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Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 19 жовтня 2024

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1

Takeuchi, Kai, Junsha Wang, Beomjoon Kim, Tadatomo Suga, and Eiji Higurashi. "Room temperature bonding of Au assisted by self-assembled monolayer." Applied Physics Letters 122, no. 5 (January 30, 2023): 051603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0128187.

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Анотація:

The surface activated bonding (SAB) technique enables room temperature bonding of metals, such as Au, by forming metal bonds between clean and reactive surfaces. However, the re-adsorption on the activated surface deteriorates the bonding quality, which limits the applicability of SAB for actual packaging processes of electronics. In this study, we propose and demonstrate the prolongation of the surface activation effect for room temperature bonding of Au by utilizing a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) protection. While the bonding without SAM fails after exposure of the activated Au surface to ambient air, the room temperature bonding is achieved using SAM protection even after 100 h exposure. The surface analysis reveals that the clean and activated Au surface is protected from re-adsorption by SAM. This technique will provide an approach of time-independent bonding of Au at room temperature.

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2

Lomonaco, Quentin, Karine Abadie, Jean-Michel Hartmann, Christophe Morales, Paul Noël, Tanguy Marion, Christophe Lecouvey, Anne-Marie Papon, and Frank Fournel. "Soft Surface Activated Bonding of Hydrophobic Silicon Substrates." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 33 (December 22, 2023): 1601. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02331601mtgabs.

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Surface Activated Bonding (SAB) is interesting for strong silicon to silicon bonding at room temperature without any annealing needed, afterwards (1). Although it is a well-known technique, the activation step, in particular, is scarcely documented. This paper offers insights about the impact of soft activation parameters on the amorphous region at the bonding interface. In addition, the adherence energy of hydrophobic silicon bonding with SAB is quantified to better understand bonding mechanisms. With very low dose and acceleration activation parameters, the surface preparation prior to bonding becomes of paramount importance. Indeed, the silicon native oxide is typically removed during the activation step. The thin amorphous silicon region is a side effect of this singular surface preparation(2). In order to work around this potential roadblock, we used instead hydrophobic surface preparation to remove the native oxide, before entering into the activation step. Two types of preparation were evaluated in this study. First, a standard “HF-Last” chemical treatment was used on standard silicon wafers. This treatment removed the silicon native oxide and passivated the surface with Si-H and, to a lesser extent, Si-F bonds (3). We otherwise used epitaxy-reconstructed silicon wafers with fully hydrophobic surfaces (4). Silicon native oxide was removed thanks to an ultra-pure H2 bake at 1100°C, 20 Torr for 2 minutes in an epitaxy chamber. Then, several tens of nm of Silicon were deposited at 950°C to obtain, after another H2 bake, a silicon surface fully passivated by hydrogen atoms with atomically smooth terraces and mono-atomic step edges. Our EVG®ComBond® bonding tool, operating under ultra-high vacuum (UHV), is equipped with an accelerated argon ion beam to perform the activation step. The softest functional settings, on our set up, are 50V (acceleration) and 26 mA (dose). After beam initialization, the two sets of substrates pass through the activation chamber. Activated substrates are then transferred to the bonding chamber within 5 minutes of handling. The exposure time in the activation chamber was evaluated, the aim being to remove adsorbed hydrogen atoms on the silicon surface without any amorphous silicon generation. Different characterization techniques such as transmission electron microscopy or FTIR-MIR were used to quantify the amorphous layer formation and the potential Si-H bonds remaining (after activation). The adherence energy of the bonded pair was measured by a double cantilever beam method under prescribed displacement control in anhydrous atmosphere (5). Figure 1 shows the adherence energy (Gc=2γc) in mJ/m² as a function of activation exposure time with soft activation parameters for both wafer preparations. The 0s reference bonding was conducted without passing through the activation module. We then had very low adherence energies, around 50 mJ/m², as expected for standard hydrophobic silicon wafer bonding under UHV (6). Upon Ar+ exposure, behaviors were very different depending on surface preparation. The adherence energy barely increased with the Ar+ exposure time for “HF-Last” surfaces. Meanwhile, even 1s of exposure to Ar+ had a definite impact on the adherence energy of epi-reconstructed, atomically smooth silicon surfaces, which was definitely higher. The maximum difference between both wafer preparations occurred for 30 up to 60 seconds exposure times. This indicate a change in the bonding mechanism as the comparatively high roughness of the “HF-Last” silicon wafer started to be counter-balanced by activation. The experimental set up, the manufacturing process, as well as further characterizations will be presented. Cross-sectional TEM imaging of the bonding interface, FTIR-MIR and AFM measurements after surface preparation will help us better understand the specificities of such soft activation process on the SAB of hydrophobic surfaces. The impact of the amorphous silicon layer on bonding will be discussed. Suga T et al. STRUCTURE OF A1-A1 A N D A1-Si3N4 INTERFACES BONDED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE BY MEANS OF THE SURFACE ACTIVATION METHOD. Acta Metallurgica et Materialia 1992. Takagi H et al. Surface activated bonding of silicon wafers at room temperature. Appl Phys Lett. 1996. Abbadie A et al. Low thermal budget surface preparation of Si and SiGe. Appl Surf Sci. 2004. Sordes D et al. Nanopackaging of Si(100)H Wafer for Atomic-Scale Investigations. 2017. Maszara WP et al. Bonding of silicon wafers for silicon‐on‐insulator. J Appl Phys. 15 nov 1988;64(10):4943-50. Tong QY et al. The Role of Surface Chemistry in Bonding of Standard Silicon Wafers. J Electrochem Soc. 1997. Figure 1

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3

ODA, Tomohiro, Tomoyuki ABE, and Isao KUSUNOKI. "Wafer Bonding by Surface Activated Method." Shinku 49, no. 5 (2006): 310–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.3131/jvsj.49.310.

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4

Lomonaco, Quentin, Karine Abadie, Jean-Michel Hartmann, Christophe Morales, Paul Noël, Tanguy Marion, Christophe Lecouvey, Anne-Marie Papon, and Frank Fournel. "Soft Surface Activated Bonding of Hydrophobic Silicon Substrates." ECS Transactions 112, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 139–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/11203.0139ecst.

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Анотація:

Surface Activated Bonding (SAB) is interesting for strong silicon to silicon bonding at room temperature without any annealing needed, afterwards. This technique has been recognized by the scientific community for more than two decades now and was used for numerous reviewed applications. Although it is a well-known technique, the activation step, in particular, is scarcely documented. This paper offers insights about the impact of soft activation parameters on the amorphous region at the bonding interface. In addition, the adherence energy of hydrophobic silicon after SAB bonding is quantified, to better understand bonding mechanisms. Soft activation parameters on hydrophobic silicon substrates yield exceptionally thin bonding interfaces with acceptable bonding energy at room temperature. According to cross-sectional Transmission Electron Microscopy imaging, a 0.53 nm thick amorphous silicon interface was achieved with an adherence energy of 1337 ± 137 J/m² measured by the Double Cantilever Beam method.

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5

Yang, Song, Ningkang Deng, Yongfeng Qu, Kang Wang, Yuan Yuan, Wenbo Hu, Shengli Wu, and Hongxing Wang. "Argon Ion Beam Current Dependence of Si-Si Surface Activated Bonding." Materials 15, no. 9 (April 25, 2022): 3115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15093115.

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Анотація:

In order to optimize the process parameters of Si-Si wafer direct bonding at room temperature, Si-Si surface activated bonding (SAB) was performed, and the effect of the argon ion beam current for surface activation treatment on the Si-Si bonding quality was investigated. For the surface activation under the argon ion beam irradiation for 300 s, a smaller ion beam current (10~30 mA) helped to realize a lower percentage of area covered by voids and higher bonding strength. Especially with the surface activation under 30 mA, the bonded Si-Si specimen obtained the highest bonding quality, and its percentage of area covered by voids and bonding strength reached <0.2% and >7.62 MPa, respectively. The transmission electron microscopy analyses indicate that there exists an ultrathin amorphous Si interlayer at the Si-Si bonding interface induced by argon ion beam irradiation to Si wafer surfaces, and its thickness increases as the argon ion beam current rises. The investigation results can be used to optimize the SAB process and promote the applications of SAB in the field of semiconductor devices.

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6

Yang, Song, Ningkang Deng, Yongfeng Qu, Kang Wang, Yuan Yuan, Wenbo Hu, Shengli Wu, and Hongxing Wang. "Argon Ion Beam Current Dependence of Si-Si Surface Activated Bonding." Materials 15, no. 9 (April 25, 2022): 3115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15093115.

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Анотація:

In order to optimize the process parameters of Si-Si wafer direct bonding at room temperature, Si-Si surface activated bonding (SAB) was performed, and the effect of the argon ion beam current for surface activation treatment on the Si-Si bonding quality was investigated. For the surface activation under the argon ion beam irradiation for 300 s, a smaller ion beam current (10~30 mA) helped to realize a lower percentage of area covered by voids and higher bonding strength. Especially with the surface activation under 30 mA, the bonded Si-Si specimen obtained the highest bonding quality, and its percentage of area covered by voids and bonding strength reached <0.2% and >7.62 MPa, respectively. The transmission electron microscopy analyses indicate that there exists an ultrathin amorphous Si interlayer at the Si-Si bonding interface induced by argon ion beam irradiation to Si wafer surfaces, and its thickness increases as the argon ion beam current rises. The investigation results can be used to optimize the SAB process and promote the applications of SAB in the field of semiconductor devices.

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7

Yang, Song, Ningkang Deng, Yongfeng Qu, Kang Wang, Yuan Yuan, Wenbo Hu, Shengli Wu, and Hongxing Wang. "Argon Ion Beam Current Dependence of Si-Si Surface Activated Bonding." Materials 15, no. 9 (April 25, 2022): 3115. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15093115.

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Анотація:

In order to optimize the process parameters of Si-Si wafer direct bonding at room temperature, Si-Si surface activated bonding (SAB) was performed, and the effect of the argon ion beam current for surface activation treatment on the Si-Si bonding quality was investigated. For the surface activation under the argon ion beam irradiation for 300 s, a smaller ion beam current (10~30 mA) helped to realize a lower percentage of area covered by voids and higher bonding strength. Especially with the surface activation under 30 mA, the bonded Si-Si specimen obtained the highest bonding quality, and its percentage of area covered by voids and bonding strength reached <0.2% and >7.62 MPa, respectively. The transmission electron microscopy analyses indicate that there exists an ultrathin amorphous Si interlayer at the Si-Si bonding interface induced by argon ion beam irradiation to Si wafer surfaces, and its thickness increases as the argon ion beam current rises. The investigation results can be used to optimize the SAB process and promote the applications of SAB in the field of semiconductor devices.

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8

Suga, Tadatomo, Fengwen Mu, Masahisa Fujino, Yoshikazu Takahashi, Haruo Nakazawa, and Kenichi Iguchi. "Silicon carbide wafer bonding by modified surface activated bonding method." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 54, no. 3 (January 15, 2015): 030214. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.54.030214.

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9

He, Ran, Masahisa Fujino, Akira Yamauchi, and Tadatomo Suga. "Novel hydrophilic SiO2wafer bonding using combined surface-activated bonding technique." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 54, no. 3 (February 12, 2015): 030218. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.54.030218.

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10

SUGA, Tadatomo. "Low Temperature Bonding for 3D Integration-Surface Activated Bonding (SAB)." Hyomen Kagaku 35, no. 5 (2014): 262–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1380/jsssj.35.262.

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11

Suga, Tadatomo. "Low Temperature Bonding by Means of the Surface Activated Bonding Method." Materia Japan 35, no. 5 (1996): 496–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/materia.35.496.

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12

Kim, T. H., M. M. R. Howlader, T. Itoh, and T. Suga. "Room temperature Cu–Cu direct bonding using surface activated bonding method." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A: Vacuum, Surfaces, and Films 21, no. 2 (March 2003): 449–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/1.1537716.

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13

Chang, Chao Cheng. "Molecular Dynamics Simulation of Aluminium Thin Film Surface Activated Bonding." Key Engineering Materials 486 (July 2011): 127–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.486.127.

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This study used molecular dynamics simulations with an embedded-atom method (EAM) potential to investigate the effect of surface roughness on the surface activated bonding (SAB) of aluminium thin films. The simulations started with the bonding process and followed by the tensile test for estimating bonding strength. By averaging the atomic stresses over the entire system, the stress-time curves for the bonded films under a tensile condition were predicted. Moreover, the evolution of the crystal structure in the local atomic order was examined by the common neighbour analysis. The simulated results show that the decrease in the surface roughness of thin film improves the bonding strength. The observed recrystallization processes inside the bonded thin films also reveal that the plastic deformation of the aluminium surface due to atomic attracting force compensates surface roughness.

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14

UTSUMI, Jun, Kensuke IDE, and Yuko ICHIYANAGI. "Room Temperature Wafer Bonding by Surface Activated Method." Hyomen Kagaku 38, no. 2 (2017): 72–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1380/jsssj.38.72.

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15

Kerepesi, Péter, Bernhard Rebhan, Matthias Danner, Karin Stadlmann, Heiko Groiss, Peter Oberhumer, Jiri Duchoslav, and Kurt Hingerl. "Oxide-Free SiC-SiC Direct Wafer Bonding and Its Characterization." ECS Transactions 112, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 159–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/11203.0159ecst.

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In this study, the feasibility of oxide-free room temperature wafer bonding process was demonstrated for 4H-SiC wafers with in situ surface oxide removal. The investigations covered three areas: incoming metrology of the original wafer, characterization of activated single wafer and analysis of bonded wafer pairs. The focus was on compositional, chemical, mechanical and morphological analysis of the surfaces and of the bonded interfaces. Incoming wafers were inspected whether they fulfill the requirements of wafer bonding, and activated wafers were characterized to measure the surface modifications. The quality of the bonded wafers and the bonding energy were verified using scanning acoustic microscopy measurements as well as the Maszara blade test. Furthermore, cross-section transmission electron microscopy was used to investigate the amorphous layer at the bonding interface. The work reported is a demonstration of the capability of different characterization methods regarding SiC-SiC wafer bonding.

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16

Higurashi, Eiji, Yuta Sasaki, Ryuji Kurayama, Tadatomo Suga, Yasuo Doi, Yoshihiro Sawayama, and Iwao Hosako. "Room-temperature direct bonding of germanium wafers by surface-activated bonding method." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 54, no. 3 (January 22, 2015): 030213. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.54.030213.

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17

He, Ran, Masahisa Fujino, Akira Yamauchi, and Tadatomo Suga. "Combined surface-activated bonding technique for low-temperature hydrophilic direct wafer bonding." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 55, no. 4S (March 9, 2016): 04EC02. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.55.04ec02.

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18

He, Ran, Masahisa Fujino, Akira Yamauchi, Yinghui Wang, and Tadatomo Suga. "Combined Surface Activated Bonding Technique for Low-Temperature Cu/Dielectric Hybrid Bonding." ECS Journal of Solid State Science and Technology 5, no. 7 (2016): P419—P424. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/2.0201607jss.

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19

He, R., M. Fujino, A. Yamauchi, and T. Suga. "Combined Surface-Activated Bonding Technique for Low-Temperature Cu/SiO2 Hybrid Bonding." ECS Transactions 69, no. 6 (October 2, 2015): 79–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/06906.0079ecst.

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20

Suga, T. "Cu-Cu Room Temperature Bonding - Current Status of Surface Activated Bonding(SAB) -." ECS Transactions 3, no. 6 (December 21, 2019): 155–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.2357065.

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21

Shigetou, A., T. Itoh, and T. Suga. "Direct bonding of CMP-Cu films by surface activated bonding (SAB) method." Journal of Materials Science 40, no. 12 (June 2005): 3149–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-2677-1.

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22

Mu, Fengwen, Kenichi Iguchi, Haruo Nakazawa, Yoshikazu Takahashi, Masahisa Fujino, Ran He, and Tadatomo Suga. "A comparison study: Direct wafer bonding of SiC–SiC by standard surface-activated bonding and modified surface-activated bonding with Si-containing Ar ion beam." Applied Physics Express 9, no. 8 (July 13, 2016): 081302. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/apex.9.081302.

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23

Danner, Matthias, Bernhard Rebhan, Péter Kerepesi, and Wolfgang S. M. Werner. "Surface Activated Si-Si Wafer Bonding Using Different Ion Species." ECS Transactions 112, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 119–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/11203.0119ecst.

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Surface activated bonding on wafer level is enabled by an advanced direct wafer bonding system for irradiation with different ion species. In this process, the native oxide of 200 mm Si wafers is sputter-removed and an amorphous layer is generated. After ion treatment, the wafers are bonded in ultra-high vacuum at room temperature. The impact of Ar, Kr and Xe ion irradiation on the amorphous layer thickness was investigated with the goal of optimizing the bonding process for establishing interfaces with electronic functionality. This was i.a. motivated by the fact, that the presence of an amorphous layer reduces the electrical conductivity across the wafer interface.

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24

Danner, Matthias, Bernhard Rebhan, Péter Kerepesi, and Wolfgang S. M. Werner. "Surface Activated Si-Si Wafer Bonding Using Different Ion Species." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 33 (December 22, 2023): 1599. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02331599mtgabs.

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Surface activated bonding (SAB) on wafer level is enabled by the EVG ComBond® system for irradiation with different ion species. In this process, the native oxide of 200 mm Si wafers is sputter-removed, and an amorphous layer is generated. After ion treatment, the wafers are bonded in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) at room temperature. The impact of Ar, Kr and Xe ion irradiation on the amorphous layer thickness (ALT) was investigated with the goal of optimizing the bonding process. This was i.a. motivated by the fact, that the presence of an amorphous layer reduces the electrical conductivity across the wafer interface [1]. The ALT of unbonded wafers was evaluated via spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) for varying ion species, ion energies and angles of incidence. The results show that heavier ions generate a thinner amorphous layer than light ions (see Fig. 1). This is most likely due to the higher scattering cross section of heavy ions resulting in a lower penetration depth. For each ion type there is a minimum in the ALT as a function of the ion energy which can be attributed to sputter-implantation dynamics. Furthermore, the ALT is decreasing with the angle of incidence as the incoming ions are projected into the material. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) measurements were conducted on bonded wafer pairs and confirm the trend of heavy ions generating a thinner amorphous layer. Moreover, the TEM measurements show that post-bond annealing at 450°C for 5 h reduces the ALT due to recrystallization near the bonding interface. To ensure mechanical stability for further wafer processing and for the final device, bonding energy measurements were conducted via the Maszara method [2]. Although maximum bonding energy can be achieved for specific parameters with each ion species, Xe irradiated samples tend to have a higher overall bonding energy. [1] P.A. Stolk et al., “Contribution of defects to electronic, structural, and thermodynamic properties of amorphous silicon”, in Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 75, no. 11, pp. 7266-7286 (1994). [2] W.P. Maszara et al., “Bonding of silicon wafers for silicon-on-insulator”, in Journal of Applied Physics, vol. 64, no. 10, pp. 4943-4950 (1988). Figure 1

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25

Abadie, Karine, Quentin Lomonaco, Laurent Michaud, Frank Fournel, and Christophe Morales. "(First Best Paper Award) Vacuum Quality Impact on Covalent Bonding." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 33 (December 22, 2023): 1600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02331600mtgabs.

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As already described in the literature [1, 2, 3, 4], covalent bonding is based on direct bonding process. The first step of this process consists in creating dangling bonds at the wafer surface using an Ar+ ion bombardment. Then, the two activated surfaces are brought in contact, resulting in covalent bonds between them. Using silicon surfaces, no further annealing is required to enhance the bonding strength, as opposed to direct hydrophilic bonding. The adherence energy (Gc=2γc) of such Si/Si bond pairs reaches the silicon fracture energy (5J/m²). Indeed, all bonded samples break during double cantilever beam (DCB) measurements of it. Dangling bonds are highly reactive. Queue time between activation and bonding is crucial, as dangling bonds must be preserved. One way, commonly used, is to process activated materials while always staying under Ultra High Vacuum (UHV). Indeed, reactive dangling bonds should not get in contact with others reactive molecules, like H2O, O2 or N2, for instance. However, some molecules always remain, for any given vacuum value. Depending on their nature, the UHV quality for bonding purpose is affected. This paper aims at studying the impact of the UHV quality on the dangling bonds stability and bonding quality. In order to study the UHV quality, a mass spectrometer has been installed inside the bonding chamber. It has been shown that among all the reactive potential molecules, water is the most harmful one. Indeed, its removal enhances the vacuum quality. Baking vacuum systems is a well-known technic to remove adsorbed water molecules from metallic surfaces [5]. Although background water concentration in UHV is hardly detectable at room temperature, tracking its partial pressure during bakeout cycles enables to define a water threshold. Indeed, during a bakeout cycle, a water concentration peak is clearly seen by the mass spectrometer, as shown in figure 1. The impact of several system bakeouts at 100°C was also evaluated. After each bakeout, a Si/Si bonding energy was measured. After the first bakeout, the adherence energy was only around 2.5J/m². However, after the second bakeout, it reached the silicon fracture energy of 5J/m². More bakeout cycles were also tested. Adherence energy results will be discussed as well as partial pressures of other reactive molecules. The impact of queue times between wafer surfaces activations and bonding was also studied. For a standard process, this waiting time represents the handling time to activate both substrates (in a system having only one activation chamber), and to move them from the activation chamber to the bond chamber. We showed that the impact of queue time depended on the number of bakeout cycles and that the adherence energy decreasing rate was strongly affected by the UHV quality. With our best tool conditioning, an adherence energy higher than 3,4J/m² can be maintained up to 5mn added to the minimum queue time. Thanks to our EVG®Combond® system, covalent bonding in temperature can be performed using heated electrostatic chucks (ESC)[6]. However, even after two or more system bakeouts, 200°C covalent bonding failed to exhibit high adherence energy and it was not possible to reach the silicon fracture energy. Tracking the pressure level inside the bonding chamber during a high temperature bakeout of the ESC (>300°C) showed that water still desorbed during this process. Optimized tool preconditioning thus have to be implemented for such specific hot bonding, with a need for global baking (even of internal chamber pieces). In conclusion, we will describe the experimental setup and the impact of tool preconditioning (i.e. bakeout sequences) on manufacturing. Mass spectrometers and bond strength measurements will be presented, as well as curves of bond strength against the waiting time between the activation and the bonding, for bond pairs processed at room temperature or higher (200°C). Suga T, Takahashi Y. STRUCTURE OF A1-A1 A N D A1-Si3N4 INTERFACES BONDED AT ROOM TEMPERATURE BY MEANS OF THE SURFACE ACTIVATION METHOD. :5. Takagi H, Kikuchi K, Maeda R, Chung TR, Suga T. Surface activated bonding of silicon wafers at room temperature. Appl Phys Lett. 15 avr 1996;68(16):2222-4. Taniyama S, Wang YH, Fujino M, Suga T. Room temperature wafer bonding using surface activated bonding method. In: 2008 IEEE 9th VLSI Packaging Workshop of Japan. 2008. p. 141-4. Flötgen C, Razek N, Dragoi V, Wimplinger M. Novel Surface Preparation Methods for Covalent and Conductive Bonded Interfaces Fabrication. ECS Trans. 14 août 2014;64(5):103. Berman A. Water vapor in vacuum systems. Vacuum. avr 1996;47(4):327-32. Lomonaco Q, et al. Stress Engineering in Germanium-Silicon Heterostructure Using Surface Activated Hot Bonding. ECS Trans. 30 sept 2022;109(4):277-87. Figure 1

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26

Lomonaco, Quentin, Karine Abadie, Christophe Morales, Laurent Gaëtan Michaud, Jérôme Richy, Stephane Moreau, Jean-Philippe Colonna, and Frank Fournel. "Stress Engineering in Germanium-Silicon Heterostructure Using Surface Activated Hot Bonding." ECS Transactions 109, no. 4 (September 30, 2022): 277–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/10904.0277ecst.

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The manufacturing of heterostructures is interesting in many fields such as photonics, solar energy production and quantum technologies. This paper, dedicated to germanium on silicon heterostructure manufacturing and stress engineering, builds up on LETI and EVGroup’s hot bonding technology (1). The coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) mismatch between germanium and silicon is used to induce some in-plane tensile stress in a thin germanium layer transferred by the Smart CutTM technique onto a silicon substrate. In this approach, a bulk germanium wafer is directly bonded on a bulk silicon wafer, using surface activated hot bonding (SAHB). Process integration advantages are the low defect density of bulk germanium and the tensile stress that can be tuned using the bonding temperature. According to X-Ray diffraction measurements, for a bonding performed at 250°C, the lattice parameter deformation reached +0.06%, resulting in a 82 MPa tensile stress in a 370 nm thick germanium layer.

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27

Choowitsakunlert, Salinee, Kenji Takagiwa, Takuya Kobashigawa, Nariaki Hosoya, Rardchawadee Silapunt, and Hideki Yokoi. "Fabrication Processes of SOI Structure for Optical Nonreciprocal Devices." Key Engineering Materials 777 (August 2018): 107–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.777.107.

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Fabrication processes of a magneto-optic waveguide with a Si guiding layer for an optical isolator employing a nonreciprocal guided-radiation mode conversion are investigated. The optical isolator is constructed on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) structure. The magneto-optic waveguide is fabricated by bonding the Si guiding layer with a cerium-substituted yttrium iron garnet (Ce:YIG). The relationship of waveguide geometric parameters is determined at a wavelength of 1550 nm. The results show that larger tolerance for isolator operation can be obtained at smaller gaps between Si and Ce:YIG. Bonding processes including photosensitive adhesive bonding and surface activated bonding are then compared. It is found that the surface activated bonding process is easier to control and more promising than the photosensitive adhesive bonding.

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Kim, Kyung Hoon, Soon Hyung Hong, Seung Il Cha, Sung Chul Lim, Hyouk Chon Kwon, and Won Kyu Yoon. "Bonding Quality of Copper-Nickel Fine Clad Metal Prepared by Surface Activated Bonding." MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS 51, no. 4 (2010): 787–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.m2009354.

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He, R., M. Fujino, A. Yamauchi, and T. Suga. "Combined Surface Activated Bonding Technique for Hydrophilic SiO2-SiO2 and Cu-Cu Bonding." ECS Transactions 75, no. 9 (September 23, 2016): 117–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/07509.0117ecst.

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30

Takagi, H., Y. Kurashima, and T. Suga. "(Invited) Surface Activated Wafer Bonding; Principle and Current Status." ECS Transactions 75, no. 9 (September 23, 2016): 3–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/07509.0003ecst.

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31

Li, Y., S. Wang, B. Sun, H. Chang, W. Zhao, X. Zhang, and H. Liu. "Room Temperature Wafer Bonding by Surface Activated ALD- Al2O3." ECS Transactions 50, no. 7 (March 15, 2013): 303–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/05007.0303ecst.

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32

Howlader, M. M. R., H. Okada, T. H. Kim, T. Itoh, and T. Suga. "Wafer Level Surface Activated Bonding Tool for MEMS Packaging." Journal of The Electrochemical Society 151, no. 7 (2004): G461. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/1.1758723.

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Takagi, H., K. Kikuchi, R. Maeda, T. R. Chung, and T. Suga. "Surface activated bonding of silicon wafers at room temperature." Applied Physics Letters 68, no. 16 (April 15, 1996): 2222–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.115865.

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Howlader, M. M. R., T. Suga, A. Takahashi, K. Saijo, S. Ozawa, and K. Nanbu. "Surface activated bonding of LCP/Cu for electronic packaging." Journal of Materials Science 40, no. 12 (June 2005): 3177–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-005-2681-5.

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35

Gardner, Douglas J., Jeffrey G. Ostmeyer, and Thomas J. Elder. "Bonding Surface Activated Hardwood Flakeboard with Phenol-Formaldehyde Resin." Holzforschung 45, no. 3 (January 1991): 215–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/hfsg.1991.45.3.215.

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36

Kim, Kyung Hoon, Sung Chul Lim, and Hyouk Chon Kwon. "The Effects of Heat Treatment on the Bonding Strength of Surface-Activated Bonding (SAB)-Treated Copper-Nickel Fine Clad Metals." Materials Science Forum 654-656 (June 2010): 1932–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.654-656.1932.

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Surface activated bonding (SAB) is a novel method for the precise joining of dissimilar materials. It is based on the concept that two atomically clean solid surfaces can develop a strong adhesive force between them when they are brought into contact at high vacuum condition without high deformation at a 40~90%. With this SAB process, the effects of heat treatment on the bonding strength of surface-activated bonding (SAB)-treated copper-nickel fine clad metals were investigated. An increase in the SAB rolling load of the copper-nickel fine clad metals increased the peel strength after heat treatment, indicating that increases in the SAB rolling load decreased the interface voids formed by initial micro-range surface roughness between the clad materials in the SAB cladding process. Unlike conventional cold rolling, outstanding interface diffusion between the clad materials was not observed after heat treatment. In addition, the peel strength increase of the clad metals compare with initial peel strength increased with SAB rolling load (<1% reduction ratio at a roll load of 5000 kgf ) up to 3.99 N/mm after heat treatment.

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37

Lomonaco, Quentin, Karine Abadie, Christophe Morales, Laurent Gaëtan Michaud, Jérôme Richy, Stephane Moreau, Jean-Philippe Colonna, and Frank Fournel. "Stress Engineering in Germanium-Silicon Heterostructure Using Surface Activated Hot Bonding." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2022-02, no. 32 (October 9, 2022): 1219. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2022-02321219mtgabs.

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The manufacturing of heterostructures is interesting in fields such as photonics(1), solar energy production(2) and quantum technologies(3). This paper, dedicated to germanium on silicon heterostructure manufacturing and stress engineering, builds up on Ref. (4) findings. We are using the differences in terms of coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE) between germanium and silicon, to induce a tensile stress in a thin germanium layer transferred by the Smart CutTM [1] technique onto a silicon substrate. In this approach, a bulk germanium wafer is directly bonded on a bulk silicon wafer, using surface activated bonding (SAB)(5,6). Process integration advantages are the low defect density of bulk germanium and the tensile stress that can be tuned using the bonding temperature. The adherence of SAB was high during bonding at relatively high temperatures (~250°C). Without any further heat treatment, the adherence was found to be 3500mJ/m2 by the double cantilever beam method (under prescribed displacement control and in an anhydrous atmosphere). This remarkable adherence prevented the Ge/Si heterostructure from sliding, debonding and cracking (7). The CTE difference could thus generate a large amount of tensile stress during the heterostructure cooling and splitting steps. First of all, using finite elements simulation, a model was designed to predict the bow and the in-plane internal stress after bonding and cooling of the heterostructure. Thanks to it, we could also evaluate those two values after layer transfer (splitting step). This numerical approach was more accurate than the former analytic method (Timoshenko), which did not include the non-linearity of CTE with temperature and for large displacements. Figure 1 shows the bow and the in-plane stress expected for a bonding at 250°C of, respectively, a Si/Si homostructure (Figure1.a) and a strained Ge/Si heterostructure (Figure1.b), when cooled down to room temperature. The former is flat while the bow of the latter is large indeed. Then, based on indications collected from simulations, we performed the bonding of a Si/Si homostructure in an EVG®ComBond® at 250°C. The same bonding conditions were used for an implanted germanium on silicon heterostructure. As shown in Figure 2, both bond pairs exhibited a bow close to that from FE simulations. After that, a splitting step was carried out, resulting in a thin germanium film on a silicon wafer (200mm), as shown in Figure 3. The film was transferred almost to the whole surface. The bow after splitting was of 10µm, a value not so far from the simulated value of 28.6 µm. As far as tensile stress was concerned, we used X-Ray Diffraction to gain access to the lattice parameter deformation and thus the tensile stress, 0.05% and 72 MPa, respectively (Figure 4). In comparison, FE simulation gives us 107 MPa of tensile stress after splitting. The main advantage of our approach is the lack of misfit dislocations in the Ge film, at variance with Ge epitaxy on Si (with a threading dislocations density typically around 107 cm-2, then). The presentation will focus, first, on the simulation tool and the manufacturing process used to fabricate such stressed germanium films. Then, stress calculus will be detailed. Finally, TEM imaging of cross-sections, XRD and bow measurements will help us better understand the specificities of such thin Ge films transferred on Si bulk wafers. Higurashi E. Heterogeneous integration based on low-temperature bonding for advanced optoelectronic devices. Jpn J Appl Phys. 1 avr 2018;57(4S):04FA02. King RR, Law DC, Edmondson KM, Fetzer CM, Kinsey GS, Yoon H, et al. 40% efficient metamorphic GaInP∕GaInAs∕Ge multijunction solar cells. Appl Phys Lett. 30 avr 2007;90(18):183516. Scappucci G, Kloeffel C, Zwanenburg FA, Loss D, Myronov M, Zhang JJ, et al. The germanium quantum information route. Nat Rev Mater. oct 2021;6(10):926-43. Abadie K, Fournel F, Morales C, Vignoud L, Colona JP, Widiez J. Manufacturing of Optimized Ge Substrates Using a Covalent Bonding Process. ECS Meet Abstr. 23 nov 2020;MA2020-02(22):1623. Takagi H, Kikuchi K, Maeda R, Chung TR, Suga T. Surface activated bonding of silicon wafers at room temperature. Appl Phys Lett. 15 avr 1996;68(16):2222-4. Rebhan B, Vanpaemel J, Dragoi V. 200 mm Ge Wafer Production for Oxide-Free Si-Ge Direct Wafer Bonding. ECS Trans. 8 sept 2020;98(4):87-100. Chao YL, Tong QY, Gösele UM. Thermomechanical stress in silicon on quartz wafer bonding and Smart Cut® process. MRS Proc. 2001;681:I5.10. [1] Trademark from S.O.I.T.E.C. .S.A. Figure 1

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38

Chan, Cho X. J., and Peter N. Lipke. "Role of Force-Sensitive Amyloid-Like Interactions in Fungal Catch Bonding and Biofilms." Eukaryotic Cell 13, no. 9 (March 28, 2014): 1136–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/ec.00068-14.

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ABSTRACTTheCandida albicansAls adhesin Als5p has an amyloid-forming sequence that is required for aggregation and formation of model biofilms on polystyrene. Because amyloid formation can be triggered by force, we investigated whether laminar flow could activate amyloid formation and increase binding to surfaces. ShearingSaccharomyces cerevisiaecells expressing Als5p orC. albicansat 0.8 dyne/cm2increased the quantity and strength of cell-to-surface and cell-to-cell binding compared to that at 0.02 dyne/cm2. Thioflavin T fluorescence showed that the laminar flow also induced adhesin aggregation into surface amyloid nanodomains in Als5p-expressing cells. Inhibitory concentrations of the amyloid dyes thioflavin S and Congo red or a sequence-specific anti-amyloid peptide decreased binding and biofilm formation under flow. Shear-induced binding also led to formation of robust biofilms. There was less shear-activated increase in adhesion, thioflavin fluorescence, and biofilm formation in cells expressing the amyloid-impaired V326N-substituted Als5p. Similarly,S. cerevisiaecells expressing Flo1p or Flo11p flocculins also showed shear-dependent binding, amyloid formation, biofilm formation, and inhibition by anti-amyloid compounds. Together, these results show that laminar flow activated amyloid formation and led to enhanced adhesion of yeast cells to surfaces and to biofilm formation.

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39

Klokkevold, Katherine N., Weston Keeven, Dong Hun Lee, Michael Clevenger, Mingyuan Liu, Kwangsoo No, Han Wook Song, and Sunghwan Lee. "Low-temperature metal/Zerodur heterogeneous bonding through gas-phase processed adhesion promoting interfacial layers." AIP Advances 12, no. 10 (October 1, 2022): 105224. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/6.0002114.

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The bonding of ceramic to metal has been challenging due to the dissimilar nature of the materials, particularly different surface properties and the coefficients of thermal expansion (CTE). To address the issues, gas phase-processed thin metal films were inserted at the metal/ceramic interface to modify the ceramic surface and, therefore, promote heterogeneous bonding. In addition, an alloy bonder that is mechanically and chemically activated at as low as 220 °C with reactive metal elements was utilized to bond the metal and ceramic. Stainless steel (SS)/Zerodur is selected as the metal/ceramic bonding system where Zerodur is chosen due to the known low CTE. The low-temperature process and the low CTE of Zerodur are critical to minimizing the undesirable stress evolution at the bonded interface. Sputtered Ti, Sn, and Cu (300 nm) were deposited on the Zerodur surface, and then dually activated molten alloy bonders were spread on both surfaces of the coated Zerodur and SS at 220 °C in air. The shear stress of the bonding was tested with a custom-designed fixture in a universal testing machine and was recorded through a strain indicator. The mechanical strength and the bonded surface property were compared as a function of interfacial metal thin film and analyzed through thermodynamic interfacial stability/instability calculations. A maximum shear strength of bonding of 4.36 MPa was obtained with Cu interfacial layers, while that of Sn was 3.53 MPa and that of Ti was 3.42 MPa. These bonding strengths are significantly higher than those (∼0.04 MPa) of contacts without interfacial reactive thin metals.

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40

Utsumi, Jun, Kensuke Ide, and Yuko Ichiyanagi. "Room temperature bonding of SiO2and SiO2by surface activated bonding method using Si ultrathin films." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 55, no. 2 (January 18, 2016): 026503. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.55.026503.

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41

Takeuchi, Kai, Masahisa Fujino, Yoshiie Matsumoto, and Tadatomo Suga. "Mechanism of bonding and debonding using surface activated bonding method with Si intermediate layer." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 57, no. 4S (March 22, 2018): 04FC11. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.57.04fc11.

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42

He, R., M. Fujino, A. Yamauchi, and T. Suga. "Combined Surface-Activated Bonding (SAB) Technologies for New Approach to Low Temperature Wafer Bonding." ECS Transactions 64, no. 5 (August 14, 2014): 83–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/06405.0083ecst.

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43

Matsumae, T., M. Nakano, Y. Matsumoto, and T. Suga. "Room Temperature Bonding of Polymer to Glass Wafers Using Surface Activated Bonding (SAB) Method." ECS Transactions 50, no. 7 (March 15, 2013): 297–302. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/05007.0297ecst.

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44

Kerepesi, Péter, Bernhard Rebhan, Matthias Danner, Karin Stadlmann, Heiko Groiss, Peter Oberhumer, Jiri Duchoslav, and Kurt Hingerl. "Oxide-Free SiC-SiC Direct Wafer Bonding and Its Characterization." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-02, no. 33 (December 22, 2023): 1603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-02331603mtgabs.

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There are different requirements for the production process and the final product of SiC-SiC wafer bonding. The manufacturing of devices that are sensitive to high temperature processing – due to broadened doping profiles and induced thermal stresses – requires room temperature bonding with high bond strength, while for electrical devices, it is mandatory that the bonding interface with a thin amorphous layer is oxide-free.[1] Reduced complexity of processes is also an important point for the final production. Hence, the goal of this work was to perform and characterize direct bonding of SiC-SiC without any added/deposited bonding layer. This type of bonded SiC wafers can be used for power electronics such as for the fabrication of traction inverter for automotive applications, DC/DC converter, on board charger or charging station.[2] For the wafer bonding processes standard 100 mm 4H SiC wafers were bonded with their Si-terminated faces in order to fabricate oxide-free bonds. The wafer bonding process was performed using the EVG ComBond® system: first the native oxides from both wafer surfaces were removed using an ion beam sputtering process, followed by the transfer of both wafers to the bonding process station operated in ultra-high vacuum (UHV) to significantly retard the oxidation process. Finally, the bonding process was performed at room temperature (RT). The goal of this study was to demonstrate the feasibility of the bonding process and to gain insight on the surface chemistry after activation. The investigations covered three areas: incoming inspection of the original wafer, characterization of activated single wafer and analysis of bonded wafer pairs. The focus was on compositional, chemical, mechanical and morphological analysis of the surfaces and of the bonded interfaces. In the case of single wafers, the focus of the incoming inspection was on whether the wafers fulfill the requirements of wafer bonding, and on the characterization of activated wafers to measure the surface modifications. Atomic force microscopy (AFM), white light interferometry (WLI) and spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE) were used to determine the surface roughness, the wafer topography and the surface layer structure, respectively. All three parameters are essential for successful RT SiC-SiC wafer bonding. The change of the surface chemistry was investigated by angle resolved x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AR-XPS). The quality of the bonded wafers and the bonding energy were verified using scanning acoustic microscopy (SAM) measurements (Fig. 1) as well as the Maszara blade test. Furthermore, cross-section transmission electron microscopy (X-TEM) showed a bonding interface with a thin amorphous layer and no noticeable additional oxygen containing layer (Fig. 2). In order to gain quantitative elemental distributions of oxygen and argon, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (EDXS) was applied. The work reported is a demonstration of the capability of the different characterization methods regarding SiC-SiC wafer bonding. Future work will focus on the investigation of the bonded interface characteristics in the function of the bonding process parameters and the annealing conditions. [1] F. Mu, M. Fujino, T. Suga, Y. Takahashi, H. Nakazawa and K. Iguchi, "Wafer bonding of SiC-SiC and SiC-Si by modified surface activated bonding method" 2015 International Conference on Electronics Packaging and iMAPS All Asia Conference (ICEP-IAAC), Kyoto, Japan, 2015, pp. 542-545, doi: 10.1109/ICEP-IAAC.2015.7111073. [2] Tsunenobu Kimoto, "Material science and device physics in SiC technology for high-voltage power devices" Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. 54 040103 (2015), doi: 10.7567/JJAP.54.040103. Figure 1

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45

Zhang, Wenting, Caorui Zhang, Junmin Wu, Fei Yang, Yunlai An, Fangjing Hu, and Ji Fan. "Low Temperature Hydrophilic SiC Wafer Level Direct Bonding for Ultrahigh-Voltage Device Applications." Micromachines 12, no. 12 (December 17, 2021): 1575. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi12121575.

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SiC direct bonding using O2 plasma activation is investigated in this work. SiC substrate and n− SiC epitaxy growth layer are activated with an optimized duration of 60s and power of the oxygen ion beam source at 20 W. After O2 plasma activation, both the SiC substrate and n− SiC epitaxy growth layer present a sufficient hydrophilic surface for bonding. The two 4-inch wafers are prebonded at room temperature followed by an annealing process in an atmospheric N2 ambient for 3 h at 300 °C. The scanning results obtained by C-mode scanning acoustic microscopy (C-SAM) shows a high bonding uniformity. The bonding strength of 1473 mJ/m2 is achieved. The bonding mechanisms are investigated through interface analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX). Oxygen is found between the two interfaces, which indicates Si–O and C–O are formed at the bonding interface. However, a C-rich area is also detected at the bonding interface, which reveals the formation of C-C bonds in the activated SiC surface layer. These results show the potential of low cost and efficient surface activation method for SiC direct bonding for ultrahigh-voltage devices applications.

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46

Abadie, Karine, Quentin Lomonaco, Laurent Michaud, Frank Fournel, and Christophe Morales. "Vacuum Quality Impact on Covalent Bonding." ECS Transactions 112, no. 3 (September 29, 2023): 125–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/11203.0125ecst.

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Covalent bonding is based on a direct bonding process. The first step of this process consists in creating dangling bonds at the wafers surface. When the two activated surfaces are brought in contact, covalent bonds result between them. Dangling bonds are highly reactive. Any queue time between activation and bonding is crucial, as dangling bonds must be preserved. It can be even more difficult to preserve the dangling bonds in the case of bonding process in temperature. One way, commonly used, is to always stay under Ultra High Vacuum (UHV). However, the UHV environment may affect the bonding process. This paper aims at studying the impact of the UHV quality on the dangling bonds stability and bonding quality.

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47

Shigekawa, Naoteru, Masashi Morimoto, Shota Nishida, and Jianbo Liang. "Surface-activated-bonding-based InGaP-on-Si double-junction cells." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 53, no. 4S (January 1, 2014): 04ER05. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.53.04er05.

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48

Saijo, Kinji, Kazuo Yoshida, Yoshihiko Isobe, Akio Miyachi, and Kazuyuki Koike. "Development of Clad Sheet Manufacturing Process by Surface Activated Bonding." Materia Japan 39, no. 2 (2000): 172–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2320/materia.39.172.

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49

Matsumae, Takashi, and Tadatomo Suga. "Graphene transfer by surface activated bonding with poly(methyl glutarimide)." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 57, no. 2S1 (December 5, 2017): 02BB02. http://dx.doi.org/10.7567/jjap.57.02bb02.

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50

Liang, J., K. Furuna, M. Matsubara, M. Dhamrin, Y. Nishio, and N. Shigekawa. "Ultra-Thick Metal Ohmic Contact Fabrication Using Surface Activated Bonding." ECS Transactions 75, no. 9 (September 23, 2016): 25–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/07509.0025ecst.

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