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Статті в журналах з теми "Straits Settlements Commerce"

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Ara, Aniba Israt, and Arshad Islam. "East India Company Strategies in the Development of Singapore." Social Science, Humanities and Sustainability Research 2, no. 3 (September 6, 2021): p37. http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/sshsr.v2n3p37.

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Singapore in the Malay Peninsula was targeted by the British East India Company (EIC) to be the epicentre of their direct rule in Southeast Asia. Seeking new sources of revenue at the end of the 18th century, after attaining domination in India, the Company sought to extend its reach into China, and Malaya was the natural region to do this, extending outposts to Penang and Singapore. The latter was first identified as a key site by Stamford Raffles. The EIC Governor General Marquess Hastings (r. 1813-1823) planned to facilitate Raffle’s attention on the Malay Peninsula from Sumatra. Raffles’ plan for Singapore was approved by the EIC’s Bengal Government. The modern system of administration came into the Straits Settlements under the EIC’s Bengal Presidency. In 1819 in Singapore, Raffles established an Anglo-Oriental College (AOC) for the study of Eastern languages, literature, history, and science. The AOC was intended firstly to be the centre of local research and secondly to increase inter-cultural knowledge of the East and West. Besides Raffles’ efforts, the EIC developed political and socio-economic systems for Singapore. The most important aspects of the social development of Singapore were proper accommodation for migrants, poverty eradication, health care, a new system of education, and women’s rights. The free trade introduced by Francis Light (and later Stamford Raffles) in Penang and Singapore respectively gave enormous opportunities for approved merchants to expand their commerce from Burma to Australia and from Java to China. Before the termination of the China trade in 1833 Singapore developed tremendously, and cemented the role of the European trading paradigm in the East.
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Meissner, Daniel J. "China's 1905 Anti-American Boycott: A Nationalist Myth?" Journal of American-East Asian Relations 10, no. 3-4 (2001): 175–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/187656101793645551.

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AbstractOn 10 May 1905, the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce called a boycott against American goods and services. Notices of compliance soon began arriving at Shanghai from guilds in China's major cities and as far away as the Straits Settlement and San Francisco. Aroused by patriotic passion, students and workers soon joined the movement, organizing boycott meetings and demonstrations, circulating anti-American placards, and editorializing in China's emerging liberal press. Chinese brokers canceled orders for American products, shop owners destroyed stocks of American merchandise, laborers left American firms, domestics walked out of American homes, and dockhands refused to unload American goods. For several months, the boycott spread in range and depth of commitment until rigorous suppression by central and local authorities under pressure from the foreign Powers brought the movement to an end.
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Heriati, A., T. Solihuddin, M. I. Marzuki, T. Arifin, D. Purbani, S. Husrin, T. L. Kepel, et al. "Panimbang Coastal Area Planning based on Disaster Mitigation." IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 1095, no. 1 (October 1, 2022): 012005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1095/1/012005.

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Abstract As an attempt in the improvement of economic interest and areal quality, Sunda Strait is appointed as a National Strategic Area. The strait is quite a busy passage for commerce vessels and also acts as link between provinces. The 2018 tsunami event that affect this area has reminded us the importance of coastal area planning based on disaster mitigation. Panimbang District is one of the areas heavily affected by the tsunami, where the population reside and having their livelihoods around the coast, hence coastal area planning of Panimbang is very much needed. This research was conducted to see the condition of Panimbang District coastal area after the tsunami and how the existing national planning policies is in sync with planning policies at regional level in terms of disaster mitigation. Results of spatial analysis show that coastal areas have not adapted and mitigated optimally, we can see some settlements and tourist areas around coastal area are not heeding the policy on protecting coastal areas, this could happened due to lack of law enforcement or lack of socialization to the local community. This paper might provide recommendation to the local government in arranging coastal protection to keep the residential areas and essential infrastructure safe by making the structural and non-structural approaches.
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Adeoti, Olatunde Micheal, Abidemi Hawawu Bello, Olajumoke Elisabeth Adedokun, Kafilat Adenike Komolafe, David Ademola Adesina, and Opeyemi Joy Olaoye. "Distinctive Molecular typing of 16S rRNA of Bacillus species isolated from farm settlement." International Journal of Immunology and Microbiology 1, no. 1 (June 6, 2021): 10–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.55124/ijim.v1i1.55.

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Introduction: There are numerous methods of isolating and detecting organisms that are similar and closely related; one of the most reliable method is molecular typing of 16S rRNA. Apart from being omnipresent as a multigene family, or operons; it is evolutionarily stable; the 16S rRNA gene (1,500 bp) is large enough for informatics purposes. Materials and Method: This study employed molecular sequencing of 16S rRNA by Sanger method to reveal the specific organisms’ nucleotides and blasting (BLASTn) to show the similarities between the resulting organisms and existing organisms. The 16S rRNA remains the best choice of identification process for bacteria because of its distinguishing sizes and evolutionary stability. Results: All isolates were Gram positive rods and were positive in Biochemical tests such as oxidase, catalase, citrate, and protease but were in turn negative in coagulase and indole test tests. On sensitivity test; 80% of all the isolates were resistant to common antibiotics except ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone. Based on the sequence difference in the variable region (V1) of 16S rRNA as observed from the molecular sequencing results; four isolates out of ten were identified. Six were different strains of B cereus. Others isolates include: wiedmannii, thuringensis, toyonensis and pseudomycoides. Sequence analysis of the primer annealing sites showed that there is no clear‐cut difference in the conserved region of 16S rRNA, and in the gyrB gene, between B. cereus and B. thuringiensis strains. Phylogenetic analysis showed that four isolates showed high similarity to each other; hence the limited number of deletions when subjected to alignments by maximum neighborhood joining parsimony using MEGA X software. B. toyonensis, B. wiedmannii and thuringensis were distantly related. Introduction Authors Pathogens cause illness and death in some countries and it also causes infections and gastrointestinal diseases in other countries thereby causing public health concern. Pathogens are organisms capable of causing diseases. Reliable methods are needed for the detection of pathogens due to pathogen evolution as a result of new human habits or new industrial practices. Microbial classification of organisms ranges from genus to specie level depending upon the technique used either phenotypic or genotypic. Presently, molecular methods now obtain advances to allow utilization in microbiology [1]. There are numerous molecular methods which are of fast and simple application to the detection of pathogen. Among the pathogens involved in human health, Bacillus cereus is interesting due to their ability to survive in various habitats [2]. The genus Bacillus is aerobic or facultative anaerobic bacteria, gram positive spore forming rod shaped bacteria. Which can be characterized by two morphological forms, the vegetative cell which range from 1.02 to 1.2 um in width and from 3.0 to 5.0 in length, it can be straight or slightly curve, motile or non-motile, and the endospore (the non-swelling sporangium). The genus Bacillus is been characterized by the presence of endospore, which is not more than one per cell and they are resistant to many adverse environmental conditions such as heat, radiation, cold and disinfectants. It can also respire either in the presence or absence of oxygen [3]. Cell diameter of Bacillus cereus, sporangium and catalase test do not allow differentiation, where as important in differentiation among B. anthracis, B. cereus, B. thuringiensis can be considered by parasporal crystals and the presence of capsule. [4] Showed a B. thuringiensis strain capable of producing a capsule resembling that of B. anthracis. Most species of the genus display a great kind in physiological characteristics such as degradation of cellulose, starch, pectin, agar, hydrocarbons, production of enzymes and antibiotics and other characteristic such as acidophile, alkalinophile, psychrophile, and thermophile's which allows them to adapt to various environmental conditions [5]. In differentiating between species of the genus Bacillus it was difficult at early attempts when endospore formation and aerobic respiration were the main character used for classification. As reported by many authors that at molecular method level, the differentiation between B. thuringiensis and B. cereus is also very difficult. cereus can survive at the temperature between 4°c and 55°c. The mesophile strains can grow between the temperature of 10°c and 42°c, while psychotropic strains can survive at 4°c, whereas other strains are able to grow at 52 to 55°c. B. cereus vegetative cells grow at pH between 1.0 and 5.2. Heat resistant strain can survive and multiply in wet low acid foods in temperature ranging from 5 to 52°c. The survivability of B. cereus spores at 95°c decreases when the pH level decreases from 6.2 to 4.7 [6]. B. cereus can grow in the presence of salt with concentration up to 7.5% depending on the pH value. thuringiensis possesses a protein crystal that is toxic to insects. This toxin protein was first known as parasporal crystalline inclusion but was later referred to as π - endotoxin or in other ways known as insecticidal crystal protein [7]. Strains of B. thuringiensis bacteria possess a wide range of specificity in various orders of insects such as Lepidoptera, dipteral, coleoptera. These strains of bacteria produce crystalline proteins known as cry protein during sporulation. When B. thuringiensis infects an insects, it will cause the insect to loose appetite, enhances slow movement and over time the insect will die due to crystals of proteins that have been dissolved in the insect's stomach. In the cultivation of vegetable crops, the plant can be attack by many types of pests. Hence, in overcoming pest attacks farmers often use pesticides that contain active synthetic materials. Many negative effects arise from the folly use of chemical pesticides. Among the negative effect is the increase of pest population, resistance, death of natural enemy population and increase in residue level on Agricultural product which makes it unsafe for public consumption [8]. Therefore, it is necessary to find an alternative method in the control of crop pest. The best alternative that can be done is to replace the chemical insecticide with biological control which involves the use of living things in the form of microorganisms. In these profiling microbial communities, the main objective is to identify which bacteria and how much they are present in the environments. Most microbial profiling methods focus on the identification and quantification of bacteria with already sequenced genomes. Further, most methods utilize information obtained from entire genomes. Homology-based methods such as [1–4] classify sequences by detecting homology in reads belonging to either an entire genome or only a small set of marker genes. Composition-based methods generally use conserved compositional features of genomes for classification and as such they utilize less computational resources.Using the 16S rRNA gene instead of whole genome information is not only computational efficient but also economical; Illumina indicated that targeted sequencing of a focused region of interest reduces sequencing costs and enables deep sequencing, compared to whole-genome sequencing. On the other hand, as observed by [8], by focusing exclusively on one gene, one might lose essential information for advanced analyses. We, however, will provide an analysis that demonstrates that at least in the context of oral microbial communities, the 16S rRNA gene retains sufficient information to allow us detect unknown bacteria [9, 10]. This study aimed at employing 16S rRNA as an instrument of identification of seemingly close Bacillus species. Abbreviations BLAST, Basic Local Alignment sequence Tools; PCR, Polymerase Chains reactions; rRNA, ribosomal RNA; Material and methods T Sample collection. Soil samples were collected from three sources from Rice, Sugar Cane, vegetables and abandoned farmland in January 2019. The samples were labeled serially from Sample 1 to Sample 10 (S1 to S10). Bacterial culture: A serial dilution of 10 folds was performed. Bacterial suspension was diluted (10-10) with saline water and 100 μl of bacterial suspension werespread on Nutrient Agar plate and incubated for 24 hours. Bacterial colonies were isolated and grown in Nutrient Broth and nutrient agar. Other microbiological solid agar used include: Chocolate, Blood Agar, EMB, MacConkey, Simon citrate, MRS Agar. Bacteria were characterized by conventional technique by the use of morphological appearance and performance on biochemical analysis [11]. Identification of bacteria:The identification of bacteria was based on morphological characteristics and biochemical tests carried out on the isolates. Morphological characteristics observed for each bacteria colony after 24 h of growth included colony appearance; cell shape, color, optical characteristics, consistency, colonial appearance and pigmentation. Biochemical characterizations were performed according to the method of [12] Catalase test: A small quantity of 24 h old culture was transferred into a drop of 3% Hydrogen peroxide solution on a clean slide with the aid of sterile inoculating loop. Gas seen as white froth indicates the presence of catalase enzyme [13] on the isolates. DNA Extraction Processes The extraction processes was in four phase which are: Collection of cell, lyses of cell, Collection of DNA by phenol, Concentration and purification of DNA. Collection of cell: the pure colonyof the bacteria culture was inoculated into a prepared sterile nutrient broth. After growth is confirmed by the turbidity of the culture, 1.5ml of the culture was taken into a centrifuge tube and was centrifuge at 5000 rpm for 5 minutes; the supernatant layer was discarded leaving the sediment. Lyses of cell: 400 microns of lyses buffer is added to the sediment and was mixed thoroughly and allow to stand for five minutes at room temperature (25°c). 200 microns of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) solution was added for protein lyses and was mixed gently and incubated at 65°c for 10 minutes. Collection of DNA by phenol; 500 microns of phenol chloroform was added to the solution for the separation of DNA, it was mixed completely and centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The white pallet seen at the top of the tube after centrifugation is separated into another sterile tube and 1micron of Isopropanol is added and incubated for 1hour at -20°c for precipitation of DNA. The DNA is seen as a colorless liquid in the solution. Concentration and purification of DNA: the solution was centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant layer was discarded and the remaining DNA pellets was washed with 1micron of 17% ethanol, mixed and centrifuge at 10,000 rpm for 10 minutes. The supernatant layer was discarded and air dried. 60 micron TE. Buffer was added for further dissolving of the DNA which was later stored at -40°c until it was required for use [14]. PCR Amplification This requires the use of primers (Forward and Reverse), polymerase enzyme, a template DNA and the d pieces which includedddATP, ddGTP and ddTTP, ddNTP. All this are called the master mix. The PCR reactions consist of three main cycles. The DNA sample was heated at 940c to separate the two template of the DNA strand which was bonded by a hydrogen bond. Once both strand are separated the temperature is reduced to 570c (Annealing temperature). This temperature allows the binding of the forward and reverse primers to the template DNA. After binding the temperature is raised back to 720c which leads to the activation of polymerase enzyme and its start adding d NTPs to the DNA leading to the synthesize of new strands. The cycles were repeated several times in order to obtain millions of the copies of the target DNA [15]. Preparation of Agarose Gel One gram (1 g) of agarose for DNA was measured or 2 g of agarose powdered will be measured for PCR analysis. This done by mixing the agarose powder with 100 ml 1×TAE in a microwaveable flask and microwaved for 1-3 minutes until the agarose is completely dissolved (do not over boil the solution as some of the buffer will evaporate) and thus alter the final percentage of the agarose in the gel. Allow the agarose solution to cool down to about 50°c then after five minutes 10µL was added to EZ vision DNA stain. EZ vision binds to the DNA and allows one to easily visualize the DNA under ultra violet (UV) light. The agarose was poured into the gel tray with the well comb firmly in place and this was placed in newly poured gel at 4°c for 10-15 mins or it sit at room temperature for 20-30 mins, until it has completely solidified[16]. Loading and Running of samples on Agarose gel The agarose gel was placed into the chamber, and the process of electrophoresis commenced with running buffer introduced into the reservoir at the end of the chamber until it the buffer covered at least 2millimeter of the gel. It is advisable to place samples to be loaded in the correct order according to the lanes they are assigned to be running. When loading the samples keep the pipette tip perpendicular to the row of the wells as by supporting your accustomed hand with the second hand; this will reduce the risk of accidentally puncturing the wells with the tip. Lower the tip of the pipette until it breaks the surface of the buffer and is located just above the well. Once all the samples have been loaded it is advised to always avoid any movement of the gel chamber. This might result in the sample spilling into adjacent well. Place the lid on the gel chamber with the terminal correctly positioned to the matching electrodes on the gel chamber black to black and red to red. Remember that DNA is negatively charged hence the movement of the electric current from negatively charged to the positively charged depending on the bandwidth in Kilobytes. Once the electrode is connected to the power supply, switch ON the power supply then set the correct constant voltage (100) and stopwatch for proper time. Press the start button to begin the flow of current that will separate the DNA fragment.After few minutes the samples begins to migrate from the wells into the gel. As the DNA runs, the diaphragm moves from the negative electrode towards the positive electrode [17]. PCR mix Components and Sanger Sequencing This is made up of primers which is both Forward and Reverse, the polymerase enzyme (Taq), a template DNA and the pieces of nucleotides which include: ddNTP, ddATP, ddGTP and ddTTP. Note that the specific Primer’s sequences for bacterial identification is: 785F 5' (GGA TTA GAT ACC CTG GTA) 3', 27F 5' (AGA GTT TGA TCM TGG CTC AG) 3', 907R 5' (CCG TCA ATT CMT TTR AGT TT) 3', 1492R 5' (TAC GGY TAC CTT GTT ACG ACT T) 3' in Sanger Sequencing techniques. BLAST The resulting genomic sequence were assembled and submitted in GenBank at NCBI for assignment of accession numbers. The resultant assertion numbers were subjected to homology search by using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) as NCBI with the assertion number MW362290, MW362291, MW362292, MW362293, MW362294 and MW362295 respectively. Whereas, the other isolates’ accession numbers were retrieved from NCBI GenBank which are:AB 738796.1, JH792136.1, MW 015768.1 and MG745385.1.MEGA 5.2 software was used for the construction of phylogenetic tree and phylogenetic analysis. All the organisms possess 100% identities, 0% gaps and 0.0% E.value which indicated that the organisms are closely related to the existing organisms. The use of 16S rRNA is the best identification process for bacteria because 16S rRNA gene has a distinguishing size of about 500 bases until 1500bp. Rather than using 23S rRNA which is of higher variation, The 16S rRNA is adopted in prokaryotes. 18S rRNA is used for identification in Eukaryotes Results The results of both the conventional morphological and cultural identification was correlated with the molecular sequencing results. Six isolates were confirmed B. cereus species while the other four isolates were. B. wiedmannii, B. thuringiensis, B. toyonensis and B. pseudomycoides.The 16S rRNA sequence of six isolates MW 362290.1- MW362295.1 were assigned accession numbers and deposited in the GenBank while the other four sequences were aligned to those available in the NCBI database. The alignment results showed closely relatedness to LT844650.1with an identity of 100% to 92.2% as above. The six isolates of Bacillus cereus great evolutionary relatedness as shown in the phylogenetic tree constructed using MEGA X software. Results The results of both the conventional morphological and cultural identification was correlated with the molecular sequencing results. Six isolates were confirmed B. cereus species while the other four isolates were. B. wiedmannii, B. thuringiensis, B. toyonensis and B. pseudomycoides.The 16S rRNA sequence of six isolates MW 362290.1- MW362295.1 were assigned accession numbers and deposited in the GenBank while the other four sequences were aligned to those available in the NCBI database. The alignment results showed closely relatedness to LT844650.1with an identity of 100% to 92.2% as above. The six isolates of Bacillus cereus great evolutionary relatedness as shown in the phylogenetic treeconstructed using MEGA X software. Discussion The results obtained in this study is consistent with the previous studies in other countries22,23 The results of the phylogenetic analysis of the 16S rRNA isolate of in this study was similar to the housekeeping genes proposed by [18, 19]. In comparing this study with the earlier study, B. cereus group comprising other species of Bacillus was hypothesized to be considered to form a single species with different ecotypes and pathotype. This study was able to phenotypically differentiated B. thuringiensis, B. pseudomycoides, B. toyonensis, B. wiedmannii and B. cereus sensu strito. Despite differences at the colonial appearance level, the 16S rRNA sequences have homology ranging from 100% to 92% providing insufficient resolution at the species level [6, 7, 18].After analysis through various methods, the strain was identified as Gram-positive bacteria of Bacillus cereus with a homology of 99.4%. Cohan [20] demonstrated that 95–99% of the similarity of 16S rRNA gene sequence between two bacteria hints towards a similar species while >99% indicates the same bacteria.The phylogenetic tree showed that B. toyonensis, B. thuringiensis and B. wiedmanniiare the outgroups of B. cereus group while B. pseudomycoides are most closely related to B. cereus group [19, 21, 22]. Conclusion In the area of molecular epidemiology, genotypic typing method has greatly increased our ability to differentiate between micro-organisms at the intra and interspecies levels and have become an essential and powerful tool. Phenotypic method will still remain important in diagnostic microbiology and genotypic method will become increasingly popular. After analysis through various methods, the strain was identified as Gram-positive bacteria of Bacillus cereus with a homology of between 100% and 92.3%. Acknowledgments Collate acknowledgments in a separate section at the end of the article before the references, not as a footnote to the title. Use the unnumbered Acknowledgements Head style for the Acknowledgments heading. List here those individuals who provided help during the research. Conflicts of interest The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest. References: Simpkins Meyer F.; Paarmann D.; D’Souza M.; Olson R.; Glass EM.; Kubal M.; Paczian T.; Rodriguez A.; Stevens R. Wilke A The metagenomics rast server–a public resource for the automatic phylogenetic and functional analysis of metagenomes. BMC Bioinformatics. 2008, 9(1), 386. Segata N.; Waldron L.; Ballarini A.; Narasimhan V.; Jousson O.; Huttenhower C. Metagenomic microbial community profiling using unique clade-specific marker genes. Nature methods. 2012, 9(8), 811–814. Brady A.; Salzberg SL. Phymm and phymmbl: metagenomic phylogenetic classification with interpolated markov models. Nature Methods. 2009, 6(9), 673–676. Lindner MS.; Renard BY. Metagenomic abundance estimation and diagnostic testing on species level. Nucleic Acids Res. 2013, 41(1), 10–10. Wang A.; Ash G.J. Whole genome phylogeny of Bacillus by feature frequency profiles (FFP). Sci Rep. 2015, 5, 13644. Caroll L.M.; Kovac J.; Miller R.A.; Wiedmann M. Rapid, high-throughput identification of anthrax-causing and emetic Bacillus cereus group genome assemblies’ cereus group isolates using nucleotides sequencing data. Appli. Environ. 2017, 83: e01096-e01017 Liu Y.; Lai Q. L.; Goker M.; Meier-Kolthoff J. P.; Wang M.; Sun Y. M.; Wang L.S.; Shao Z. Genomic insights into the taxonomic status of the Bacillus cereus group. Rep. 2015, 5, 14082. Lindner MS.; Renard BY. Metagenomic profiling of known and unknown microbes with microbegps. PloS ONE. 2015, 10(2), 0117711. Versalovic J.; Schneider M.; de Bruijn FJ.; Lupski JR. Genomic fingerprinting of bacteria using repetitive sequence based PCR (rep-PCR). Meth Mol Cell Biol. 1994, 5, 25–40. Arthur Y.; Ehebauer MT.; Mukhopadhyay S.; Hasnain SE. The PE/PPE multi gene family codes for virulence factors and is a possible source of mycobacterial antigenic variation: Perhaps more? Biochimie. 2013, 94, 110–116. Jusuf, E. Culture Collection of Potential Bacillus thuringiensis Bacterial Strains Insect Killer and the Making of a Library of Toxic Protein Coding Genes. Technical Report LIPI Biotechnology Research Center. 2008. pp. 18-31. Fawole, M.O.; B.A. Oso. Characterization of Bacteria: Laboratory Manual of Microbiology. 4th Edn., Spectrum Book Ltd., Ibadan, Nigeria, 2004, pp: 24-33. Cheesbrough, M. District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries. 2nd Edn., Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK., 2006, ISBN-13: 9781139449298. Giraffa G.; Neviani E. DNA-based, cultureindependent strategies for evaluating microbial communities in food associated ecosystem. Int J Food Microbiol. 2001, 67, 19–34. Ajeet Singh. DNA Extraction from a bacterial cell. A video on Experimental Biotechnology. 2020. Quick biochemistry. A YouTube video on polymerase chain reaction. 2018. Bio-Rad laboratories. A YouTube video on loading and running of samples on Agarose gel. 2012. Saitou N. and Nei, M. The neighbor-joining method: a new method for reconstructing phylogenetic trees. Biol. Evol. 1987, 4, 406-425. Doi: 101093/oxfordjournals. Lazarte N.J.; Lopez R.P.; Ghiringhelli P.D.; Beron C.M. Bacillus wiedmannii biovar thuringiensis: A specialized Mosquitocidal pathogen with plasmid from diverse origins Genome. Evol. 2018, 10(10), 2823-2833. Doi.1093/gbe/evy211 Cohan, F.M. What are bacterial species? Rev. Microbiol. 2002, 56, 457-487 Abiola C.; Oyetayo V.O. Isolation and Biochemical Characterization of Microorganisms Associated with the Fermentation of Kersting’s Groundnut (Macrotyloma geocarpum). Research Journal of Microbiology, 2016, 11: 47- 55.DOI:10.3923/jm.2016.47.55 Adeoti O.M.; Usman T.A. Molecular Characterization of Rhizobacteria Isolates from Saki, Nigeria. Eur. Of Bio. Biotech. 2021, 2(2), 159. Doi 10.24018/ejbio.2021
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5

Castles, Anthony, and Lisa Law. "Whose Heritage." M/C Journal 25, no. 3 (June 27, 2022). http://dx.doi.org/10.5204/mcj.2893.

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Introduction Over the past two decades the Cairns landscape has transformed from a remote tourist town beside the Great Barrier Reef to an international, tropical city with a new focus on culture and the arts. A number of important urban design projects have enabled this transformation, including key waterfront redevelopments, the addition of a large shopping mall and convention centre, a renovated museum, and now a new performing arts precinct and proposed ‘gallery precinct’ for the people of Cairns to access new art forms and events. Anderson and Law (556) depict recent developments as a kind of “mayor’s trophy collection” or set of “must have” attractions Cairns needs to stay ‘competitive’. More generally they might be interpreted as ‘entrepreneurial urbanism’ (Harvey) and the attractors for Richard Florida’s creative class, although there is now more scepticism about how these projects fuel property speculation and benefit the middle classes rather than the ‘bohemians’ Florida saw as key to urban growth and transformation (Wainwright). The renovation of Munro Martin Park discussed here is a culture infrastructure project helping transform Cairns into the ‘arts and culture capital of the north’. Here we interrogate the winners and losers of the renovation, with a specific focus on how its heritage values are preserved. The identity of Cairns as an arts and culture hub is not new or unfounded, but the debate changed in emphasis with a proposed Cairns Entertainment Precinct (CEP) in 2011/2012. The then Mayor Val Schier had secured federal and state funding for the development of a $155 million arts precinct on the waterfront near the Cairns Port, as the city had outgrown its existing facilities at the nearby Cairns Civic Theatre and the venue was unable to host large performances. The CEP was to be a key cultural infrastructure project marking a new era of arts and culture activities in Cairns. The subsequent election became a referendum on the precinct, with its location and need being questioned. Bob Manning became the new Mayor with a mandate to scrap the CEP and instead renovate the existing Civic Theatre as part of a scaled-down vision. In 2016, the Cairns Civic Theatre was demolished to make way for a new Cairns Performing Arts Centre. The original Civic Theatre was constructed in the 1970s and was one of a small handful of buildings in Cairns designed in late Brutalist architectural style: its exterior walls were made of fluted grey concrete blocks. Popular from the 1950s to the 1970s, brutalist architecture celebrated Modernism translated into raw, exposed concrete. Despite a renewed popular interest in Brutalist buildings in many western cities, many “are being demolished and new, … homogenous (often glass and composite-clad) towers [are being] erected in their place” (Mould 701). The Cairns Civic Theatre was no exception. Munro Martin Park, directly across from the Cairns Civic Theatre, was folded into the plans for the area and the two were imagined together to form a new Cairns Performing Arts Precinct (CPAC). Munro Martin Park History Munro Martin Park (originally Norman Park) was gazetted as a recreational reserve for Cairns in 1882. The park was set aside soon after European settlement and became a space for outdoor recreation. Community attachment to the park grew over time as the park became known as a meeting place for sporting events, community celebrations, parades, and political rallies. Circuses began annual visits to the park from 1891 as it was the closest large area of open ground to the inner city. These physical features also facilitated other community events, such as public holiday celebrations including May Day and ANZAC Day. Attempts to beautify the park and create shade were made in the early 1880s and again in 1892. Trees were planted with the aim of establishing a botanical reserve, although many did not survive. Those that did – mangoes, figs, and other tropical species – created shade, provided fruit for eating fresh or making chutneys and sauces, and became roosts for local flying foxes and bats. A major change of use occurred when the park was taken over by the military during WWII, and it became a space for accommodation huts and military training. An Air Raids Precautions control centre was erected (today one of the few remaining examples, and heritage listed), and a radio tower. After the war the local authority had no control over the park until it was returned from the military. The park’s war infrastructure was mostly removed, and after the war the parkland was in decline and underutilised (Grimwade 21). Most sporting clubs had moved to new grounds and community gatherings were no longer associated with sporting events (Cairns Regional Council 804). In 1954 the Cairns community saw substantial redevelopment of the park with a bequest from well-regarded local philanthropists: the Munro Martin sisters. The Cairns City Council redeveloped and beautified the park and on completion it was renamed Munro Martin Park in recognition of the sisters. It quickly renewed its status as a place for community gatherings and organised events, and as a rallying point for parades and political protests. Although the park continued to be used, it was no longer the focus of sports, with the development of purpose-built sporting fields on the southside of town. Much of the passive activity in the park began moving to the Cairns Esplanade in the early 1960s, with multi-purpose recreation areas and a large open saltwater swimming baths. This trend continued as the land along the Esplanade was reclaimed from mudflats and turned into areas for recreation and swimming (McKenzie et al. 113). By 2014 no major work had been undertaken in the park for some time, and it again became underutilised. A report by Grimwade evaluating the park’s condition found much of the infrastructure in disrepair. While it was still used by circuses, festivals, May Day celebrations and political rallies, the group most often found there were homeless Indigenous people. Plans to redevelop the park once again occurred in 2015, and these were folded into the CPAC vision. Fig. 1: Aerial image of Munro Martin Park, 1970. (Source: Cairns Historical Society image P291110.) Fig. 2: Aerial image of Munro Martin Park, 2018. (Source: Creative Life – Cairns Regional Council.) Winners and Losers After its renovation and re-opening in 2016, Munro Martin Park became a new public space with an art focus for the Cairns community. It is beautifully landscaped and entices new audiences to enjoy the arts, including families who find it a safe and secure environment for leisure. The barriers often associated with entering arts and culture venues are displaced by egalitarian outdoor seating on blankets, and programming and casting are demographically inclusive, which in turn entices a diverse audience. In this way the park is important to community life, offers health benefits and social interactions, and is a place that welcomes regardless of social standing (Slater and Koo 99). At the same time, the new space reflects neoliberal sensibilities in regard to safety and anti-social behaviour, as the park reflects a wider city branding exercise for Cairns (Mercer and Mayfield 508). The need for controlled ticketing, for example, means the park is now fenced with restricted access. Prior to its renovation the park was a safe haven and meeting and waiting place for those travelling from Indigenous communities in Cape York and the Torres Strait Islands to Cairns. It was frequented by Rosie’s, a local charity providing meals for the homeless, and many used it as a place to sleep (Dalton, Cairns Post). These communities are now locked out during performances and every night at sunset (CCTV ensures they do not remain). This is unfortunate as the park is underutilised on a day-to-day basis as performances are sporadic; this is partly because it is costly to rent and access for community events. In this way the public space of the park has become commodified as part of a new political economy of the city and displaced its use as a refuge for the alienated or excluded. In other words, the park’s renovation raises familiar questions about the ‘right to the city’ (Marcuse). The park had been a place where people could just ‘be’ or dwell, but this was inevitably associated with homelessness (Mitchell 123). It is not uncommon for different groups of people to claim the same site at different times of the day. The important thing is that the users feel a strong enough connection and that it reflects their cultural or social needs so that they are likely to use the place (Barnes et al.). In addition to the displacement of a homeless community, the park also lost significant heritage trees that had survived from the late 1800s. Local environmental activists protested by sitting in – and refusing to come down from – some of the trees as the renovation commenced (Power, Cairns Post). The trees expressed heritage value but were also home to endangered bat colonies (Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management). Although Munro Martin Park trees are not the only flying fox habitats, their loss has contributed to their demise. On the other hand, and through the park’s addition of new trees, tropical plants and elaborate vined arbours, the park is an award-winning showcase of tropical urban greenery evoking civic pride. This revitalisation and beautification creates opportunities for new community attachments to place through new sensory perceptions (Hashemnezhad et al. 7). Community attachment to Munro Martin Park and its related social value has thus changed over time. The park’s social value, as understood by the Burra Charter, is the social quality which makes it a focus for spiritual, political, national, or other cultural sentiment. Jones (21) defines social value as encompassing “the significance of the historic environment to contemporary communities, including people's sense of identity, belonging and place, as well as forms of memory and spiritual association” (see also Johnston, 1). Fond memories of sporting days, school excursions, and the circus are held by the older community, but after 1970 these positive associations diminish as the park became known for anti-social behaviour and was avoided. The heritage value and community associations are now remembered with interpretive panels that recall political rallies, circuses and celebrations, and the military takeover – making this history more accessible to younger audiences. While the park is no longer a rally point for the start of the annual May Day march, and the circus has shifted outside the city centre, portrait panels remember the stories of people who had a connection with the park. An obelisk created in the memory of the Munro and Martin sisters has been restored, which is also a reminder of Eddie Oribin’s and Sid Barnes’s joint work as influential Cairns-based architects (who built the former neighbouring brutalist Cairns Civic Theatre). The World War Two Air Raids Precautions control room, which coordinated all the air raid wardens in the city, remains and is listed on the Queensland Heritage Register. It was reused as a Scouts shop and has a large fibreglass scout hat put on top. The redevelopment thereby acknowledges the past and makes it more accessible than it was from the 1970s to the 2000s. Old places need new uses and new uses need old places, as urban activist Jane Jacobs famously said (Chang 524). These new uses become a part of a new city narrative and imaginary, creating new community attachments as a part of an evolving story. As it the case with other parts of the city’s history, however, some histories of Cairns are silenced in urban renewal (Law), reflecting the multiple and sometimes conflicting social values at play. Fig. 3: Munro Martin Park as a WWII Command Centre, n.d. (Source: Cairns Historical Society, image P08730.) Fig. 4: WWII Command Centre as Scout Hut with hat, 2016. (Source: Cairns Historical Society, image P20692.) Conclusion The revitalisation of places through arts-led gentrification is well documented and understood. This article builds on critiques of gentrification, asking slightly different questions about memory, history, and the contested meanings of heritage in urban renewal. The social value of Munro Martin Park is situated in time and space and by different users, and community attachment has evolved over time. For older generations the park evokes memories of sports, circuses, political rallies, and the closeness of the war. These histories have been remembered and curated through new park signage reflecting a conservative middle-class past: No Sports on Sundays; Circuses and Celebrations; Rallying at the Park; Military Takeover. For younger generations, for whom the park was a place to be avoided – a dangerous place on the edge of the city centre inhabited by the homeless – the park is now a new cultural space promoting accessibility to the arts. The mangoes that were once shelter for the flying fox population have given way to a new venue, tropical vines and foliage, and new signage and programming will produce new social value over time. Whether its redevelopment will “herald a renaissance in Cairns cultural life” by delivering “fresh performing arts and botanic experiences” (Cultural Services 8) remains to be seen in the shadow of COVID-19. What we do know is that the history and social significance of the park as a space for the homeless or a stopover and waiting place for Indigenous people from the Cape and the Torres Strait Islands has been erased, and that the now dispersed homeless population is difficult to reach except for food trucks and shelters. Their use of the park, whether as shelter or meeting place, is now highly constrained to a small, unfenced corner of the park at the corner of Sheridan and Minnie Street (which is rarely used). Although the redevelopment of Munro Martin Park is part of a vision for Cairns as a hub for arts and culture activities, it is important to ask at what cost. The controlled and surveilled nature of the park no longer permits the use of the space for rough sleeping or informal community events, although its redevelopment has increased visitation and created a safe and inclusive public space for middle class residents to enjoy the arts and contemplate the city’s history. With Marcuse and Mitchell we think it is important to ask larger questions about whose right to the city, and to see the remaking of urban sites as ongoing struggles over public space. In a city with one of the highest rates of homelessness per capita in Queensland, the renovation of this site of refuge reflects neoliberal tendencies in the creative economy to remake the city without due attention to the exclusion of undesirables and growing spatial inequality. References Anderson, Allison, and Lisa Law. "Putting Carmona’s Place-Shaping Continuum to Use in Research Practice." Journal of Urban Design 20.5 (2015): 545-562. DOI: 10.1080/13574809.2015.1071656. Barnes, Leanne, et al. Places Not Spaces: Placemaking in Australia. Envirobook, 1995. Cairns Regional Council. "Planning Scheme Policy – Places of Significance." Cairns Regional Council, 2016. 801-805. Chang, T.C. "‘New Uses Need Old Buildings’: Gentrification Aesthetics and the Arts in Singapore." Urban Studies 53.3 (2016): 524-539. DOI: 10.1177/0042098014527482. Cultural Services. "Cairns Regional Council Strategy for Culture and the Arts 2022." Cairns Regional Council, 2018. Dalton, Nick. "Call to Shift Cairns' Charity Food Van Because of Appalling Drunks." Cairns Post, 2016. <https://www.cairnspost.com.au/news/cairns/cairns-food-van-offers-to-move-after-tempers-flare-over-itinerants/news-story/0a112da6109a9a5b4dcb1fd82b1d2013>. Florida, Richard L. The Rise of the Creative Class : And How It's Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. Basic Books, 2004. Grimwade, Gordon. "Heritage Plan Munro Martin Park." Cairns Regional Council, 2013. 68. Harvey, David. "From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance in Late Capitalism." Geografiska Annaler. Series B, Human Geography 71.1 (1989): 3. DOI: 10.2307/490503. Hashemnezhad, Hashem, et al. "'Sense of Place' and 'Place Attachment'." International Journal of Architecture and Urban Development 3.1 (2013): 5-12. <http://ijaud.srbiau.ac.ir/article_581_a90b5ac919ddc57e6743d8ce32d19741.pdf>. Johnston, Chris. "What Is Social Value? A Discussion Paper." Australian Government Publishing Service, 1992. Jones, Siân. "Wrestling with the Social Value of Heritage: Problems, Dilemmas and Opportunities." Journal of Community Archaeology & Heritage 4.1 (2017): 21-37. DOI: 10.1080/20518196.2016.1193996. Law, Lisa. "The Ghosts of White Australia: Excavating the Past(s) of Rusty's Market in Tropical Cairns." Continuum 25.5 (2011): 669-681. DOI: 10.1080/10304312.2011.605519. Marcuse, Peter. "From Critical Urban Theory to the Right to the City." City: Cities for People, Not for Profit 13.2-3 (2009): 185-197. DOI: 10.1080/13604810902982177. McKenzie, J., et al. "Cairns Thematic History of the City of Cairns and Its Regional Towns." Cairns Regional Council, 2011. 150. <https://www.cairns.qld.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/40888/CairnsThematic.pdf>. Mercer, David, and Prashanti Mayfield. "City of the Spectacle: White Night Melbourne and the Politics of Public Space." Australian Geographer 46.4 (2015): 507-534. DOI: 10.1080/00049182.2015.1058796. Mitchell, Don. The Right to the City: Social Justice and the Fight for Public Space. Guilford Press, 2003. Mould, Oli. "Brutalism Redux: Relational Monumentality and the Urban Politics of Brutalist Architecture." Antipode 49.3 (2017): 701-720. DOI: 10.1111/anti.12306. Power, Shannon. "Locals Angry Cairns Regional Council Has Removed Trees in Munro Martin Park." The Cairns Post, 2015. <https://www.cairnspost.com.au/news/cairns/locals-angry-cairns-regional-council-has-removed-trees-in-munro-martin-park/news-story/837cb6c0769f7651d884481bcf1e25e8>. Queensland Department of Environment and Resource Management. "National Recovery Plan for the Spectacled Flying Fox Pteropus Conspicillatus." 2010. Slater, Alix, and Hee Jung Koo. "A New Type of 'Third Place'?" Journal of Place Management and Development 3.2 (2010): 99. DOI: 10.1108/17538331011062658. Wainwright, Oliver. "‘Everything Is Gentrification Now’: But Richard Florida Isn't Sorry." The Guardian, 2017. <https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/oct/26/gentrification-richard-florida-interview-creative-class-new-urban-crisis>.
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"Singapore, the Straits Settlements & the politics of imperial commerce, 1819–1867." In Singapore – Two Hundred Years of the Lion City, edited by Anthony Webster, 119–36. Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781351020466-8.

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