Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Tariff differentiated by zone"

The analyses of economic impact following the application by the Republic of Tatarstan population and equated consumers of straight-line one-zone tariff and straight-line two-zone tariff for the consumed electric energy is provided. The conclusion is made on necessity of tariffs adoption in the RT differentiated by the time zones and to incentivize the consumers to participate in regulating the load schedule of the electric energy suppliers, to facilitate energy saving and improving nature protecting conditions in the region. The comparison of economic results from application of different tariffs by population in 8 Russian Federation regions is provided.

This paper extends the work of Wang (2002) by considering a differentiated Stackelberg model, when the leader firm is an inside innovator and licenses its new technology by three options, that is, fixed-fee licensing, royalty licensing, and two-part tariff licensing. The main contributions and conclusions of this paper are threefold. First of all, this paper derives a very different result from Wang (2002). We show that, with a nondrastic innovation, royalty licensing is always better than fixed-fee licensing for the innovator; with a drastic innovation, royalty licensing is superior to fixed-fee licensing for small values of substitution coefficientd; however whendbecomes closer to 1, neither fee nor royalty licensing will occur. Secondly, this paper shows that the innovator is always better off in case of two-part tariff licensing than fixed-fee licensing no matter what the innovation size is. Thirdly, the innovator always prefers to license its nondrastic innovation by means of a two-part tariff instead of licensing by means of a royalty; however, with a drastic innovation, the optimal licensing strategy can be either a two-part tariff or a royalty, depending upon the differentiation of the goods.

This paper explores the impact of input trade liberalization on export product scope of firms in industries with different scope for product differentiation. Firm- and industry-specific tariffs are measured to reflect cost effect (intensive margin) and new input effect (extensive margin) of input tariff reductions. Using tariff data and product-level trade data for 2002-2006, we find that while firms in differentiated product scope expand export product lines greatly, firms in non-differentiated product sector do not expand export product scope significantly, which is robust to different definitions of varieties.

Abstract This paper considers the two-part tariff licensing by an innovating firm to its potential competitor in a differentiated mixed duopoly, in which one firm sets a quantity and the other firm charges a price. Based on the development cost incurred by the rival, we derive the optimal behavior of the firms under full information case and partial information case respectively. Information difference on the equilibrium strategies is also investigated.

Актуальність теми. На сьогоднішні день нерівномірний характер має попит споживачів на електричну потужність. Це призводить до зниження надійності та економічності функціонування енергосистеми, а також погіршенням якості електричної енергії. В зв’язку з цим виникає потреба в регулюванні попиту споживачів на електричну потужність. Викликало необхідність періодичного застосування адміністративних обмежень попиту споживачів на електричну енергію те, що в різні періоди часу енергетична галузь України була дефіцитною. Це пояснюється тим, що, з одного боку, на електростанціях недостатня кількість палива, а з іншого – фізична зношеність значної кількості генеруючого обладнання електростанції, а також електричних мереж. Несприятлива структура генеруючих потужностей спричинила те, що в об’єднаній системі України спостергіється серйозний дефіцит електричної потужності. Мається на увазі, що енергосистемa України недостатньо забезпечена необхiдною кількiстю маневруючих блокiв, які, в свою чергу, можуть швидко виходити нa робочий режим з горячого або холодного резервів, а також змінювати величину виробленої електричної потужності в широких межах. Тому, все більш складною задачею для української енергетичної галузі стає якість електричної енергії, а також надійність забезпечення попиту споживачів на електричну потужність. Відомо, що існують різні методи та способи керування попитом на електричну потужність, основними з яких є методи структурно-технологічного управління, адміністративно-правові методи, економічні та організаційні. Якщо розглядати структурно-технологічні методи, то мова йде про розвантаження енергосистеми при аварійних ситуаціях або дифіциті електричної потужності. Для цього було б доцільно збільшити кількість маневруючих потужностей в ОЕС України, а саме побудові нових гідроакумулюючих електростанцій, побудова та використання парогазових та газотурбінних генеруючих установок, а також модернізації існуючого обладнання ГЕС. Але, на жаль, цей шлях потребує значних фінансових та матеріальних витрат, а також достатньо тривалого часу. Тому необхідно застосовувати такі методи керування попитом споживачів на електричну потужність, які передбачають найменшу кількість витрат та часу, при цьому залишаються ефективними. Мова йде, про економічні методи керування. Таким чином, одним із таких засобів економічного керування попитом споживачів є тарифна система країни, а саме диференційовані за зонами доби тарифи. Диференційовані тарифи в Україні діють з 1995 року. В той час, використання таких тарифів мало сильний стимулюючий ефект у споживачів, при чому з кожним роком їх кількість ставала все більшою. Але, з часом, потреби споживачів на електричну енергію змінились, при чому, диференційовані за зонами доби, а саме коефіцієнти кожної зони, довгий час залишались не змінними. В зв’язку з цим, багато вчених аналізують характер впливу диференційованих тарифів на вирівнювання добових графіків, але разом з тим дана проблема залишається актуальною, адже зонні тарифи втратили свої стимулюючі ефекти до залучення нових споживачів, при чому, їх кількість, навіть, ставала меншою. Відповідно до цього було запропоновано новий спосіб адресного керування попитом споживачів на електричну потужність. Мета й завдання дослідження. Метою роботи є удосконалення механізму адресного керування попитом споживачів на електричну потужність. Для досягнення зазначеної мети були вирішені наступні завдання: • аналiз сучасного стaну eнергeтичної галузi України; • оцінка використання диференційованих за зонами доби тарифів; • визначення характеру та ступеню впливу груп споживачів на формування добового графіка електричного навантаження енергосистеми; • порівняння існуючих меж тарифних зон доби із сучасними потребами споживачів; • удосконалено концепцію та методичні основи побудови та використання мeхaніiму адресного кeрування рeжимами споживання eлeктричної потужностi; • удосконалено розрaхунок коeфіцієнту участi та коефіцiєнту рoзпoдiлу. Об’єкт дослідження. Процеси керування режимами споживання електричної потужності в енергетичній системі. Предмет дослідження. Методи та способи керування режимами споживання електричної потужності в енергетичній системі. Методи дослідження. Методи кореляційного та дисперсійного аналізу, а також математичної статистики застосовуються для визначення характеру та ступеню впливу основних груп споживачів на нерівномірність графіків електричного навантаження енергосистеми; дослідження характеру та ступеню протидії навантаження споживачів, які використовують диференційовані за зонами доби тарифи відповідно до зміни попиту на потужність споживачів, які не використовують ці тарифи; oцiнки пoтeнцiaлу eкoнoмії витрaт eнeргoсистеми на вирoбництвo електричної енергії, яку можливо отримати в результаті вирівнювання нерівномірності її графіка навантаження. Мeтoди встановлення довірчих інтервалів та групування годинних навантажень за допомогою критерія Стьюдента використовуються для виявлення фактичних зон доби зі статистично різним рівнем електричного навантаження енергосистеми та груп споживачів. Методи узагальнення та логічного підходу, методи моделювання графіків електричного навантаження, методи оптимального програмування застосовуються для використання засобу адресного керування режимами споживання електричної потужності в енергосистемі Наукова новизна одержаних результатів. Удосконалено метод визначення тривалості та меж фактичних зон доби зі статистично різним рівнем електричного навантаження, що базується на групуванні погодинних значень навантаження енергосистеми та споживачів електроенергії. Удосконалено показник, який дозволяє оцінити ступінь протидії електричного навантаження «дифтарифних» та «недифтарифних» споживачів. Визначено кількісні показники, а саме коефіцієнт участі та коефіцієнт розподілу, які дозволяють оцінити участь кожного із учасників запропонованого механізму адресного керування попитом споживачів у вирівнюванні нерівномірності графіка електричного навантаження енергосистеми. Практичне значення одержаних результатів. Для ефективного стимулювання споживачів до вирівнювання нерівномірності графіка електричного навантаження ОЕС України може бути застосовано запропоновану концепцію та методичні основи. Також, вона має новий напрямок розвитку ринкових методів керування режимами споживання електричнох потужності в енергосистемі.
Actuality of theme. To date, consumer demand for electricity is uneven. This leads to a decrease in the reliability and efficiency of the functioning of the grid, as well as the deterioration of the quality of electric energy. In connection with this, there is a need to regulate the demand of consumers for electric power. The necessity of the periodic application of administrative constraints on consumer demand for electricity was the fact that the energy sector of Ukraine was scarce at different times. This is explained by the fact that, on the one hand, there is insufficient amount of fuel at power plants, and on the other hand - physical deterioration of a significant amount of generating equipment of the power plant, as well as electric networks. The unfavorable structure of generating capacities was caused by the fact that in the united system of Ukraine there is a serious shortage of electric power. It is understood that Ukraine's energy system is insufficiently equipped with the required number of maneuvering blocks, which, in turn, can quickly enter the operating mode of hot or cold reserves, and also change the amount of electric power produced in a wide range. Therefore, the quality of electric energy, as well as the reliability of ensuring the demand of consumers for electric power, becomes an increasingly complex task for the Ukrainian energy sector. It is known that there are different methods and methods for controlling demand for electric power, the main of which are methods of structural and technological management, administrative and legal methods, economic and organizational. If we consider structural and technological methods, then we are talking about the unloading of the power system in emergency situations or the dipole of electric power. For this purpose, it would be advisable to increase the number of maneuvering capacities in the UES of Ukraine, namely the construction of new hydroelectric power stations, the construction and use of steam and gas turbine generating units, as well as the modernization of the existing equipment of the hydroelectric power station. But, unfortunately, this path requires significant financial and material costs, as well as a sufficiently long time. Therefore, it is necessary to apply such methods of controlling the demand of consumers for electric power, which provide the least amount of time and expenses, while remaining effective. It's about the economic management methods. Thus, one of such means of economic management of consumer demand is the tariff system of the country, namely tariffs differentiated by zones of the day. Differentiated tariffs in Ukraine have been in force since 1995. At that time, the use of such tariffs had a strong stimulating effect on consumers, with what each year their number became more and more. But, over time, the needs of consumers for electric energy have changed, with that, differentiated by zones of the day, namely, the coefficients of each zone, for a long time remained unchanged. In this regard, many scientists analyze the effect of differentiated tariffs on the equalization of daily charts, but at the same time, this problem remains relevant, because zone tariffs have lost their stimulating effects to attract new consumers, and at the same time, their number is even less. Accordingly, a new method of address management of consumer demand for electric power was proposed. The purpose and tasks of the study. The aim of the work is to improve the mechanism of address management of consumer demand for electric power. To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved: • analysis of the current state of the Ukrainian energy sector; • estimation of the use of tariff-differentiated zones; • determination of the nature and degree of influence of groups of consumers on the formation of a daily schedule of electric load of the power system; • Comparison of the existing boundaries of the tariff zones of the day with the modern needs of consumers; • The concept and methodical bases of the construction and use of the mechanism of address control of electric power consumption modes have been improved; • The calculation of the participation coefficient and the distribution coefficient has been improved. Object of study. Processes of control of modes of consumption of electric power in the power system. Subject of study. Methods and methods for controlling the demand of electric power consumers in the energy system. Research methods. Methods of correlation and dispersion analysis, as well as mathematical statistics, are used to determine the nature and extent of the impact of major consumer groups on the unevenness of the schedules of the electric load of the power system; the study of the nature and degree of counteraction of the load of consumers, which use differentiated by the zones of the day tariffs in accordance with the change in demand for the power of consumers who do not use these tariffs; Estimating the potential of energy saving in electricity generation for electricity production, which can be obtained as a result of equalizing the unevenness of its loading schedule. Methods for establishing confidence intervals and clustering of hourly loads using Student's criterion are used to identify the actual days of the day with a statistically different level of electrical load of the power system and consumer groups. Methods of generalization and logical approach, methods of modeling electric power schedules, methods of optimal programming are used for the use of address management tools for power consumption in the grid. Scientific novelty of the obtained results. The method of determining the duration and limits of actual days of the day with a statistically different level of electric load, based on the grouping of hourly values of the load of the power system and consumers of electricity, has been improved. The indicator, which allows to assess the degree of counteraction to the electric load of "diffariffic" and "non-dipharmary" consumers, is improved. The quantitative indicators, namely, the coefficient of participation and the distribution coefficient, which allow estimating the participation of each of the participants in the proposed mechanism of address management of consumer demand in the alignment of the unevenness of the schedule of the electric load of the grid. The practical value of the results. For the effective stimulation of consumers to equalize the uneven schedule of electric loading of the UES of Ukraine, the proposed concept and methodical bases can be applied. Also, it has a new direction in developing market-based methods for controlling electricity consumption regimes in the grid.

Desenvolvida no âmbito da linha de pesquisa Metrologia para Energia, a presente dissertação de mestrado tem como objetivo validar os benefícios da tecnologia da termoacumulação como alternativa técnica e economicamente viável para deslocamento de cargas elétricas em períodos de grande utilização. O projeto de pesquisa teve como motivação o estudo de alternativas tecnológicas para viabilizar tarifas diferenciadas. A metodologia utilizada incluiu a revisão da literatura especializada sobre regulação tarifária e termoacumulação; desenvolveu estudos de sistemas de distribuição subterrâneos e aéreos situados em regiões de grande demanda de energia elétrica no horário comercial e desenvolveu análise de sensibilidade técnico-econômica visando a proposição de alternativas tarifárias e políticas de deslocamento de carga. O trabalho se desenvolveu no contexto da segunda revisão tarifária do setor elétrico, que busca repartir os ganhos de eficiência obtidos pelos agentes do setor elétrico com os seus consumidores. Dentre os resultados do trabalho destacam-se: (i) a comprovação da viabilidade da aplicação da termoacumulação em sistemas de climatização, (ii) a redução de custos de operação e implantação de subestações de energia elétrica para consumidores de sistemas de refrigeração e (iii) e proposição de uma tarifa diferenciada que permite a mudança do perfil de carga de sistemas de refrigeração comerciais. Estudos realizados mostraram que a termoacumulação pode gerar redução dos custos de energia elétrica da ordem de 30 a 45 por cento. Como conclusões, o trabalho reconhece a importância de se implantar políticas que privilegiem novas alternativas tarifárias e ressalta os benefícios que resultam da adoção dessa tecnologia alternativa para o meio ambiente.
Studies have shown that thermo-accumulation is an attractive technology to increase the electric power load factor which can lower tariff billings in electricity retailing (30-45 percent), the motivation for this research project. The aim of the present M.Sc. dissertation is to validate the technological benefits of thermo-accumulation applied to the electric sector as an economically feasible alternative for power load displacement at peak mode. The methodology included a literature survey on tariff billings and the regulation of the electric sector; a study of aerial and underground distribution systems at locations of high power load demand; a technical-economic analysis (consumption and tariff) of power substations. Developed within the context of tariff billing revision where the electric sector shared energy-efficient gains with customers, the research project suggests alternate tariff schemes and power load displacement policies. Three major results were found: (i) the feasibility of thermo-accumulation in acclimatization; (ii) the reduction of operational cost of electricity for commercial air-conditioning users; (iii) a proposal for differentiated retailing tariff billings. To highlight the conclusions of the work, the use of the thermo-accumulation technology by electric companies was shown to be unmistakable. On the one hand it provides better tariff schemes for consumers and on the other it is environmentally friendly.

This master thesis evaluates the incentives of a newly implemented market controlled network tariff by analyzing consumption data and constructing a time-differentiated debiting model. The tariff was implemented by Sandviken Energi Elnät AB and the thesis evaluates its customers consumption data compared to data provided by Sundsvall Elnät AB. The differences in data is evaluated by statistical tests of Students t-test, Bayesian t-test and χ2-test with the result that no statistically significant change in user pattern can be found and thus an elucidation of the incentives must be made in the form of a hourly time-differentiated debating model. The thesis also evaluates the cost incentives of the model compared to spot prices where it is shown that the tariff model can benefit much from the spot prices hourly incentives in its hourly time-differentiated model. Five time-differentiated models were constructed and presented where three uses a color coding scheme. The conclusion is that a color coded time-differentiated tariff should give the costumers clear and cost-effective incentives.

У дипломній роботі здійснено проект енергоефективної системи електропостачання кормоцеху промислового підприємства ТОВ «Агрокорм» та розглянуто заходи, що направлені на електрозбереження та вирівнювання добового графіка навантаження. Вирішені основні питання з електропостачання і захисту силового енергоощадного електрообладнання кормоцеху. Вибрано однотрансформаторну KTП 250-10/0,4 кВ. Проведений розрахунок освітлювального навантаження на базі сучасних світлодіодних промислових світильників Highbay 200. Також, проведений розрахунок струмів короткого замикання, перевірено захисну та комутаційну апаратуру на чутливість до струмів КЗ, на автоматичне спрацьовування і відключаючу здатність. Здійснилося вирівнювання нерівномірності графіка електричного навантаження за рахунок оптимізації основних критеріїв моделі оптимізації: дисперсія графіка електричного навантаження зменшилася на 26,4%, збільшився коефіцієнт заповнення та зменшився коефіцієнт максимуму.
In diploma work the project of the energy-efficient system of power supply to feeding room of industrial enterprise of LTD «Agrofeed» is carried out and events that is sent to electro-maintenance and smoothing of day's load-graph are considered. The decided basic questions are from a power supply and defence of power energy-efficient electrical equipment to feeding room. The onetransformer is chosen KTS 250-10/0.4 kV. Conducted calculation of the lighting loading on the base of modern light-emitting-diode industrial lamps of Highbay 200. Also, conducted calculation of currents of short circuit, a protective and interconnect apparatus is checked for a sensitiveness to the currents of short circuit, on an automatic wearing-out and disconnecting ability. Smoothing of unevenness of chart of the electric loading came true due to optimization of basic criteria of model of optimization: dispersion of chart of the electric loading diminished on 26,4%, a fillfactor increased and the coefficient of maximum diminished.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T13:23:24Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Diego Dantas Amorim.pdf: 1504381 bytes, checksum: 14563c0e29e0cebba743b1afa803507a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-05-17
O conhecimento da variabilidade espacial de atributos químicos e físicos do solo pode ser uma ótima ferramenta para auxílio no manejo das culturas de importância agronômica. A partir de mapas de isocores pode-se traçar estratégias de manejo, adubação e calagem, podendo propiciar à planta um melhor desenvolvimento e rendimento. O experimento foi conduzido em uma lavoura de pimenta-do-reino da variedade Bragantina, plantada no espaçamento 3,0 x 1,8 m (1852 plantas ha-1), sob Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo distrófico, localizada no município de São Mateus - ES. As análises de solo foram realizadas no Laboratório de Solos e Análise Foliar (LAGRO) e no Laboratório de Física do solo situados no Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo da Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (CEUNES-UFES). Instalou-se uma malha retangular de 100 x 120 m (12.000 m2) com 126 pontos georreferenciados com distâncias mínimas de 5 x 5 m, a malha amostral apresenta declividade variando de 3 a 10%. Em cada ponto amostral foram coletadas amostras de solo para análise química do solo onde foi determinado valores de pH, H+Al, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SB, V, t, T e m. Para cada ponto de amostragem coletou-se ainda uma amostra indeformada na profundidade de 0,00-0,20 m para a determinação da densidade do solo (Ds), volume total de poros (VTP), macroporos (Macro) e microporos (Micro). O estudo da resistência do solo à penetração (Rp1 e Rp2) foi realizado em cada ponto amostral, com sua respectiva umidade volumétrica (U1 e U2) do solo nas camadas de 0,00-0,20 e 0,020-0,40 m. Uma calagem foi realizada na área estudada, de acordo com mapa de Necessidade de Calagem (NC), a taxa diferenciada para a avaliação da influência da necessidade de calagem nos atributos químicos do solo. Objetivou-se descrever a variabilidade espacial de atributos químicos e físicos de uma lavouRA de pimenta-do-reino sob Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo distrófico. Verificou-se dependência espacial moderada para as variáveis Macroporos, Microproros, densidade do solo, umidade nas duas camadas; forte para volume total de poros e resistência ao penetrômetro na camada de 0,00-0,20, se apresentando fraca para a mesma na camada de 0,20-0,40. Tais variáveis apresentaram alcances de 29,1, 33,81, 39,22, 99,59, 22,33, 25,44, 10,38 e 23,31 m para os atributos físicos, respectivamente. Evidenciou-se correlação espacial negativa entre a produtividade e a Ds. Com a calagem diferenciada, conseguiu-se distribuir melhor o calcário na área segundo a NC para cada zona de manejo
Knowledge of the spatial variability of chemical and physical properties of soil, can be a great tool to aid in the management of crops of agronomic importance. From Contour maps showed we can strategize management, fertilizatilizing and liming, the plant may provide a better growth and yield. The experiment was conducted in a field of black pepper variety Bragantina, planted at 3.0 x 1.8 m spacing (1852 plants ha-1), in Latossolo Vermelho-Amarelo distroférrico, located in City of São Mateus - ES. The soil analysis will be performed at the Laboratory of Soil and Foliar Analysis and the Soil Physics Laboratory at the Centro Universitário Norte do Espírito Santo, Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (CEUNES-UFES). Installed a rectangular grid of 100 x 120 m (12.000 m2) with 126 georeferenced points, apart from each other at distances of 5 x 5 m, 10 x 10 m and 20 x 20 m with geo minimum distance of 5 x 5 m, the sampling grid has slope ranging from 3 to 10%. At each sampling point were collected soil samples for chemical analysis of soil chemical analysis shall consist of pH values, H + Al, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+, SB, V, T , and T m. For each sampling point was collected sample has a depth in the 0.10-0.20 deformed for the determination of bulk density, total pore volume, macropores and micropores. Study was conducted on the resistance to penetration was performed on each sample point, with their respective water content in the soil layers from 0.00-0.20 and 0.020-0.40 m. A liming was made in the study area, according to the statement of need for liming, the fees for the evaluation of the influence of lime requirement on soil chemical properties. The objective was to describe the spatial variability of chemical and physical attributes of a field of black pepper kingdom under Latossolo vermelho-amarelo distrófico. There was moderate spatial dependence for variables macropores, Microproros, bulk density, soil moisture in two layers; strong for total porosity and soil resistance in the layer of 0.00 to 0.20, appearing weak to the same layer from 0.20 to 0.40. These variables had ranges of 29.1, 33.81, 39.22, 99.59, 22.33, 25.44, 10.38 and 23.31 m for the physical attributes, respectively. It was proven negative spatial correlation between productivity and Ds. With the different liming, we were able to better distribute the limestone in the area under the need liming for each management area

The past decade has seen a significant increase in the emergence of English Language Learners (ELLs) in the United States. Nationally, a disparity in achievement exists between ELLs and non-ELLs. Relatedly, this problem was evident in a northeastern school district, where ELLs had not made Adequate Yearly Progress 2 years in a row. The purpose of this study was to examine how much time English as Second Language (ESL) teachers spend on a variety of best instructional practices. Constructivism, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, and Tomilinson's differentiated instruction were the frameworks used to guide this research. A within-group design was utilized to identify how much time 25 ESL educators spent on 5 types of instructional practices. The Survey of Instructional Practices for ESL/ELD Teachers for Grades K-12 was used to collect data. A 1-way analysis of variance revealed statistically significant differences between the amounts of time ESL teachers spent on the 5 instructional practices. The greatest time was spent on individualized instructional activities and a variety of educational tasks. Less time was spent on small group activities, and the least amount of time was spent on inquiry-based activities and technology activities. Findings supported the creation of a professional development for ESL teachers at the local site focusing on (a) best instructional practices for teaching ESL students, (b) professional learning community network of support, and (c) resources to support educators in their lesson planning of instructional activities. The study findings and culminating project may positively affect social change by improving ESL instruction at the local site and ultimately decreasing the disparity in achievement between ELL and non-ELL students.

La différenciation entre les États membres de l’Union européenne s’est progressivement transformée en un leitmotiv du débat sur l’avenir de l’intégration. Ce débat a resurgi avec l’activation de la clause du retrait par le Royaume-Uni, qui pose dans un cadre renouvelé la question de la compatibilité du processus de création d’une « union sans cesse plus étroite » avec la possibilité pour les États membres d’emprunter différentes voies d’intégration. L’objectif de la présente étude est d’apporter un éclairage sur cette question, en se focalisant sur l’amplification des manifestations de la différenciation en droit positif. La première partie de l’étude vise à cerner la tension entre l’uniformité du statut d’État membre de l’Union et la participation asymétrique des États aux actions engagées pour la réalisation des objectifs assignés à l’Union. La différenciation s’avère ainsi un facteur de relativisation de l’homogénéité du statut d’État membre, sans néanmoins mettre en cause son unicité en tant que catégorie juridique. La seconde partie s’intéresse aux effets de la différenciation sur la structure de l’Union. La prise en compte de la différence d’implication des États n’est pas sans incidence sur le système institutionnel et juridique de l’Union, sans que cela traduise un désordre affectant l’intégrité de l’Union. Il devient alors évident que, dans la creatio continua que constitue la construction européenne, la différenciation pose une question de degré, plutôt que de principe
Differentiation between the Member States of the European Union has gradually turned into a leitmotif of the debate regarding the future of the European integration. This debate re-emerged in the context of the activation of the withdrawal clause by the United Kingdom, by raising once more the question of the compatibility of the "ever closer union" concept with the possibility for the Member States to follow different paths of integration. The aim of this study is to clarify this question by focusing on the amplification of the various forms of differentiation in positive law. The first part of the study aims to identify the contrast between the uniformity of the EU membership and the asymmetrical participation of the Member States in actions undertaken to achieve the objectives assigned to the Union. Differentiation proves thus to be a relativizing factor of the homogeneity of the Member State's status, without, however, questioning its uniqueness as a legal category. The second part of the study focuses on the effects of differentiation on the structure of the Union. The different extent of participation of each Member State in EU policies has an impact on the Union's institutional and legal framework, even though this impact does not create a disorder affecting the integrity of the Union as such. It is thus apparent that within the creatio continua of the European construction, differentiation poses more a question of degree rather than principle

The revolution in Ecuadorian shoe industry represents a big challenge because of the proliferation of imported products. This tariff advantage put the Ecuadorian entrepreneurs in a comfort zone, evidencing a stagnation in the evolution of products with differentiation strategies in opposition to globalized products. To this problem are added limiting factors such as raw materials and imported inputs. The current work studies the situation of the Ecuadorian entrepreneurs of the National Camera of Footwear in the Tungurahua province in order to know its reality and determine strengths and weaknesses of the sector and strategies to promote the productive matrix of Ecuador. The research exposes the impact that a proposed product can have from a strategic vision of differentiation through sustainability of Ecuadorian footwear.

Indo-Pacific constructions within nation-states change over time. We contend that under President Obama, the US largely imagined the Indo-Pacific as a super-region or ‘non-space’; a neo-liberal ‘mare nullius’. During this earlier period, the US promoted the free flow of trade and security arrangements across this non-space, articulating a particularly non-differentiated version of globalization, a sea beyond territorialization (at least rhetorically). Under President Trump this has changed significantly: the region has shifted beyond the exclusive realm of the free market and towards a neo-mercantilist state with its first (and perhaps only) priority being economic and national security for the US. We posit that the Indo-Pacific has been refashioned as a definitive alliance, rather than Obama’s fluid zone, or ‘non-region’. In Trump’s Indo-Pacific, lesser states have been designated as either being ‘in’ or ‘out’ of this US-centred alliance—battle and trading lines are now more clearly visible.

Urbanization in Kingston since independence, as the previous chapter demonstrated, has placed a very heavy burden on the already disadvantaged lower class. This burden is expressed in their dependence on the informal sector of employment, high rates of unemployment, rental of high-density accommodation (or outright squatting), shared access to toilet facilities, and lack of piped-water connections in the tenements—all these problematic characteristics piling up in the downtown areas—quintessentially in West Kingston. There is clearly a stratification of living conditions ranging from affluence in the uptown suburbs via a modicum of comfort in the middle zone around Half Way Tree and Cross Roads to outright deprivation in the downtown neighbourhoods. It was argued in the previous chapter that this stratification of living conditions is underpinned by class-differentiated neighbourhoods; as this chapter will show, these circumstances mesh with—and reinforce—colour-class stratification and cultural pluralism, or what I have called plural stratification (to distinguish it from class stratification alone). After the Second World War, it became the conventional wisdom among Caribbean social scientists (of local birth) to depict Jamaica—and the Windward and Leeward Islands—as colour-class stratifications. This had the advantage of linking these Caribbean stratifications to occupational/class systems in the US and Europe, while pointing to a colonial history of colour differentiation, which shadowed class and reinforced it. So, the upper class was white or pass-as-white, the middle class brown and black, and the lower class black with some brown (Henriques 1953: 42). A number of racially or ethnically distinct groups originally fell outside this colour-class stratification, but had, over time, been accommodated within it: Jews were absorbed into the upper class, as were the Syrian professionals; Chinese, the remaining Syrians, and a few East Indians were middle class; the majority of East Indians were lower class. Two further aspects of colour-class need underlining. There was a tendency for its advocates to regard class as unproblematic and consensual, as in the American tradition of social analysis (Parsons 1952). In short, the whole colour-class system was dependent upon the almost complete acceptance by each group of the superiority of the white, and the inferiority of the black (Henriques 1953).

Since 1995, the Brazilian government has regulated a differentiated model for selling electricity with the objective of stimulating free competition. Widespread in recent years, with less restrictive adhesion requirements, the so-called free market allows the consumer to customize the contract, contemplating price, demand and supply period, established in a flexible way. Thus, the customer has the freedom to negotiate according to his needs, weighing costs and benefits. This paper describes the migration process from the Regulated Contracting Environment (RCE) to the Free Contracting Environment (FCE) and the savings achieved by a consumer of subgroup A4 and green tariff mode in the concession area of Light, which operates in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Statistical methods and artificial neural networks were employed in forecasting the consumption series, in the period from 2016 to 2019, to identify the best contracting conditions. Specifically, the long and short-term memory networks (LSTM) obtained the best performance with validation error of less than 1%. With simulated RCE data, we show the financial advantage consumers would have if they had not yet migrated to the FCE.

The change in the structure of land use in arid regions of the Rostov region during the XX - early XXI centuries is considered. Based on the processing of extensive materials of land registration and agricultural statistics, an analysis was made of the reduction of sown areas and changes in the structure of crops. The comparison of the indicators of ecologically balanced anthropogenic load in the steppe zone with the data for the Rostov region has been carried out. A differentiated assessment of the ecological and economic consequences of the crisis dynamics of land use is given.

The effectiveness and efficiency of CEFTA 2006, even after almost a decade and a half, are far from utilising the potential. Member States act more as competitors than as partners, manifested by a significant number of formal and informal non-tariff barriers. There is no true will to fully exploit the potential offered by the free trade zone. This is also reflected in the low utilisation of financial resources envisaged for joint cross-border cooperation projects of IPA I and IPA II funds. All countries focus their international exchanges through trade with the EU, and intra-CEFTA trade is focused only on exports. The EU is making efforts to connect more tightly countries by supporting mini-Schengen project for Western Balkans. The paper will try to answer the questions: what economic benefits can the mentioned model bring and is politics a significant obstruction? The comparative regression analysis of the impact of the exchange of goods and services on the economic development of the member states for CEFTA 1992 and CEFTA 2006 will be presented in the paper. The analysis will be done by using the SPSS statistical program.

Dynamic impact loading of woven composites leads to mesoscale damage such as interlaminar transverse cracks and intralaminar tow-tow delamination cracks. At the microscale, this damage may be modeled as fracture between [90/90] and [0/90] unidirectional composite laminates. Microscale finite element model (FEM) resolution of dynamic impact at structural length scale is intractable, but mesoscale FEM resolution is possible with current computational resources. However, mesoscale cohesive zone modeling of this damage requires appropriate tractionseparation laws. These laws are predicted in this work with fiber length-scaleresolved FEMs, which include residual stress, experimentally measured, ratedependent, nonlinear matrix behavior, and experimentally measured, computationally validated, rate-dependent fiber-matrix interface properties. The J-integral from elastoplastic fracture mechanics is computed under mode I and mode II loading and differentiated to determine the traction-separation laws.

Проводится функциональное зонирование Япономорского региона как потенциальной зоны опережающего развития в условиях разворота России на Восток. Дается характеристика выделенных функциональных зон (районов), определяются приоритетные виды хозяйственной деятельности в их пределах. Оцениваются основные факторы пространственной организации хозяйства и расселения населения в прибрежных зонах региона. В числе основных элементов специфичного и территориально дифференцированного природноресурсного потенциала прибрежных районов Япономорского региона России рассматриваются ресурсы географического пространства, биоресурсы моря, минеральные ресурсы шельфа и прибрежных территорий и древесные и пищевые ресурсы леса прибрежных территорий. Отмечается определяющая роль территориальноакваториальных сочетаний ресурсов и географического пространства в его долгосрочном развитии, обусловливающая морехозяйственную направленность развития экономики. Рассматривается современное состояние развития морехозяйственных структур, отмечается доминирующая роль ресурсодобывающих и транспортногеополитических функций в этом уникальном регионе России. Оценивается современное состояние развития морехозяйственных структур, созданных с учетом ресурсов географического пространства, приводятся отдельные экономические характеристики портов и отмечаются основные проблемы развития морского транспорта в регионе. Приводится схема функционального зонирования Япономорского региона, дается краткое описание всех выделенных зон и отмечаются их приоритетные хозяйственные функции с учетом совокупности факторов развития. Резюмируется, что практически все функциональные зоны Япономорского региона имеют значительные природноресурсные предпосылки устойчивого развития, и в обозримой перспективе вся рассматриваемая территория должна рассматриваться как зона опережающего развития Тихоокеанской России с доминированием транспортногеополитических функций. Functional zoning of the Japan Seas region is being conducted as a potential zone of advancing development under the conditions of turn of Russia to the East. The characteristic of the allocated functional zones (areas) is given. The priority economic activities in their limits are defined. The major factors of the spatial organization of the economy and population settling in the coastal zones of the region are estimated. Among the main elements of the specific and geographically differentiated naturalresource potential of Russias coastal areas of the Sea of Japan the author considers the resources of a geographical space, marine bioresources, mineral resources of the shelf and coastal areas, and wood and food resources of the coastal forests. The defining role of territorialaquatorial combinations of resources and geographical space in its longterm development, causing the marine economic direction of development of economy, is marked. The modern condition of development of marine economic structures is considered. A dominating role of transportgeopolitical functions in this unique region of Russia is marked. The current state of the development of the marine economic structures, created with due consideration of the resources of the geographical space, is assessed. Some economic characteristics of the ports and the main problems of the development of maritime transport in the region are given. A scheme of functional zoning of the Sea of Japans region with a brief description of all the allocated zones and their priority economic functions, taking into account a combination of development factors, is given. It is summarized that almost all functional zones of the Sea of Japans region have significant natural resource prerequisites for sustainable development. In the foreseeable future, the whole territory under consideration should be regarded as a priority development zone of Pacific Russia with prevailing transport geopolitical functions.

Проводится функциональное зонирование Япономорского региона как потенциальной зоны опережающего развития в условиях разворота России на Восток. Дается характеристика выделенных функциональных зон (районов), определяются приоритетные виды хозяйственной деятельности в их пределах. Оцениваются основные факторы пространственной организации хозяйства и расселения населения в прибрежных зонах региона. В числе основных элементов специфичного и территориально дифференцированного природноресурсного потенциала прибрежных районов Япономорского региона России рассматриваются ресурсы географического пространства, биоресурсы моря, минеральные ресурсы шельфа и прибрежных территорий и древесные и пищевые ресурсы леса прибрежных территорий. Отмечается определяющая роль территориальноакваториальных сочетаний ресурсов и географического пространства в его долгосрочном развитии, обусловливающая морехозяйственную направленность развития экономики. Рассматривается современное состояние развития морехозяйственных структур, отмечается доминирующая роль ресурсодобывающих и транспортногеополитических функций в этом уникальном регионе России. Оценивается современное состояние развития морехозяйственных структур, созданных с учетом ресурсов географического пространства, приводятся отдельные экономические характеристики портов и отмечаются основные проблемы развития морского транспорта в регионе. Приводится схема функционального зонирования Япономорского региона, дается краткое описание всех выделенных зон и отмечаются их приоритетные хозяйственные функции с учетом совокупности факторов развития. Резюмируется, что практически все функциональные зоны Япономорского региона имеют значительные природноресурсные предпосылки устойчивого развития, и в обозримой перспективе вся рассматриваемая территория должна рассматриваться как зона опережающего развития Тихоокеанской России с доминированием транспортногеополитических функций. Functional zoning of the Japan Seas region is being conducted as a potential zone of advancing development under the conditions of turn of Russia to the East. The characteristic of the allocated functional zones (areas) is given. The priority economic activities in their limits are defined. The major factors of the spatial organization of the economy and population settling in the coastal zones of the region are estimated. Among the main elements of the specific and geographically differentiated naturalresource potential of Russias coastal areas of the Sea of Japan the author considers the resources of a geographical space, marine bioresources, mineral resources of the shelf and coastal areas, and wood and food resources of the coastal forests. The defining role of territorialaquatorial combinations of resources and geographical space in its longterm development, causing the marine economic direction of development of economy, is marked. The modern condition of development of marine economic structures is considered. A dominating role of transportgeopolitical functions in this unique region of Russia is marked. The current state of the development of the marine economic structures, created with due consideration of the resources of the geographical space, is assessed. Some economic characteristics of the ports and the main problems of the development of maritime transport in the region are given. A scheme of functional zoning of the Sea of Japans region with a brief description of all the allocated zones and their priority economic functions, taking into account a combination of development factors, is given. It is summarized that almost all functional zones of the Sea of Japans region have significant natural resource prerequisites for sustainable development. In the foreseeable future, the whole territory under consideration should be regarded as a priority development zone of Pacific Russia with prevailing transport geopolitical functions.

Морское побережье является одной из самых выраженных естественных географических границ, которая одновременно разделяет и связывает географические структуры суши морей или океанов. В основе формирования типов природопользования в прибрежных зонах, как и на других типах географического пространства, лежит природноресурсный потенциал. Природноресурсный потенциал и типы природопользования как явления пространственнодифференцированные должны быть рассмотрены, прежде всего, в рамках классических географических подходов и оценок, таких как районирование территории и акватории. При этом пространственные сочетания наземных и морских природных, природноресурсных компонентов рассматриваются как важнейшие предпосылки инфраструктурного и хозяйственного развития прибрежных регионов. Необходимым этапом природноресурсного районирования является выявление границ, при пересечении которых существенно меняются природные ресурсы и условия. Данная работа выполнена на примере рассмотрения минеральных ресурсов прибрежных муниципальных образований и является частью исследования природноресурсных сочетаний зоны сушаокеан Дальнего Востока России в рамках изучения пространственной дифференциации факторов, условий и ограничений формирования и развития структур природопользования в прибрежной зоне Тихоокеанской России с учетом воздействия экстремальных природных процессов и явлений. Дана сравнительная характеристика месторождений минерального сырья российской части побережья Японского моря. Определена их видовая и географическая структура. На основе того, что месторождения минерального сырья сгруппированы в 8 основных ресурсных групп ввыполнено районирование российской части побережья Японского моря по сочетанию основных видов минеральных ресурсов. Выделены типы муниципальных образований по сочетанию минеральных ресурсов и показаны особенности каждого из них. Выделены шесть районов по сочетанию минеральных ресурсов. В связи с необходимостью учета географической особенности в сочетании со спецификой минеральных ресурсов, северной и южной частям территории одного типа районов присвоены свои собственные названия. По результатам исследования была построена карта. The seacoast is one of the most pronounced natural geographical boundaries, which divides and connects simultaneously the geographical structures of the land, seas or oceans. The formation of the types of nature management in coastal zones, as well as on other types of geographical space, is based on the natural resource potential. Being spatially differentiated phenomena, the natural resource potential and the types of environmental management should be considered, first of all, within the framework of classical geographical approaches and assessments, such as zoning of the territory and water areas. In this case, spatial combinations of the land and sea natural, naturalresource components are considered as the most important prerequisites for the infrastructure and economic development of coastal regions. Identification of borders, at the intersection of which the natural resources and conditions change significantly, is a necessary stage of natural resource zoning. This work is carried out by example of consideration of mineral resources of coastal municipal unions and appears to be a part of studies of naturalresource combinations of the landocean zone of the Russian Far East in the framework of studies of spatial differentiation of factors, conditions and restrictions of formation and development of structures of nature management in the coastal zone of Pacific Russia, taking into account the influence of extreme natural processes and phenomena. The comparative characteristic of mineral deposits of the Russian part of the coast of the Sea of Japan is given. Their species and a geographical structure are determined. Based on the fact that the mineral deposits are grouped into eight main resource groups, zoning of the Russian part of the coast of the Sea of Japan by a combination of the main types of mineral resources is performed. The types of municipalities are allocated by a combination of mineral resources and their features are shown. Six areas are singled out by a combination of mineral resources. Due to the need to take into account the geographical features in combination with the specifics of mineral resources, the northern and southern parts of the territory of one type of areas have obtained their own names. According to the results of the studies, the map has been compiled.

Морское побережье является одной из самых выраженных естественных географических границ, которая одновременно разделяет и связывает географические структуры суши морей или океанов. В основе формирования типов природопользования в прибрежных зонах, как и на других типах географического пространства, лежит природноресурсный потенциал. Природноресурсный потенциал и типы природопользования как явления пространственнодифференцированные должны быть рассмотрены, прежде всего, в рамках классических географических подходов и оценок, таких как районирование территории и акватории. При этом пространственные сочетания наземных и морских природных, природноресурсных компонентов рассматриваются как важнейшие предпосылки инфраструктурного и хозяйственного развития прибрежных регионов. Необходимым этапом природноресурсного районирования является выявление границ, при пересечении которых существенно меняются природные ресурсы и условия. Данная работа выполнена на примере рассмотрения минеральных ресурсов прибрежных муниципальных образований и является частью исследования природноресурсных сочетаний зоны сушаокеан Дальнего Востока России в рамках изучения пространственной дифференциации факторов, условий и ограничений формирования и развития структур природопользования в прибрежной зоне Тихоокеанской России с учетом воздействия экстремальных природных процессов и явлений. Дана сравнительная характеристика месторождений минерального сырья российской части побережья Японского моря. Определена их видовая и географическая структура. На основе того, что месторождения минерального сырья сгруппированы в 8 основных ресурсных групп ввыполнено районирование российской части побережья Японского моря по сочетанию основных видов минеральных ресурсов. Выделены типы муниципальных образований по сочетанию минеральных ресурсов и показаны особенности каждого из них. Выделены шесть районов по сочетанию минеральных ресурсов. В связи с необходимостью учета географической особенности в сочетании со спецификой минеральных ресурсов, северной и южной частям территории одного типа районов присвоены свои собственные названия. По результатам исследования была построена карта. The seacoast is one of the most pronounced natural geographical boundaries, which divides and connects simultaneously the geographical structures of the land, seas or oceans. The formation of the types of nature management in coastal zones, as well as on other types of geographical space, is based on the natural resource potential. Being spatially differentiated phenomena, the natural resource potential and the types of environmental management should be considered, first of all, within the framework of classical geographical approaches and assessments, such as zoning of the territory and water areas. In this case, spatial combinations of the land and sea natural, naturalresource components are considered as the most important prerequisites for the infrastructure and economic development of coastal regions. Identification of borders, at the intersection of which the natural resources and conditions change significantly, is a necessary stage of natural resource zoning. This work is carried out by example of consideration of mineral resources of coastal municipal unions and appears to be a part of studies of naturalresource combinations of the landocean zone of the Russian Far East in the framework of studies of spatial differentiation of factors, conditions and restrictions of formation and development of structures of nature management in the coastal zone of Pacific Russia, taking into account the influence of extreme natural processes and phenomena. The comparative characteristic of mineral deposits of the Russian part of the coast of the Sea of Japan is given. Their species and a geographical structure are determined. Based on the fact that the mineral deposits are grouped into eight main resource groups, zoning of the Russian part of the coast of the Sea of Japan by a combination of the main types of mineral resources is performed. The types of municipalities are allocated by a combination of mineral resources and their features are shown. Six areas are singled out by a combination of mineral resources. Due to the need to take into account the geographical features in combination with the specifics of mineral resources, the northern and southern parts of the territory of one type of areas have obtained their own names. According to the results of the studies, the map has been compiled.