Дисертації з теми "Static and Dynamic Panel data Estimation"

The doctoral dissertation intends to explore the level and patterns of production transformation, centering the analysis on sample economies from East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia and SSA. It consists of seven parts. The general introduction gives outline of the research theme, claims (problem statement), objectives and research questions. It also introduces the motivation, content and contributions of each of the six parts to the dissertation. Part two intends to give conceptual discussions on production transformation and to review relevant theoretical strands on structural transformation and structural change. The aim is to grasp useful insights on how the dynamic evolution of the production structure of an economy towards the increasing returns sector (chiefly manufacturing) pertains to employment creation, cumulative productivity increases and sustainable development. As a continuation of part two, part three seeks to discuss sectoral role of growth, framing the analytical framework in favor of the dynamic synergetic relationship between sectors (which is related to the multi-sectoral multiplier approach). With the aim at contributing to the debate on sector-led development route and wealth creation in today’s low-income economies that failed to have their own industrialization imitating the advanced economies as well as to the debate on industrialization and service transformation, part three devotes to critically and thoroughly review the tenet of the different theoretical strands (past and present) on engine of growth hypothesis. It contributes to the industrialization or the production transformation and development literature by synthesizing the role of manufacturing and other sectors (agriculture and services) to economic development and poverty reduction in the developing economies context in SSA and Asia. The lengthy discussion of part three vindicated the existence of a synergetic relation between economic sectors and production activities [and the “stimulus complement” role of services to manufacturing] through addressing hosts of questions. The remaining parts of the dissertation were intended to validate the proposed synergetic relationship between economic sectors as well as the “stimulus complement” role of services to manufacturing rather than substitute to it. The possibility for synergetic relationship between manufacturing and services activities in the transformation and development process has been missing or received very little attention in the debate hitherto – advocates of each sector completely ignore or place little focus on the existence of a dynamic synergetic relationship between them. The dissertation calls for synergy because everything is interconnected in the economic system. One cannot discuss about development without acknowledging structural heterogeneity of the economy. So, it is difficult to separately discuss or define anything clearly; difficult to draw stylized fact with respect to sectoral role in economic transformation and development process that is clear and accepted by all. This is simply because synergy by its conception involves logging a middle course between polarized ideas (extremes). In short, synergy rejects extremes and often calls for the ‘middle way,’ neither too far to the right nor to the left. Often the truth in real world production is neither one alternative nor the other but both. Choosing synergy generally requires one to accept ambiguity, uncertainty, mystery and paradox. For instance, manufacturing has indispensable role in the economy; but, agriculture should not be marginalize and belittled, nor services be ignored. The economy needs both, despite manufacturing conventionally has special place to play pivotal role than others.

This dissertation consists of three essays, first two of which consider a new estimation method of dynamic panel data models and the last one considers an application of these models. The first essay (Chapter 1) offers empirical likelihood (EL) estimation of dynamic panel data models, which provide great flexibility to empirical researchers. EL estimation method is shown to have great advantages in usual settings, however little is known on the relative merits of these estimators in panel data models. With this essay, we try to fill that gap by establishing the asymptotic properties of the EL estimator for a dynamic panel model with individual effects when both the time and the cross-section dimensions tend to infinity. We give the conditions under which this estimator is consistent and asymptotically normal. In the second essay (Chapter 2), via a Monte Carlo study, we assess the relative finite sample performances of EL, generalized method of moments, and limited information maximum likelihood estimators for an autoregressive panel data model when there are many moment conditions. We also extend our results to the many weak moments settings. Our results suggest that when the overall performances are concerned, in terms of median, interquartile range and median absolute error of the estimators, in both strong and weak moments settings, EL is more reliable. In the final essay (Chapter 3) we consider an application of dynamic panel data models to examine the determinants of the allocation of state highway funds using panel data for North Carolina's 100 counties for the years 1990 to 2005. We make two main contributions with this essay. First, although there have been numerous studies of highway funding at the state level, to our knowledge, there is no analysis at the sub-state or county levels. Second, by using dynamic panel data models and sophisticated methods to estimate them, we account for any potential persistence in the process of adjustment toward an equilibrium, besides, unlike most of the previous studies, we control for the unobserved county heterogeneity and time effects that explain spatial differences, which may cause omitted variable problem if ignored.

The aim of the work is twofold. First, we investigate the properties of the dynamic panel data (DPD) GMM estimator when the instrument count is high. We introduce the extraction of principal components fromthe instrument matrix as an effective strategy to reduce the number of instruments. Through Monte Carlo experiments, we want to compare the performances of the GMM estimators when the instrument set is factorized, collapsed or limited. Second, we estimate fiscal response functions on simulated panels and on real data to identify the best-performing estimator in this context, where endogeneity and instrument proliferation issues are unavoidable. The dissertation consists of three chapters. The first reviews the literature of DPD estimation and presents the issue of instrument proliferation in DPD GMM estimation. The second introduces the principal component analysis (PCA) to reduce the dimension of the instrument matrix and compares the performances of the factorized, limited and collapsed GMM estimators, finding them similar. Though the simulated models are extremely simplified, the PCA seems to be promising. The third chapter simulates fiscal response functions and investigates the properties of DPD estimators in fiscal rules estimation; the fiscal rules are then estimated on real data for EMU Countries. The system GMM estimator is the best-performing here. Instrument proliferation does not bias the estimates; collapsing and lag truncation of the instrument matrix can lead to misleading results, while the factorized estimator performs well. Discretionary policies within the EMU are systematically found a-cyclical.

Europe is in the midst of its deepest crisis since the 1930s where unsustainable debt-to-GDP levels are among the most alarming issues. It is so critical that it is unsure if the Euro can be saved. The risk of moral hazard increases within EMU when governments are taking too much risk in their public debt policies due to the anticipation that ECB or other Member States would eventually bail them out. Moreover, the SGP imposes restrictions on government deficits and debts but have previously failed to enforce them. The weakness seen in the past is that no sanctions have been put in place once the limits have been breached and the SGP is therefore incredible. Previous research on common pool and debt spillovers in a monetary union point to an upward drift of public debt as countries join the EMU. Does this argument hold true? In order to find out, 25 OECD countries between the years of 1995 and 2010 are analyzed using System GMM Arellano-Bover/Blundell-Bond one-step estimator. The primary balance, the interest payments, and GDP growth are regressed respectively in order to see through what channel EMU displays its effect. One regression will cover the entire time period and another will only cover the years from 1995 to 2007 in order to isolate the effects of the current crisis. The results, based on the years over the entire time period (including the crisis) suggest that the effect of an EMU Membership goes via the Interest payments which it is connected to positively. By using the equation of debt dynamics, the fact that net debt interest payments are higher for a country within EMU indicates, all else equal, that they have on average higher levels of debt. Nevertheless, this realization might be a crisis phenomenon and the implication of this is not clear. However more importantly, the regressions based on the years of 1995 and 2007 (prior to the crisis) did not display any significant results. These results indicate that there is no significant relationship between a country’s membership in EMU and its level of debt prior to the crisis.

The focus is on cross-sectional dependence in panel trade flow models. We propose alternative specifications for modeling time invariant factors such as socio-cultural indicator variables, e.g., common language and currency. These are typically treated as a source of heterogeneity eliminated using fixed effects transformations, but we find evidence of cross-sectional dependence after eliminating country-specific and time-specific effects. These findings suggest use of alternative simultaneous dependence model specifications that accommodate cross-sectional dependence, which we set forth along with Bayesian estimation methods. Ignoring cross-sectional dependence implies biased estimates from panel trade flow models that rely on fixed effects.
Series: Working Papers in Regional Science

The focus is on cross-sectional dependence in panel trade flow models. We propose alternative specifications for modeling time invariant factors such as socio-cultural indicator variables, e.g., common language and currency. These are typically treated as a source of heterogeneity eliminated using fixed effects transformations, but we find evidence of cross-sectional dependence after eliminating country-specific effects. These findings suggest use of alternative simultaneous dependence model specifications that accommodate cross-sectional dependence, which we set forth along with Bayesian estimation methods. Ignoring cross-sectional dependence implies biased estimates from panel trade flow models that rely on fixed effects.
Series: Working Papers in Regional Science

In this thesis, I first investigate the relation between the aggregate unemployment rate and foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows and outflows. To study this relationship, I use a panel data set that contains 45 (developed and developing) countries observed from 1987 through 2008, and I employ Arellano and Bonds generalized methods of moments (ABGMM) estimation method for dynamic panel data. My results show that FDI inflows and outflows are not determinants of the aggregate unemployment rate. In addition, in line with macroeconomic theory, the previous level of aggregate unemployment has a positive impact on the current level of aggregate unemployment. Again, as macroeconomic theory suggests, my results show that per capita real gross domestic product (RGDP) has a negative effect on the current level of aggregate unemployment. Second, I study the long-run relationship between exports and per capita gross domestic product (instrumented by total population) using a panel data set of 51 countries from 1970 through 2008. To study this relationship, I employ the dynamic ordinary least squares (DOLS) estimation method. I find that the percentage of exports in nominal gross domestic products (GDP) is sensitive to changes in the populations of host countries and, hence, to the changes in their GDP. In addition, my results show that the agreement on trade related investment measures increased the percentage of exports in the nominal GDP of developed host countries more than it did in developing host countries.

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The study of capital structure is one of the main issues in Corporate Finance. Many researchers, in opposition to the propositions of Modigliani and Miller (1958), suggest that there is an optimal debt-equity ratio. Some authors say that the capital structure has a dynamic behavior and try to build models to identify the determinants of this dynamic capital structure. Some recent papers try to identify the variables that influence the speed of adjustment of capital structure. The objective of this research is to identify the determinants mentioned above in Brazilian companies, by analyzing the financial statements of companies listed in São Paulo Stock Exchange. The academic relevance of this study is to give an overview of the behavior of Brazilian companies regarding their optimal capital structure finding some information that can contribute to future researches.
A estrutura de capital das empresas é um dos principais assuntos estudados em Finanças Corporativas. Ao contrário do que propuseram Modigliani e Miller, em 1958, vários autores afirmam que existe uma relação ótima entre capital próprio e capital de terceiros para as empresas. Alguns deles propõem, ainda, que a estrutura de capital é dinâmica, e procuram estabelecer um modelo para identificar quais os seus determinantes. Além disso, em alguns estudos mais recentes, os autores tentam encontrar os fatores que influenciam na velocidade com a qual as empresas se dirigem à estrutura ótima. O objetivo desta pesquisa é identificar tais fatores no mercado brasileiro, através de informações extraídas das demonstrações financeiras de empresas de capital aberto listadas na Bolsa de Valores de São Paulo (Bovespa). A relevância acadêmica consiste em proporcionar uma visão do comportamento das empresas brasileiras quanto à busca de uma estrutura ótima de capital, fornecendo algumas informações que poderão ser úteis para estudos posteriores acerca do assunto.

This thesis consists of three chapters on economic and econometric applications of Bayesian parameter estimation and model comparison. The first two chapters study the incidental parameter problem mainly under a linear autoregressive (AR) panel data model with fixed effect. The first chapter investigates the problem from a model comparison perspective. The major finding in the first chapter is that consistency in parameter estimation and model selection are interrelated. The reparameterization of the fixed effect parameter proposed by Lancaster (2002) may not provide a valid solution to the incidental parameter problem if the wrong set of exogenous regressors are included. To estimate the model consistently and to measure its goodness of fit, the Bayes factor is found to be more preferable for model comparson than the Bayesian information criterion based on the biased maximum likelihood estimates. When the model uncertainty is substantial, Bayesian model averaging is recommended. The method is applied to study the relationship between financial development and economic growth. The second chapter proposes a correction function approach to solve the incidental parameter problem. It is discovered that the correction function exists for the linear AR panel model of order p when the model is stationary with strictly exogenous regressors. MCMC algorithms are developed for parameter estimation and to calculate the Bayes factor for model comparison. The last chapter studies how stock return's predictability and model uncertainty affect a rational buy-and-hold investor's decision to allocate her wealth for different lengths of investment horizons in the UK market. The FTSE All-Share Index is treated as the risky asset, and the UK Treasury bill as the riskless asset in forming the investor's portfolio. Bayesian methods are employed to identify the most powerful predictors by accounting for model uncertainty. It is found that though stock return predictability is weak, it can still affect the investor's optimal portfolio decisions over different investment horizons.

Mestrado em Econometria Aplicada e Previsão
O objetivo desta dissertação consiste na análise das características mais influentes na determinação da situação de pobreza de um indivíduo em Portugal. Tendo como base os dados longitudinais disponibilizados pelo Inquérito às Condições de Vida e de Rendimento entre os anos de 2006 e 2009, foram estimados três modelos probit sobre uma estrutura de dados em painel, um modelo estático e dois modelos dinâmicos, onde neste último foram seguidas as metodologias desenvolvidas por Wooldridge (2005) e Orme (2001). Posteriormente, de maneira a quantificar o efeito de cada variável explicativa, foram calculados os respetivos efeitos marginais médios. Além do tratamento da heterogeneidade individual não observada prova-se que a estimação dinâmica sobre esta estrutura de dados beneficia a análise do problema, nomeadamente no peso significativo da variável dependente desfasada um período na determinação da probabilidade de um indivíduo estar em situação de pobreza. Conclui-se também que a inserção em agregados familiares numerosos ou monoparentais, a viver em áreas pouco povoadas, com dificuldades em fazer face aos encargos usuais, baixos níveis de scolaridade e membros do agregado em situação de desemprego foram outros fatores que influenciaram a ocorrência deste fenómeno.
The objective of this thesis consists in analyzing the most influential factors that determine individual poverty situation in Portugal. Based on longitudinal data provided by the Statistics on Income and Living Conditions survey between the period of 2006 and 2009, we have estimated three probit models for a panel data structure, one being static and two dynamic, whereas for the latter, we followed the ethodologies developed by Wooldridge (2005) and Orme (2001). Futhermore, in order to quantify the effect the effect of each single explanatory variable, we have calculated the respective average marginal effects. In addition to the unobserved heterogeneity treatment, evidence is provided that the dynamic estimation of this data structure benefits the problem analysis,namely concerning the significant importance of the one period lagged dependent variable when determining the probability of an individual being in a poverty situation. It is also concluded that large or one-parent families, living in sparsely populated areas, thriving to cope with monthly burdens, with low educational attainment levels and that live in jobless households are among other factors that influence the occurrence of this phenomena.

Cette thèse étudie comment le taux de change effectif réel (TCER) et ses mesures associées (volatilité du TCER et désalignement du TCER) affectent la croissance de la productivité totale des facteurs (CPTF). Elle analyse également les canaux par lesquels le TCER et ses mesures associées agissent sur la productivité totale des facteurs (PTF). La première partie étudie comment le TCER lui-Même, d'une part, et la volatilité du TCER, d'autre part, influencent la productivité. Une analyse du lien entre le niveau du TCER et la PTF dans le chapitre 1 indique qu'une appréciation de taux de change cause une augmentation de la PTF. Mais cet impact est également non- inéaire: en-Dessous du seuil, le TCER influence négativement la productivité tandis qu'au-Dessus du seuil il agit positivement. Les résultats du chapitre 2 illustrent que la volatilité du TCER affecte négativement la CPTF. Nous avons également constaté que la volatilité du TCER agit sur PTF selon le niveau du développement financier. Pour les pays modérément financièrement développés, la volatilité du TCER réagit négativement sur la productivité et n'a aucun effet sur la productivité pour les niveaux très bas et très élevés du développement financier. La deuxième partie examine les canaux par lesquels le TCER et ses mesures associées influencent la productivité. Les résultats du chapitre 3 illustrent que la volatilité du TCER a un impact négatif élevé sur l'investissement. Ces résultats sont robustes dans les pays à faible revenu et les pays à revenu moyens, et en employant une mesure alternative de volatilité du TCER. Le chapitre 4 montre que le désalignement du taux de change réel et la volatilité du taux de change réel affectent négativement les exportations. Il démontre également que la volatilité du taux de change réel est plus nocive aux exportations que le désalignement. Ces résultats sont corroborés par des résultats sur des sous-Échantillons de pays à bas revenu et à revenu moyen
This dissertation investigates how the real effective exchange rate (REER) and its associated asurements (REER volatility and REER misalignment) affect total factor productivity growth (TFPG). It also analyzes the channels through which the REER and its associated measurements act on total factor productivity (TFP). The first part studies how the REER itself, on the one hand, and the REER volatility, on the other hand, influence productivity. An analysis of the link between the level of REER and TFP in chapter 1 reveals that an exchange rate appreciation causes an increase of TFP. But this impact is also nonlinear: below the threshold, real exchange rate influences negatively productivity while above the threshold it acts positively. The results of chapter 2 illustrate that REER volatility affects negatively TFPG. We also found that REER volatility acts on TFP according to the level of financial development. For moderately financially developed countries, REER volatility reacts negatively on productivity and has no effect on productivity for very low and very high levels of financial development. The second part examines the channels through which the REER and its associated measurements influence productivity. The results of chapter 3 illustrate that the exchange rate volatility has a strong negative impact on investment. This outcome is robust in low income and middle income countries, and by using an alternative measurement of exchange rate volatility. Chapter 4 show that both real exchange rate misalignment and real exchange rate volatility affect negatively exports. It also demonstrates that real exchange rate volatility is more harmful to exports than misalignment. These outcomes are corroborated by estimations on subsamples of Low- ncome and Middle-Income countries

碩士
淡江大學
產業經濟學系碩士班
101
This article adopts the System Generalized Method of Moments to discuss the residential electricity of demand in Taiwan. This analysis has been performed by using a balanced panel data set of 19 countries in Taiwan for the period from January 2007 to December 2011. The main findings are as follows: 1. The electricity consumption of the residential is effected by the behavior of the former four period of electricity consumption.This might be resulted from the situations that the electrical appliances that are consuming much power can’t be replaced immediately, or the household can’t change the electricity-using habit right now. 2. Households consume electricity by price increase in summer months. Electricity consumption reduction. 3.In non-summer months, gas and electricity are instead. In summer months, gas and electricity are substitute. 4.Electricity is a necessity and the households depend on it very much. 5.The result of temperature is inconsistent with the expectation better indicators as weather such as Heating Degree Days(HDD) are suggested to be applied for the better research.

In this dissertation we proposed two generalizations of the Second-Order Least Squares (SLS) approach in two popular dynamic econometrics models. The first one is the regression model with time varying nonlinear mean function and autoregressive conditionally heteroskedastic (ARCH) disturbances. The second one is a linear dynamic panel data model. We used a semiparametric framework in both models where the SLS approach is based only on the first two conditional moments of response variable given the explanatory variables. There is no need to specify the distribution of the error components in both models. For the ARCH model under the assumption of strong-mixing process with finite moments of some order, we established the strong consistency and asymptotic normality of the SLS estimator. It is shown that the optimal SLS estimator, which makes use of the additional information inherent in the conditional skewness and kurtosis of the process, is superior to the commonly used quasi-MLE, and the efficiency gain is significant when the underlying distribution is asymmetric. Moreover, our large scale simulation studies showed that the optimal SLSE behaves better than the corresponding estimating function estimator in finite sample situation. The practical usefulness of the optimal SLSE was tested by an empirical example on the U.K. Inflation. For the linear dynamic panel data model, we showed that the SLS estimator is consistent and asymptotically normal for large N and finite T under fairly general regularity conditions. Moreover, we showed that the optimal SLS estimator reaches a semiparametric efficiency bound. A specification test was developed for the first time to be used whenever the SLS is applied to real data. Our Monte Carlo simulations showed that the optimal SLS estimator performs satisfactorily in finite sample situations compared to the first-differenced GMM and the random effects pseudo ML estimators. The results apply under stationary/nonstationary process and wih/out exogenous regressors. The performance of the optimal SLS is robust under near-unit root case. Finally, the practical usefulness of the optimal SLSE was examined by an empirical study on the U.S. airfares.

Дисертація присвячена аналізу структури капіталу та ефективності господарської діяльності підприємства. Використовуючи метод випадкового відбору, для дослідження було проаналізовано 31 підприємство. Розраховані середні коефіцієнти за період 1999-2013 рр. Результати показують різні тенденції. Змінні аналізу є суперечливими щодо різних коефіцієнтів корпоративної ефективності та структури капіталу. Запропоновано комбінувати динамічну і статичну моделі панельних даних в короткостроковому і довгостроковому періодах. В основу аналізу структури капіталу покладена теорія статичного компромісу, сигнальні моделі теорії структури капіталу (теорія ієрархій), теорія агентських витрат. У процесі визначення тенденцій залежності структури капіталу і показників ефективності господарської діяльності в умовах конкуренції були встановлені нелінійні відносини між цими категоріями, що суперечить стандартної теорії статичного компромісу Майерса і Майлуфа. Крім того, встановлена неточність у трактуванні теорії статичного компромісу Леланда щодо того, що великі підприємства більш схильні до збереження високих показників діяльності, ніж середні при однаковому коефіцієнті рівня левериджу.
Диссертация посвящена анализу структуры капитала и эффективности хозяйственной деятельности предприятия. Используя метод случайного отбора, для исследования было проанализировано 31 предприятие. Рассчитаны средние коэффициенты за период 1999-2013 гг. Результаты показывают разные тенденции. Переменные анализа являются противоречивыми относительно разных коэффициентов корпоративной эффективности и структуры капитала. Предложено комбинировать динамическую и статическую модели панельных данных в краткосрочном и долгосрочном периодах. В основу анализа структуры капитала положена теория статического компромисса, сигнальные модели теории структуры капитала (теория иерархий), теория агентских издержек. В процессе определения тенденций зависимости структуры капитала и показателей эффективности хозяйственной деятельности в условиях конкуренции были установлены нелинейные отношения между этими категориями, что противоречит стандартной теории статического компромисса Майерса и Майлуфа. Кроме того, установлена неточность в трактовке теории статического компромисса Леланда относительно того, что крупные предприятия более склонны к сохранению высоких показателей деятельности, чем средние при одинаковом коэффициенте уровня левериджа. Практическое внедрение разработанных научных положений, выводов и рекомендаций подтвердило их достоверность и целесообразность использования в финансовой политике предприятий. Применение предложенных автором методик и рекомендаций даёт возможность установить разные компромиссы в цепочке стоимости капитала, покрывать неожидаемые потребности в денежных средствах за счёт банковских кредитных линий. Результаты анализа структуры капитала дают возможность оценить финансовый риск привлечения внешних источников капитала, установить профиль времени платежей (регулирование выплат дивидендов), рефинансирование рисков, связанных со структурой задолженности, а также продолжительность и соотношение краткосрочной и долгосрочной задолженности. Анализ плана действий относительно сходства и различий между краткосрочным и долгосрочным эмпирическим анализом выявил наличие влияния структуры капитала с использованием обоих методов. Однако краткосрочный эмпирический анализ является более целесообразным, поскольку он показывает решающее влияние возможностей роста предприятия при исследовании эффективности корпоративных компаний в Нигерии. Кроме того, рассмотрены сходства и различия между краткосрочной и долгосрочной эмпирической ситуацией и обнаружено, что существует значительное отличие между этими двумя ситуациями: в краткосрочной ситуации соотношение между заемным и собственным капиталом и стоимость общих активов корпоративных компаний являются двумя неважными негативными факторами, в то время как в долгосрочной ситуации – наоборот. Кроме того, если доля материальных активов (сокращенно atan) и размер предприятия (fsiz) имели негативное влияние при оценке краткосрочной ситуации, то влияние в долгосрочной ситуации является положительным. Также изменилось на противоположное (с положительного на отрицательное) влияние рыночной капитализации компаний (сокращенно mcap). Выявлено, что значительная часть корпоративных общих активов является очень весомой для стимулирования корпоративных прибылей. Кроме того, дезагрегированная модель, которая отражает независимое влияние макроэкономической политики на корпоративную прибыль, показывает, что процентная ставка является наиболее значимой в краткосрочной перспективе, но только при наличии внутренней стабильности, что также связано с соответствующим уровнем инфляции.
The thesis presented theoretical generalization and proposed combinational approach to solving an empirical problem, which is to study and develop scientific, methodological and practical recommendations for improving the analysis of capital structure and effectiveness of business enterprises. The study undertakes the panel models for long-run and short-run situations for the empirical estimations of 31 companies for the period of 1999-2013. As a summary, for the measure of efficiency, we used return on assets (ROA). The independent variables include both firm-specific variables (such as the total assets, growth opportunities, firm size, shares of tangible assets in their total value) and macroeconomic variables such as the interest rate, inflation and market capitalization. The choice of independent variables is informed by the theoretical framework employed for the study. The short-run panel data were analyzed for basic linear panel data estimates. It was found that the growth opportunities of the firms (gop), rather than capital structure (deb), is the main factor of importance for the corporate enterprise's efficiency, while the in the long-run situation show that the financial structure and the value of total assets (totasset) are factors of importance for corporate effectiveness in Nigeria. The results obtained indicate enable us draw some conclusions and proffer some policy suggestions.