions and circumstances. The discussion in education began with a congress of teachers in 1987, where the excessive regulation of education was criticised, along with school subjects with outdated content, and the curriculum that was in effect for the entire Soviet Union. The resolution of the congress presented the task of building a national and independent Estonian school system. The congress provided an impetus for increasing social activeness. An abundance of associations and unions of teachers and schools emerged in the course of the educational reform of the subsequent years. After the congress, the Minister of Education, Elsa Gretškina, initiated a series of expert consultations at the Republic-wide Institute for In-service Training of Teachers (VÕT) for reorganising general education. The pedagogical experience of Estonia and other countries was analysed, new curricula were drawn up and evaluated, and new programmes were designed for school subjects. The solution was seen in democratising education: in shaping the distinctive character of schools, taking into account specific local peculiarities, establishing alternative schools, differentiating study, increasing awareness and the relative proportion of humanities subjects and foreign language study, better integrating school subjects, and ethical upbringing. The problems of schools where Russian was the language of instruction were also discussed. The Ministry of Education announced a competition for school programmes in 1988 to find innovative ideas for carrying out educational reform. The winning programme prescribed compulsory basic education until the end of the 9th grade, and opportunities for specialisation starting in the second year of study in secondary school, that is starting in the 11th grade. Additionally, the programme prescribed a transition to a 12-grade system of study. Schools where Russian was the language of instruction were to operate separately, but were obliged to teach the Estonian language and Estonian literature, history, music and other subjects. Hitherto devised innovative ideas for developing Estonian education were summed up in the education platform, which is a consensual document that was approved at the end of 1988 at the conference of Estonian educators and in 1989 by the board of the ESSR State Education Committee. The constant reorganisation of institutions hindered development in educational conditions. The activity of the Education Committee, which had been formed in 1988 and brought together different spheres of educational policy, was terminated at the end of 1989, when the tasks of the committee were once again transferred to the Ministry of Education. The Republic-wide Institute for In-service Training of Teachers, the ESSR Scientific-Methodical Cabinet for Higher and Secondary Education, the ESSR Teaching Methodology Cabinet, the ESSR Preschool Upbringing Methodology Cabinet, and the ESSR Vocational Education Teaching and Methodology Cabinet were all closed down in 1989. The Estonian Centre for the Development of Education was formed in July of 1989 in place of the institutions that were closed down. The Institute for Pedagogical Research was founded on 1 April 1991 as a structural subunit of the Tallinn Pedagogical Institute, and was given the task of developing study programmes for general education schools. The Institute for the Scientific Research of Pedagogy (PTUI) was also closed down as part of the same reorganisation. The work of history and social studies teachers was considered particularly complicated and responsible in that period. The salary rate of history teachers working in secondary schools was raised in 1988 by 15% over that of teachers of other subjects, since their workload was greater than that of teachers of other subjects – the renewal of teaching materials did not catch up with the changes that were taking place in society and teachers themselves had to draw up pertinent teaching materials in place of Soviet era textbooks. Articles published in the press, newer viewpoints found in the media, published collections of documents, national radio broadcasts, historical literature and school textbooks from before the Second World War, and writings of notable historians, including those that were published in the press throughout the Soviet Union, were used for this purpose. Teachers had extensive freedom in deciding on the content of their subject matter, since initially there were no definite arrangements in that regard. A history programme group consisting of volunteer enthusiasts took shape at a brainstorming session held after the teachers’ congress. This group started renewing subject matter content and working out a new programme. The PTUI had already launched developmental work. There in the PTUI, Silvia Õispuu coordinated the development of history subject matter content (this work continued until 1993, when this activity became the task of the National Bureau of Schools). The curriculum for 1988 still remained based on history programmes that were in effect throughout the Soviet Union. The greatest change was the teaching of history as a unified course in world history together with themes from the history of the Estonian SSR. The first new curriculum was approved in the spring of 1989, according to which the academic year was divided up into three trimesters. The school week was already a five-day week by then, which ensured 175 days of study per year. The teaching of history began in the 5th grade and it was taught two hours per week until the end of basic school (grades 5 – 9). Compulsory teaching of history was specified for everyone in the 10th grade in secondary school, so-called basic education for two hours a week. The general and humanities educational branches had to study history three hours a week while the sciences branch only had to study history for two hours a week. Students were left to decide on optional subjects and elective subjects based on their own preferences and on what the school was able to offer. The new conception of teaching history envisaged that students learn to know the past through teaching both in the form of a general overview as well as on the basis of events and phenomena that most characterise the particular era under consideration. The teacher was responsible for choosing how in-depth the treatment of the subject matter would be. The new programmes were implemented in their entirety in the academic year of 1990/1991. At the same time, work continued on improving subject programmes. After ideological treatments were discarded, the aim became to make teaching practice learner-oriented. The new curriculum was optional for schools where the language of instruction was Russian. Recommendations for working with renewed subject content regarding Estonian themes in particular were conveyed by way of translated materials. These schools mostly continued to work on the basis of the structure and subject content that was in effect in the Soviet Union, teaching only the history of the Soviet Union and general history. Certain themes from Estonian history were considered in parallel with and on the basis of the course on the history of the Soviet Union. The number of lessons teaching the national official language (Estonian) was increased in the academic year of 1989/1990 and a year later, subjects from the Estonian curriculum started being taught, including Estonian history. The national curriculum for Estonian basic education and secondary education was finally unified once and for all in Estonia’s educational system in 1996. During the Soviet era, the authorities attempted to make the teaching profession attractive by offering long summer breaks, pension insurance, subsidised heating and electricity for teachers in the countryside, and apartments free of charge. This did not compensate the lack of professional freedom – teachers worked under the supervision of inspectors since the Soviet system required history teachers to justify Soviet ideology. The effectiveness of each teacher’s work was assessed on the basis of social activeness and the grades of their students. The content and form of Sovietera teacher training were the object of criticism. They were assessed as not meeting the requirements of the times and the needs of schools. Changes took place in the curricula of teacher training in 1990/1991. Teachers had to reassess and expand their knowledge of history during the transitional period. Participation in social movements such as the cultural heritage preservation movement also shaped their mentality. The key question was educational literature. The government launched competitions and scholarships in order to speed up the completion of educational literature. A teaching aid for secondary school Estonian history was published in 1989 with the participation of 18 authors. Its aim was set as the presentation of historical facts that are as truthful as possible from the standpoint of the Estonian people. Eesti ajalugu (The History of Estonia) is more of a teacher’s handbook filled with facts that lacks a methodical part, and does not include maps, explanations of terms or illustrations meant for students. The compendious treatment of Estonian history Kodulugu I and II (History of our Homeland) by Mart Laar, Lauri Vahtre and Heiki Valk that was published in the Loomingu Raamatukogu series was also used as a textbook in 1989. It was not possible to publish all planned textbooks during the transitional period. The first round of textbooks with renewed content reached schools by 1994. Since the authors had no prior experience and it was difficult to obtain original material, the authors of the first textbooks were primarily academic historians and the textbooks had a scholarly slant. They were voluminous and filled with facts, and their wording was complicated, which their weak methodical part did not compensate. Here and there the effect of the Soviet era could still be felt in both assessments and the use of terminology. There were also problems with textbook design and their printing quality. Changes in education did not take place overnight. Both Soviet era tradition that had become ingrained over decades as well as innovative ideas could be encountered simultaneously in the transitional period. The problem that the teaching of history faced in the period that has been analysed here was the wording of the focus and objectives of teaching the subject, and the balancing of knowledge of history, skills, values and attitudes in the subject syllabus. First of all, Soviet rhetoric and the viewpoint centring on the Soviet Union were abandoned. The so-called blank gaps in Estonian history were restored in the content of teaching history since it was not possible to study the history of the independent Republic of Estonia during the Soviet era or to gain an overview of deportations and the different regimes that occupied Estonia. Subject content initially occupied a central position, yet numerous principles that have remained topical to this day made their way into the subject syllabus, such as the development of critical thinking in students and other such principles. It is noteworthy that programmes for teaching history changed before the restoration of Estonia’s independence, when society, including education, still operated according to Soviet laws. A great deal of work was done over the course of a couple of years. The subsequent development of the teaching of history has been affected by social processes as well as by the didactic development of the teaching of the subject. The school reform that was implemented in 1987–1989 achieved relative independence from the Soviet Union’s educational institutions, and the opportunity emerged for self-determination on the basis of curricula and the organisation of education.

AbstractThis is a very brief summary of a study that focused on the development of education for library, archive, and information services (LIS) in Iraq, where significant progress seemed to have been made before the Second Gulf War, despite the country’s increasing economic problems and political isolation in the last decades of the twentieth century. It drew evidence from the published literature, previously unexplored archival material, and discussions with some of the participants. The study examined professional education for librarianship, documentation, information and archives work against the background not only of the evolution of LIS, but also in the broader context of the country’s national, economic, and social development. It examined trends in international assistance for library development, and briefly reviewed parallel developments in other Arab countries to provide a benchmark.Based on this wide ranging examination, it drew some tentative conclusions about the issues that fostered the development of LIS education in Iraq, including: the attitude of government and university officials; the organisation and allocation of state finance; the development of literacy and the education system; the duration and nature of external support; the activities of foreign experts; the development of the cadre of teachers of LIS; the role played by advocacy and opportunism. The study also identified a number of factors that have held back development, including: the pressures on the state budget; the absence of a comprehensive government strategic plan to develop a culture of reading and independent learning; and a lack of flexibility in the management of the state education system.An understanding of these factors, and the approach to identifying them, may contribute to strengthening the foundations of LIS education in both developing countries and those that have an established infrastructure.

"Gulf nations are described as blessed twice, firstly by the discovery of hydrocarbon resources and secondly by convenient access to the expatriate pipeline coming from nearby countries (Arnold & Shah, 1986). Throughout recent history, dependency on temporary foreign workers in the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) has steadily increased. In the education sector, Arab expatriate teachers account for a significant percentage of the teacher workforce, therefore playing a critical role in determining the quality of the national education systems. This policy paper presents results from a study exploring the perceptions of Arab expatriate teachers in the UAE and Qatar regarding the push and pull factors drawing them to work in the two countries and the implications of this phenomenon for education systems and these countries overall."

Abstract How does funding from foreign aid shape public opinion toward development programs? Existing research suggests that citizens of recipient countries prefer aid-funded programs, particularly if they view the domestic government as corrupt and ineffective. However, these studies have been implemented in contexts where major donors are relatively popular. We extend this literature by analyzing attitudes toward foreign aid in the Arab world, where Western donors are often polarizing and disliked. A survey experiment conducted in Egypt provides some evidence that respondents approve less of public health programs when they are funded by the US or French development agencies instead of the Egyptian government. We find that this effect is driven by distrust of Western donors’ motives. Descriptive survey data from the Arab Barometer reinforce the experimental findings by illustrating the importance of anti-Americanism and perceptions of donor motives in heightening opposition to aid. This research note contributes to a growing literature on public opinion toward foreign aid in recipient countries.