Статті в журналах: "Social behaviour in rabbits"

1

Marai, I. F. M., and A. A. Rashwan. "Rabbits behavioural response to climatic and managerial conditions – a review." Archives Animal Breeding 47, no. 5 (October 10, 2004): 469–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/aab-47-469-2004.

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Abstract. The domestic rabbit is deprived of the protection of burrows and of a social hierarchy and live in a limited space which is a fraction of a metre of a hard sanitized space, removed from odours, markers and social interaction. Hot climate was the main cause for abnormal maternal and sexual behaviour. Exposure to high ambient temperature induces rabbits to try to balance their excessive heat load by using different means. The doe that was capable to produce 10 litters a year may give only 4 to 5 litters in hot climate Noise in rabitries causes adverse effects including nervous and behavioural abnormalities and can cause a startled response and traumatic injuries to limbs and back. Particularly, most concern about noise effects has traditionally focused on impairment of reproductive and maternal behaviours, although few controlled studies have been done to support the observations of animal caretakers that noise inhibits production. Moon phases are one of the main causes of abnormal sexual behaviour in females. Crowdness causes that rabbits become aggressive and bite one another during the first few days of nest sharing, while successive litters live together. Keeping rabbits singly in cages is not compatible with the demand of housing with respect to animal welfare, since the singly caged rabbit is exposed to natural external stimulus, has no social contact and has no conditions for suitable locomotion. This may be the reason in that caged rabbits show nervous behaviour and altered forms of movement and low relaxed resting-behaviour, that may be due to the narrowness of the cage and the wire floor. Social deprivation in rabbits interferes with the development of normal adult behaviours. However, among group-housed rabbits, survival at weaning was estimated to be 39% instead of 87% in individual cages. The behaviour and welfare of caged rabbit can be positively affected with repeated handling by familiar people. Minimal handling reduces timidity, particularly when performed during the first week of post-natal life. Higher growth rate and higher activity levels were recorded in rabbits handled daily for 10 minutes from 10 days to 10 weeks of age. Abuse and pushing the animals hard because of the method of production are cases in which the animals do not get optimal facilities necessary to fulfill their behavioural (ethological) needs.

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2

Schepers, F., P. Koene, and B. Beerda. "Welfare assessment in pet rabbits." Animal Welfare 18, no. 4 (November 2009): 477–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600000890.

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AbstractOne million pet rabbits are kept in The Netherlands, but there are no data available on their behaviour and welfare. This study seeks to assess the welfare of pet rabbits in Dutch households and is a first step in the development of a welfare assessment system. In an internet survey, housing systems, general up-keep and behaviour of pet rabbits were reported by their owners. The answers of 912 respondents were analysed with behavioural observations carried out on 66 rabbits in as many households. The rabbits were observed in their home cage and during three fear-related tests: a contact test, a handling test and an open-field test. The survey revealed that the average lifespan of the rabbits is approximately 4.2 years (the maximum potential lifespan is 13 years) and solitary housing appears to reduce lifespan. Close to half of respondents subjected their rabbit(s) to solitary housing and the majority housed them in relatively small cages (< 5,000 cm2). Health risks may arise from a failure to inoculate rabbits and via inappropriate diet. During the contact test, solitary-housed rabbits made more contacts with a human than group-housed rabbits and rabbits in a small housing system made more contacts than those in a large system. Observations in the home cage differed greatly compared with the natural time budget of rabbits, ie displaying increased stereotypic behaviour and decreased foraging and, in solitary-housed rabbits, a complete lack of social behaviour. Nearly 25% of rabbits displayed strong resistance to being picked up, indicating socialisation problems. During the open-field test, solitary-housed rabbits sat up more than social-housed rabbits suggesting increased fearfulness. These findings indicate that the conditions in which pet rabbits are kept often have a negative impact on their welfare, further underlining the need to study this in greater detail.

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3

Burn, CC, and P. Shields. "Do rabbits need each other? Effects of single versus paired housing on rabbit body temperature and behaviour in a UK shelter." Animal Welfare 29, no. 2 (May 1, 2020): 209–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.7120/09627286.29.2.209.

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In the wild, rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) are social but territorial. Recent surveys suggest that over half of pet rabbits are housed singly. We aimed to compare welfare in single versus paired rabbits. We predicted singletons would show more abnormal or escape behaviour, greater stress responses to handling, and reduced body temperature (being unable to huddle with another individual when cold), but that pairs may show aggression. This study was conducted during winter at a rabbit-only rescue centre, and included 45rabbits, comprising 15 housed singly and 15 pairs. Like most pet rabbits, they were housed either outdoors or in unheated outbuildings. Singletons were mostly in smaller enclosures than pairs. Home-pen observations (40 min) revealed bar-biting in 8/15 single rabbits compared with 0/30 of the paired ones. No other behavioural effects of social housing reached significance, and enclosure size showed no significant effects. Body temperature was significantly lower in singletons than pairs, with at least 0.5°C mean difference. On colder days, rabbits adopted compact postures more, and relaxed postures less frequently. After handling, pairs resumed normal behaviour significantly more quickly than singletons in the home-pen (3.0 [± 0.3] versus 8.3 [± 1.3] s, respectively). Aggression was never observed. The results indicate that social housing reduces bar-biting, aids thermoregulation, and may help buffer stress. Rabbit owners should be encouraged to meet the need for rabbits to be housed with an appropriate conspecific in a suitably large, sheltered enclosure.

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4

Cooke, Brian D. "Rabbits: manageable environmental pests or participants in new Australian ecosystems?" Wildlife Research 39, no. 4 (2012): 279. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr11166.

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Some theorists argue that plant and animal species introduced to new localities should be controlled only if they cause damage and not because they originated in another country; this warrants greater acceptance of introduced species as participants in new ecological associations in a rapidly changing world. To evaluate this concept and its relevance in setting directions for rabbit control in Australia, this idea is not only reviewed against information on the rabbit’s impact in Australian ecosystems but also against management policies, industrial drivers and social expectations. It is concluded that wild rabbits hold many natural Australian ecosystems in a degraded state and any beneficial ecological roles rabbits provide are small by comparison. Furthermore, rabbits can be controlled adequately to initiate ecosystem restoration. The idea that introduced rabbits should be more readily accepted as participants in new ecosystems is strongly counter-argued. Rabbits are not harmless passengers in Australian ecosystems and, to achieve ecosystem recovery, a high level of rabbit control is necessary.

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5

Rödel, Heiko Georg. "Aspects of social behaviour and reproduction in the wild rabbit – Implications for rabbit breeding?" World Rabbit Science 30, no. 1 (March 31, 2022): 47–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2022.15954.

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Further knowledge on aspects of social behaviour in the wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus), including the link to reproduction, could possibly point to new ways to improve housing and breeding conditions in rabbit farming. In this review, I present some results of our long-term study on a 2-hectare field enclosure population of wild rabbits (University of Bayreuth, Germany), exploring group-level and individual-level differences in agonistic behaviour of females and their potential associations with reproductive traits, including offspring survival. The frequency of agonistic behaviour in which females were involved, increased with increasing group size, and was lower in groups with a more heterogeneous age structure. At the individual level, reproducing females were involved in more agonistic interactions when groupmates gave birth and thus built their burrows and nests at around the same time, and higher-ranking mothers were particularly aggressive when other females approached close to their nursery burrows. Associations between females’ social environment and reproduction were evident, as the numbers of litters and offspring per female were lower at higher female densities, high-ranking females produced more offspring and had a lower offspring mortality than low-ranking ones, and cases of infanticide were lower in more stable groups, which we quantified by the more heterogeneous age structure of the females’ rank hierarchy in such groups. Furthermore, perinatal offspring mortality was increased in females with a delayed burrow and nest building activity, i.e. does that dug their nursery burrow and built their nest only during the last 24 h pre-partum, possibly driven by the more unfavourable social environment experienced by such females. Most importantly, our studies highlight the importance of the presence of litter siblings in improving an individual’s social environment, which resulted in an earlier onset of breeding in such females. Higher levels of positive social interactions with litter siblings were also associated with lower stress hormone (corticosterone) levels and with a better health status in terms of lower loads with an intestinal nematode. These findings on ameliorating effects of litter sibling presence in growing rabbits as well as in reproducing females may be a promising starting point worth further exploration in the context of group housing of domestic rabbits.

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6

White, Piran C. L., Geraldine Newton-Cross, Michael Gray, Roland Ashford, Catherine White, and Glen Saunders. "Spatial interactions and habitat use of rabbits on pasture and implications for the spread of rabbit haemorrhagic disease in New South Wales." Wildlife Research 30, no. 1 (2003): 49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr01106.

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Successful control of European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) populations in Australia has been achieved with the use of disease, initially myxomatosis and more recently rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD). Predicting the effectiveness of disease as a control agent depends on understanding the spatial and social organisation of its host population. We radio-tracked 37 rabbits from adjacent burrow systems during May and June 1999. Surface-dwelling rabbits had larger home ranges and core areas and a higher proportion of vegetation cover in their ranges than warren-based rabbits. Interactions between rabbit dyads from the same warren showed greater range overlap than those involving rabbits from different warrens and those involving itinerants. Static interaction was high and positive for intra-warren dyads, but low and negative for inter-warren, warren–surface and surface–surface dyads. These patterns of range use and interaction behaviour create a hierarchical contact and transmission structure within the rabbit population that is likely to vary according to external factors such as population density, resource availability, season, climate and the environment. Quantifying these links between the environment and the transmission process is important to increase our understanding of RHD as an effective management tool for rabbit populations.

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7

Jekkel, G., G. Milisits, and I. Nagy. "Effect of alternative rearing methods on the behaviour and on the growth and slaughter traits of growing rabbits." Archives Animal Breeding 53, no. 2 (October 10, 2010): 205–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/aab-53-205-2010.

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Abstract. The aim of this study was to compare the behaviour and the production and slaughter traits of growing rabbits reared in different alternative rearing systems and in conventional fattening cages. The experiment was carried out with 312 Pannon White growing rabbits between 5 and 11 weeks of age. According to the pen size, floor type and stocking density 8 experimental groups were created. For analyzing the different behavioural patterns 24 h video recordings were performed weekly by using infrared cameras. The body weight and the feed consumption of the rabbits were also measured weekly. At 11 weeks of age all of the animals were slaughtered and dissected. For the comparison of the behaviour and production of the experimental and control animals the Dunnett-test was used. It was established that the different alternative rearing methods have a significant effect only on the social and stereotype behaviour of the rabbits. The daily weight gain was highest in the control animals, while lowest in the rabbits reared on deep litter. The feed consumption, the feed conversion ratio and the slaughter characteristics were not affected by the rearing method. It was concluded that from the ethological point of view housing rabbits in pens – particularly on deep litter – has a favourable effect on both of the social and stereotype behaviours’ frequency. However, when rabbits are reared on deep litter, some consumption of the litter material should be calculated, but it does not decrease the pellet consumption and the final liveweight of the animals significantly.

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8

Lehmann, Michel. "Social behaviour in young domestic rabbits under semi-natural conditions." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 32, no. 2-3 (November 1991): 269–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-1591(05)80049-8.

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9

Whary, Mark, Randall Peper, Gary Borkowski, Wendy Lawrence, and Frederick Ferguson. "The effects of group housing on the research use of the laboratory rabbit." Laboratory Animals 27, no. 4 (January 1, 1993): 330–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/002367793780745615.

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This project evaluated the influence of group housing on common aspects of research use of female laboratory rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus). Eight rabbits housed individually in conventional cages were compared to a second group of 8 housed as a social group in a proportionately larger enclosure. The group housing method provided increased opportunities for exercise, social contact, and a more novel environment. As a function of housing style, the 2 experimental groups were compared on humoral and delayed hypersensitivity response, feed intake, growth rate, and selected physiological parameters that are considered to reflect stress in most species. Single and group housed rabbits did not significantly differ in physiological and immunological measurements, indicating that the practical research performance (immune response, stress level, growth rates etc.) of these rabbits was not significantly affected by group housing compared with the more traditional single housing. Analysis of group social behaviour indicated that the rabbits preferred small social groups, had preferences for microenvironments within the enclosure, and exhibited behaviours that are not possible when housed singly. Group housing appeared to be a successful method for enriching the environment of female rabbits and aspects of it should be considered in the approach to housing rabbits used in research.

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10

Postollec, G., E. Boilletot, R. Maurice, and V. Michel. "The effect of housing system on the behaviour and growth parameters of fattening rabbits." Animal Welfare 15, no. 2 (May 2006): 105–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600030189.

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AbstractThree housing systems for fattening rabbits were compared using a stocking density of 15 rabbits m–2. The rabbits were housed in large pens (3.67 m2, 50 rabbits), small pens (0.66 m2, 10 rabbits) or in conventional standard cages (0.39 m2, 6 rabbits) from 31 to 72 days of age. Rabbits housed in each small pen or in each cage belonged to the same litter, and the 50 rabbits housed in each large pen were from six or seven litters. At the end of fattening, when rabbits were 72 days old, there was no significant difference in the weight of rabbits from the three different housing systems, even though the rabbits from small pens were slightly heavier in weight compared with rabbits from large pens. The best feed conversion ratio was found in rabbits from cages, but was only significantly different from rabbits housed in small pens. No significant differences were found in the main activities: nutrition, social behaviour, resting, and standing; however, the frequency of runs, hops and consecutive hops was significantly higher in rabbits from large pens compared with rabbits from the two other housing systems. These results confirm that the total surface area available for animals is the most important factor for such locomotory activities. This study did not reveal any significant difference in aggressive behaviours between rabbits from different litters housed in large pens and between rabbits from the same litter housed in small pens or cages.

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11

Edgar, JL, and SC Seaman. "The effect of mirrors on the behaviour of singly housed male and female laboratory rabbits." Animal Welfare 19, no. 4 (November 2010): 461–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600001949.

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AbstractIt is widely recognised that single housing is detrimental to the welfare of social species. However, some experimental procedures dictate that laboratory animals are housed individually. There is evidence to suggest that, by mimicking social contact, mirrors are beneficial to the welfare of singly housed horses and heifers. However, experiments with singly caged laboratory mice have found mirrors to be mildly aversive. The present study investigated the behavioural response of singly housed male and female rabbits to a mirror in their cage. After a period of pre-trial behavioural observations, rabbits were provided with an acrylic mirror, either at the front or the back of their cage, for a period of seven days. This was followed by a post-trial period, at the beginning of which all mirrors were removed. Both sexes showed some changes in behaviour and in the use of space within the cage. The addition of a mirror significantly reduced grooming in females, which was previously considered to be at high levels. Both males and females showed an increase in investigatory behaviour, although the patterns of change differed between the sexes. Differences between males and females are attributed to differences in socio-sexual strategies between the sexes. It is concluded that, when single housing is unavoidable, mirrors might be appropriate to partially compensate for social contact in female laboratory rabbits. Further research using a wide range of welfare indicators is needed to establish whether the provision of a mirror could be used as a successful method of improving laboratory rabbit welfare.

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12

Jones, SE, and CJC Phillips. "The effects of mirrors on the welfare of caged rabbits." Animal Welfare 14, no. 3 (August 2005): 195–202. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0962728600029353.

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AbstractMirrors can enrich the environment of some social animals kept in isolation. In this study, the effect of mirrors on the behaviour of isolated, or partially isolated, caged rabbits was tested. In a changeover experiment, four treatments were investigated: isolated without mirrors; partially isolated (with a conspecific housed behind a partition) without mirrors; isolated with mirrors; and partially isolated with mirrors. Behaviour was recorded during the first hour for which the rabbits were in the cages with the stimuli, and then again after one week. Initially, the rabbits' alertness increased, which may be because they perceived the mirror image to be a potential threat. The mirrors also stimulated investigation by the rabbits, which initially scraped them rapidly with their forepaws (scrabbling) and sniffed them. Although sniffing was maintained until the end of the week, scrabbling was not, probably because the rabbits failed to elicit the normal reactions of a conspecific from their mirror images. Mirrors also reduced the time rabbits spent sitting in their living area looking out of the cage, and increased their behavioural complexity, as determined from the number of behaviours performed per minute. In a second experiment, the responses of seven rabbits to four stimuli were recorded: a conspecific; a toy animal; a mirror; and a blank card. The rabbits were presented with pairs of stimuli at either end of a marked board. The responses of the rabbits to mirrors were more similar to their responses to a blank card or to a soft toy than to a conspecific. Although the rabbits did not respond to mirror images as if they were conspecifics, the mirrors may have had benefits to the complexity of behaviour of rabbits in small cages.

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13

Vastrade, Françoise M. "The social behaviour of free-ranging domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.)." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 16, no. 2 (September 1986): 165–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(86)90109-7.

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14

Girolami, L., G. Fontani, L. Lodi, and C. Lupo. "Hippocampal cholineacetyltransferase activity, agonistic behaviour and social stress in male rabbits." Behavioural Processes 36, no. 1 (February 1996): 77–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(95)00017-8.

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15

Jennings, Scott, and Gregory Mutze. "Multiple warren use by subadult wild rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, and its implications for disease transmission." Wildlife Research 44, no. 7 (2017): 582. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr17042.

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Context Contact rates are a key determinant of disease transmission. Territorial behaviour has generally been considered to limit contact between European rabbits occupying different warrens, particularly during the breeding season. Aims We investigated warren use by subadult rabbits during a period of low population density to determine their potential role in transmission of rabbit haemorrhagic disease and myxomatosis. Methods Subadult rabbits were radio-collared in late summer and relocated twice-weekly for 25 weeks, during which time they grew to adult size and breeding commenced. Key results Rabbits of both sexes used an average of four warrens each on a regular basis, even after older rabbits had commenced breeding. Warrens used by individual rabbits formed a continuously overlapping, irregular array. Subadult rabbits did not belong to separate social groups that utilised separate groups of warrens. Conclusions Subadult or young adult rabbits did not display the same territorial warren fidelity that had been previously described for rabbits. They have potential to carry pathogens between warrens at a landscape scale. Implications Movement of subadult rabbits between warrens is therefore likely to play a critical role in disease transmission, particularly when population density is low. This may help to explain the prevalent seasonality of RHD epizootics in spring when first-born litters of each breeding season typically reach that size.

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Mastellone, Vincenzo, Fulvia Bovera, Nadia Musco, Valentina Panettieri, Giovanni Piccolo, Anna Scandurra, Carmelo Di Meo, Youssef A. Attia, and Pietro Lombardi. "Mirrors Improve Rabbit Natural Behavior in a Free-Range Breeding System." Animals 9, no. 8 (August 6, 2019): 533. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani9080533.

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The aim of this research was to evaluate the possible usefulness of mirrors in improving rabbit behavior in a free-range breeding system. Three groups (each consisting of nine replicates of three animals) were compared: isolated, isolated with mirrors and separated by a wire mesh (possible visual and olfactory contacts). Rabbits allowed to have a visual and olfactory contact showed a significantly higher expression of important natural behaviors (olfactory investigation, gnawing, alertness, stretching, locomotion) compared to the isolated rabbits (with or without mirrors); while rabbits in the mirror group showed higher allo-grooming activity than those isolated and no different locomotion activity than those separated by wire mesh. Thus, mirrors seemed to be able to modify the behavioral repertoire of isolated rabbits by acting on social perception in rabbits reared in small groups in a free-range system. Nevertheless, despite it being advisable to use a combination of different indicators in order to assess the stress level of an animal, the accuracy of serum cortisol, as well as of some secondary stress markers assay, appeared to be limited in this type of breeding.

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17

Schmitz, H. Cristina, and G. M. Beer. "Muscle-sparing approach to the peroneal nerve of the rabbit." Laboratory Animals 35, no. 4 (October 1, 2001): 334–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1258/0023677011911921.

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To study nerve degeneration and regeneration the peroneal nerve of the rabbit is a rewarding experimental model. The access to the nerve should be as atraumatic as possible and no muscular tissue should be incised or transected in order to lower postoperative morbidity and enhance the welfare of the animals. Given such conditions it is not possible to expose the undistributed proximal and central parts of the peroneal nerve from the intervertebral notch to its passage through the lateral head of the gastrocnemius muscle by a single approach, but rather a two-level incision is required. Such an approach to the peroneal nerve was carried out on 24 New Zealand White rabbits. The amount of postoperative pain was estimated by the rabbits social and feeding behaviour. The observed overall impairment was impressively low. This approach has been shown to be beneficial for the animals, and is atraumatic and should be strongly recommended.

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FARABOLLINI, F., G. GIORDANO, and G. CARLI. "Tonic pain and social behavior in male rabbits." Behavioural Brain Research 31, no. 2 (December 1, 1988): 169–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0166-4328(88)90020-4.

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19

Roberts, S. C. "Social influences on vigilance in rabbits." Animal Behaviour 36, no. 3 (June 1988): 905–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-3472(88)80173-8.

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20

Botelho, Nadina, Madalena Vieira-Pinto, Pau Batchelli, Joaquim Pallisera, and Antoni Dalmau. "Testing an Animal Welfare Assessment Protocol for Growing-Rabbits Reared for Meat Production Based on the Welfare Quality Approach." Animals 10, no. 8 (August 13, 2020): 1415. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10081415.

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The objective of the present study is to present an animal welfare assessment protocol for growing-rabbits for discussion after its implementation in 32 farms from Spain and Portugal. The protocol comprises the principles of Good Feeding, Good Housing, Good Health and Appropriate Behaviour of the Welfare Quality protocols and includes 36 welfare parameters. Overall, the protocol showed a good capacity for discrimination between farms, with scores ranging 44 to 82 points. The protocol seems reliable for the assessment of animal welfare after proper training of auditors. However, for the criteria social behaviour and other behaviours, further research is needed to ascertain if the methodology and times of observation used are appropriate. Some farms had high mortality rates with a low prevalence of health problems, while others had low mortality rates with high prevalence of health problems due to different managements of culling. The protocol should be improved, to impede farms with high mortality rates but a low prevalence of health issues the day of the audit from obtaining better scores than the second type of farms, by limiting the compensation in key measures. The main points to be solved in the growing-rabbit farms were: to provide more space to the animals; register the number of animals culled accurately; change cervical dislocation for another killing method and provide the farmers training in animal welfare.

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KK, Ana Carolina. "Rabbit Breeding and Welfare - Emphasis on Housing Conditions." Journal of Ethology & Animal Science 2, no. 1 (January 9, 2019): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.23880/jeasc-16000107.

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In order to understand the real need for more space or collective cages in the rabbit breeding is necessary to establish parameters to measure what is good or bad for the animals and not for the humans. In nature, rabbits spend most of their time in shelters or the search for feed. This behavior does not reproduce in captivity, because, the animals have restricted space. However, the questions are: Would the animals like more space even having feed always available? Would the animals even being protected would like to live in groups? In this sense, the most studies show that the group rearing in cages – for growing rabbits up 84 days – is the best choice to satisfy rabbit social behavior. In reproducing animals, alternative housing systems, that permit does to separate themselves from their litters, should be developed. So far the individual cages seem to be the most suitable for the does.

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Marsh, Maija K., Steven R. McLeod, Michael R. Hutchings, and Piran C. L. White. "Use of proximity loggers and network analysis to quantify social interactions in free-ranging wild rabbit populations." Wildlife Research 38, no. 1 (2011): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr10150.

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Context Social structure of group-living animals has important implications for processes such as gene flow, information transfer, resource utilisation, and disease spread. However, due to the difficulties associated with measuring relationships among wild animals and deriving meaningful estimates of social structure from these interactions, quantifying sociality of evasive species can be challenging. Aims Our aim was to quantify the pattern of social interactions among free-ranging European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in a temperate region of Australia. Methods We used proximity logging devices to collect data on the dyadic interactions among two populations of rabbits. We then applied recently developed social structure and network analytical techniques to infer estimates of sociality and contact networks from recorded interactions. Key results We found large heterogeneities in the strength of association indices and network centrality measures within but not between populations. Network analytical techniques revealed clustering of rabbits into distinct social groups. Conclusions Most associations within social groups were strong and highly stable over time whereas interactions between groups were rare and transient, indicating low levels of inter-group mixing. Despite the apparent differences in habitat quality between sites, the network characteristics were extremely similar between the two populations. Implications Our results highlight the importance of heterogeneities in individual behaviour in determining the dynamics of directly transmitted diseases at the population level.

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d'Ovidio, Dario, Ludovica Pierantoni, Emilio Noviello, and Federica Pirrone. "Sex differences in human-directed social behavior in pet rabbits." Journal of Veterinary Behavior 15 (September 2016): 37–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2016.08.072.

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Siddiqui, Shahida Anusha, Francesca Gerini, Ali Ikram, Farhan Saeed, Xi Feng, and Yan Ping Chen. "Rabbit Meat—Production, Consumption and Consumers’ Attitudes and Behavior." Sustainability 15, no. 3 (January 20, 2023): 2008. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su15032008.

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Rabbit meat could play an important role in health, the rural economy, and sustainable development. Rabbit meat has excellent nutritional features, such as high protein content, low-fat content, and a high percentage of unsaturated fatty acids, low cholesterol and sodium levels. In addition, rabbit meat production contributes to maintaining economic activities in rural marginal areas. However, the consumption of rabbit meat is still limited due to several factors such as the higher cost of commercial food that is slowing down rabbits’ breeding. Socio-demographic characteristics, attitudes, and nationality of consumers influence the demand and consumption of rabbit meat. The social and economic changes of the past years are leading to an increased interest in rabbit meat products with convenience characteristics. Consumers are also increasingly paying attention to animal husbandry methods for health concerns and ethical reasons. This paper presents an overview of rabbit meat focusing on production, nutritional composition, consumers’ preferences, and marketing. The review proposes strategies that, coupled with information campaigns could improve consumers’ knowledge of the positive characteristics of rabbit meat, which would contribute to the market development.

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25

Sunnucks, Paul. "Avoidance of novel objects by rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus L.)." Wildlife Research 25, no. 3 (1998): 273. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr97038.

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Neophobia (fear of new stimuli) is an important component of mammalian behavioural ecology. In addition, information on neophobia in pest species could be of great significance in targetting control measures and predicting changes in responses to them. Novel objects and an auditory stimulus were presented to individually marked wild rabbits living socially in clumped warrens in southern British farmland. Avoidance of stimuli was measured by scan sampling of rabbits’ locations, in replicated experiments. Rabbits avoided a variety of novel objects by staying below ground, and by changing their activity ranges. Responses to different stimuli were correlated within individuals. There were non-significant differences in the degree of avoidance elicited by novel visual stimuli. The most important factors in avoidance were distance from the stimulus, number of previous presentations, and rabbit identity. Individual characteristics, including sex, social rank, and trappability, were less important determinants of neophobia, although dominant females were significantly more neophobic than were non-dominant ones. Only one or two presentations were required for attenuation of avoidance, so novel objects would be of limited application to crop protection. However, equipment used for delivering control measures should also quickly become accepted by rabbits. The measured avoidance and its attenuation indicate that rabbits assessed and responded to their surroundings with high precision, with significant individual variation consistent over stimuli.

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Crovato, Stefania, Anna Pinto, Guido Di Martino, Giulia Mascarello, Valentina Rizzoli, Silvia Marcolin, and Licia Ravarotto. "Purchasing Habits, Sustainability Perceptions, and Welfare Concerns of Italian Consumers Regarding Rabbit Meat." Foods 11, no. 9 (April 21, 2022): 1205. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/foods11091205.

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Several factors drive consumer behavior in buying meat, particularly rabbit meat. The consumption of rabbits has decreased in Europe, and the main causes of this trend are an increasing association with the perception of rabbits as pets, consumers’ changes in lifestyle, and eating habits. Additionally, increasing attention is paid to ethical issues regarding animal welfare. Investigating consumers’ knowledge, perceptions, and concerns about rabbit meat production and consumption are crucial for improving market strategies. This study investigated consumers’ perspectives of rabbit meat to provide useful information to producers for promoting this sector to consumers. A mixed-methods research design was applied. Qualitative data were collected through four focus group discussions involving 32 consumers and quantitative data through a semi-structured questionnaire administered nationally and completed by 1001 consumers. The limited use of antibiotics in inbreeding and the absence of animal suffering are factors that most influence consumers’ willingness to purchase rabbit meat. Rural/domestic farms were recognized as places where animal welfare measures can be applied and have a positive influence not only on organoleptic quality but also on ethical value and food safety. The cage was perceived as unsuitable for rabbit growth and was oriented to a process of fattening based on industrial feed and antibiotics. Respondents sought information on rabbit farming during purchase, and the label was the most used tool. The rabbit meat production sector should consider these results to meet consumers’ demands and raise awareness among operators on the use of animal welfare-based farming systems, helping to build a more positive image of the rabbit meat industry.

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Muscettola, Michela, Letizia Girolami, Carolina Tanganelli, Giuliano Fontani, and Concetta Lupo. "Immune and Endocrine Aspects of Social and Territorial Behavior in Male Rabbits." Neuroimmunomodulation 2, no. 3 (1995): 155–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000096886.

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von Holst, Dietrich, Hans Hutzelmeyer, Paul Kaetzke, Martin Khaschei, and Ronald Schönheiter. "Social Rank, Stress, Fitness, and Life Expectancy in Wild Rabbits." Naturwissenschaften 86, no. 8 (August 3, 1999): 388–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s001140050638.

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Hewstone, Miles, Hermann Swart, and Gordon Hodson. "Of babies and bathwater, and rabbits and rabbit holes: A plea for conflict prevention, not conflict promotion." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 35, no. 6 (November 20, 2012): 436–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x12001239.

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AbstractDixon et al. overlook the fact that contact predicts not only favorable out-group attitudes/evaluations, but also cognitions, affect, and behavior. The weight of evidence supporting the benefits of intergroup contact cautions against throwing the (contact) baby out with the bathwater. The goal to “ignite struggles” in pursuit of social equality, we argue, incautiously risks hurling us down the proverbial rabbit hole.

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Bill, Joana, Sally Luisa Rauterberg, Swetlana Herbrandt, Uwe Ligges, Nicole Kemper, and Michaela Fels. "Agonistic behavior and social hierarchy in female domestic rabbits kept in semi-groups." Journal of Veterinary Behavior 38 (July 2020): 21–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2020.03.004.

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Setiawan, Arum, Muhammad Iqbal, Amran Halim, Rio Firman Saputra, Doni Setiawan, and Indra Yustian. "First description of an immature Sumatran striped rabbit (Nesolagus netscheri), with special reference to the wildlife trade in South Sumatra." Mammalia 84, no. 3 (March 26, 2020): 250–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/mammalia-2018-0217.

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AbstractThe Sumatran striped rabbit (Nesolagus netscheri Schlegel, 1880) is the least known lagomorph in the world. This paper describes the first record of a young N. netscheri that was offered for sale (the size is approximately 52–56% of the adult), together with an adult, by a social media group in February 2018. The rabbits were reportedly obtained from the Dempo mountain, South Sumatra. Compared to previous descriptions of N. netscheri, the Dempo mountain specimens have longer ears (47–52 mm vs. 34–50 mm), shorter tails (9–15 mm vs. 17 mm) and shorter hindfeet (60–65 mm vs. 67–87 mm). The threats to N. netscheri are revisited and discussed.

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Tefft, Brian C., and Joseph A. Chapman. "Social behavior of the New England cottontail, Sylvilagus transitionalis (Bangs), with a review of social behavior in New World rabbits (Mammalia : Leporidae)." Revue d'Écologie (La Terre et La Vie) 42, no. 3 (1987): 235–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/revec.1987.5405.

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von Holst, Dietrich, Hans Hutzelmeyer, Paul Kaetzke, Martin Khaschei, Heiko Rödel, and Hannelore Schrutka. "Social rank, fecundity and lifetime reproductive success in wild European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus )." Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology 51, no. 3 (February 1, 2002): 245–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00265-001-0427-1.

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Sudakov, Sergey K., and Konstantin V. Sudakov. "Gastrin in the mechanisms of genetic determination of feeding behavior in rabbits." Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science 21, no. 2 (April 1986): 39–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02701121.

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DiVincenti, Louis, and Angelika Rehrig. "Social Behavior of Adult Male New Zealand White Rabbits Housed in Groups or Pairs in the Laboratory." Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 20, no. 1 (November 9, 2016): 86–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2016.1247352.

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Rödel, Heiko G., Anett Starkloff, Barbara Bruchner, and Dietrich von Holst. "Social environment and reproduction in female European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus): Benefits of the presence of litter sisters." Journal of Comparative Psychology 122, no. 1 (2008): 73–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.122.1.73.

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Seaman, Shirley C., Natalie K. Waran, Georgia Mason, and Richard B. D'Eath. "Animal economics: assessing the motivation of female laboratory rabbits to reach a platform, social contact and food." Animal Behaviour 75, no. 1 (January 2008): 31–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.09.031.

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Lupo, C., G. Fontani, L. Girolami, L. Lodi, and M. Muscettola. "Immune and endocrine aspects of physical and social environmental variations in groups of male rabbits in seminatural conditions." Ethology Ecology & Evolution 12, no. 3 (July 2000): 281–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08927014.2000.9522801.

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SURRIDGE, A. K., D. J. BELL, and G. M. HEWITT. "From population structure to individual behaviour: genetic analysis of social structure in the European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)." Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 68, no. 1-2 (September 1999): 57–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01158.x.

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Masood, Sana, Naveed Ahsan, Aqsa Muhammad Saleem, Fiza Soomro, Sarwat Jahan, and Ghulam Serwar Shaikh. "Administration of Proton Pump Inhibitors with and without Inulin and its Effect on Kidney Function: An Experimental Study on Rabbit Model." Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences 16, no. 9 (September 30, 2022): 868–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.53350/pjmhs22169868.

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Aim: To compare the effect of various PPIs (Omeprazole Esomeprazole & Pantoprazole) with and without Inulin on renal functions and serum electrolytes in the rabbit model. Study Design: An experimental study was conducted by the Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Liaquat University of Medical & Health Sciences, Jamshoro, Sindh. Place and Duration: This study was completed in a duration of 6 months from 1st February 2021 to 31st July 2021. Methodology: Male and female rabbits weighting 1 to 3 Kilograms apparently healthy with no known illness were selected for the sample. In total 56 rabbits matching study eligibility criteria were included in the study and randomly divided into seven study groups each comprising of eight rabbits. Three groups were provided with three different PPIs i.e. Omeprazole, Esomeprazole and Pantoprazole while other three groups were provided with three different PPIs as well as inulin. However, the control group was only provided with placebo. Blood samples were collected at day 0 and at the end of 6th week. Serum electrolytes were analyzed for serum Magnesium, Calcium, Urea and Creatinine by using Cobas C-311 analyzer. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 19. Results: The study found no statistically significant differences in pre and post-intervention weight of rabbit in any of the experimental groups. The serum urea and creatinine levels showed considerable rise following intake of PPI, indicating a somewhat diminished efficiency of the kidneys to get rid of the body from excess urea and creatinine. However, the rise in urea and creatinine was statistically significant for Group A and Group C with rise in creatinine level following use of Omeprazole and Pantoprazole respectively (p-value <0.05).Electrolyte deficiencies were observed among all experimental groups. Groups that were treated with PPIs and inulin both showed much improved results as compared to rabbits which were treated with PPIs only. Practical Implications: Administration of PPIs along with inulin among human subjects to reduce the adverse effects; specially among critically ill patients or patients with compromised renal function human subject evidence needs to be established by conducting similar trials. This can be breakthrough in treatment protocols for gastritis and patients with renal disease who are also need to take PPIs for any medical indication. Conclusion: Proton Pump Inhibitors significantly change the normal electrolyte composition by increasing concentration of Serum Urea & Creatinine. However simultaneous inulin administration prevent most imbalances and possibly serves to reduce the adverse events associated with use of PPIs significantly. Keywords: Proton Pump Inhibitors, Inulin, Electrolytes,

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Bozicovich, Thais F. M., Ana Silvia A. M. T. Moura, Simone Fernandes, Aline A. Oliveira, and Edson R. Siqueira Siqueira. "Effect of environmental enrichment and composition of the social group on the behavior, welfare, and relative brain weight of growing rabbits." Applied Animal Behaviour Science 182 (September 2016): 72–79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.05.025.

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Caughley, G., R. Pech, and D. Grice. "Effect of fertility control on a population's productivity." Wildlife Research 19, no. 6 (1992): 623. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wr9920623.

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The effect of a sterilising agent upon the productivity of vertebrate pests, such as feral horses, feral dogs, wild rabbits or fruit-eating birds, depends upon the population's social structure and mating system. We investigated the theoretical effect on productivity of three forms of dominance, two effects of sterilisation on dominance, and four modes of transmission. Seventeen of the possible 24 combinations are feasible but lead to only four possible outcomes. Three of these result in lowered productivity. The fourth, where the breeding of a dominant female suppresses breeding in the subordinate females of her group, leads to a perverse outcome. Productivity increases with sterilisation unless the proportion of females sterilised exceeds (n–2)/(n–1) where n (>2) is the number of females in the group. A knowledge of social structure and mating system is therefore highly desirable before population control by suppressing female fertility is attempted or even contemplated.

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Shao, Jiahao, Ting Pan, Jie Wang, Tao Tang, Yanhong Li, Xianbo Jia, and Songjia Lai. "Integrated Proteomics and Metabolomics Analysis of Perirenal Adipose Tissue in Obese Rabbits Treated with a Restricted Diet." Biology 10, no. 4 (April 12, 2021): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biology10040321.

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In recent years, many people have shown an excess of fat accumulation. Known as obesity, this lesion poses an increased risk for multiple diseases, such as endocrine disease, diabetes, and cancer, and has reached epidemic proportions. Accompanied by the development of obesity, concern over body image and weight loss behavior is a growing social problem and public health threat, causing concern for many health professionals. However, the consequences of rapid weight loss remain largely unclear. Here, we applied an integrated proteomics and metabolomics analysis to investigate the effects of dieting on the proteins and metabolites in obese rabbits. Our study revealed that 343 differentially expressed proteins (136 upregulated and 207 downregulated) and 150 differentially expressed metabolites (91 upregulated and 59 downregulated) were identified. These molecules are mainly involved in the biological processes, including amino acid metabolism, lipid metabolism, and membrane and cytoskeleton reconstruction. The integrated analysis found that mevalonic acid, arachidonic acid, 15(S)-HpETE, cholecalciferol, hydrocortisone, lipoxin B4, lithocholic acid, etc. were associated with multiple pathways, and they may be the key factors to fight inflammation induced by a high-fat diet (HFD). Overall, this study provides further insight into the consequences of dieting-mediated weight loss and may contribute to the prevention and treatment of obesity.

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Rommers, Jorine, and Karel H. De Greef. "Are combi parks just as useful as regular parks for fatteners for part-time group housing of rabbit does?" World Rabbit Science 26, no. 4 (December 27, 2018): 299. http://dx.doi.org/10.4995/wrs.2018.9587.

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<p>Group housing of lactating rabbit does is desirable from a welfare standpoint, but agonistic behaviour can cause severe skin injuries, which are undesired for animal welfare. Park layout, creating hiding places and escape possibilities, may help redirect attention away from fighting, which could in turn help prevent skin damage. An experiment was performed to test whether more damaging behaviour would occur in a combi park (with nest box panels) after mixing, compared to a regular park for fatteners, as nest box panels would obstruct does when escaping aggressive interactions. In addition, the position of the PVC pipe underneath the platform differed between parks (longitudinal or transversal), resulting in different escape routes. Twenty-two parks were used, in which 5 does per park were grouped at 23 d of lactation until weaning at 36 d of lactation. Skin injuries were scored at 4 d after grouping and on the day before weaning. The presence of nest box panels in a combi park and the position of the PVC pipe underneath the platform did not affect the level of skin damage. Moderate to severe injuries were observed, mostly at the hind quarters, ears and head. Five to 6% of the does were severely injured (wounds). There was a positive relationship between the average skin injury per park at 4 d after grouping and at weaning. On average, average injury score per park increased from grouping to weaning, but there are differences between individual parks. From this experiment it can be concluded that group housing of lactating rabbit does involves animals getting injured. In fact, 5 to 6% of the does were severely injured (wounds). Social dynamics of group housed does are insufficiently understood and might be important to reduce damaging behaviour in group housing.</p>

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Sinclair, A. R. E., and Charles J. Krebs. "Complex numerical responses to top–down and bottom–up processes in vertebrate populations." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences 357, no. 1425 (September 29, 2002): 1221–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2002.1123.

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Population growth rate is determined in all vertebrate populations by food supplies, and we postulate bottom–up control as the universal primary standard. But this primary control system can be overridden by three secondary controls: top–down processes from predators, social interactions within the species and disturbances. Different combinations of these processes affect population growth rates in different ways. Thus, some relationships between growth rate and density can be hyperbolic or even have multiple nodes. We illustrate some of these in marsupial, ungulate and rabbit populations. Complex interactions between food, predators, environmental disturbance and social behaviour produce the myriad observations of population growth in nature, and we need to develop generalizations to classify populations. Different animal groups differ in the combination of these four processes that affect them, in their growth rates and in their vulnerability to extinction. Because conservation and management of populations depend critically on what factors drive population growth, we need to develop universal generalizations that will relieve us from the need to study every single population before we can make recommendations for management.

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Klebe, Damon, Mahima Tibrewal, Deep R. Sharma, Rachna Vanaparthy, Sunil Krishna, Merina Varghese, Bokun Cheng, et al. "Reduced Hippocampal Dendrite Branching, Spine Density and Neurocognitive Function in Premature Rabbits, and Reversal with Estrogen or TrkB Agonist Treatment." Cerebral Cortex 29, no. 12 (March 16, 2019): 4932–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhz033.

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Abstract Preterm-born children suffer from neurological and behavioral disorders. Herein, we hypothesized that premature birth and non-maternal care of preterm newborns might disrupt neurobehavioral function, hippocampal dendritic arborization, and dendritic spine density. Additionally, we assessed whether 17β-estradiol (E2) replacement or the TrkB receptor agonist, 7,8-dihydroxyflavone (DHF), would reverse compromised dendritic development and cognitive function in preterm newborns. These hypotheses were tested by comparing preterm (E28.5) rabbit kits cared and gavage-fed by laboratory personnel and term-kits reared and breast-fed by their mother doe at an equivalent postconceptional age. Neurobehavioral tests showed that both premature-birth and formula-feeding with non-maternal care led to increased anxiety behavior, poor social interaction, and lack of novelty preference compared with term-kits. Dendritic branching and number of total or mushroom dendritic spines were reduced in the CA1 field of preterm-kits compared with term controls. While CDC42 and Rac1/2/3 expression levels were lower, RhoA-activity was higher in preterm-kits compared with term controls. Both E2 and DHF treatment reversed prematurity-induced reduction in spine density, reduced total RhoA-GTPase levels, and enhanced cognitive function. Hence, prematurity and non-maternal care result in cognitive deficits, and reduced dendritic arbors and spines in CA1. E2 replacement or DHF treatment might reverse changes in dendritic spines and improve neurodevelopment in premature infants.

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Hudec, Martin, and Alena Donovalová. "Open Your Eyes Alice and Start Following the Economic Cycle Instead of the White Rabbit: Influential Behaviour of the Economic Cycle." Studia Commercialia Bratislavensia 9, no. 35 (December 1, 2016): 302–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/stcb-2016-0029.

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Abstract Economics represents a social science, directly concerning the factors and determinants of commerce, production, distribution, government, management and naturally consumption of goods and services, but unlike the natural sciences, it is unique in the area of hardly finding a broad consensus, whether we talk about rules, methodology, economic processes or basic axioms. Economic cycle would not exist in an economically ideal world where the prices of goods and factors of production are very flexible, people have full information about what is happening in the economy, government and unions do not regulate prices, and so on. Since the real world differs from an economically ideal world, economic cycle presents inevitable reality in every market economy. The aim of our research paper is to analyse essential monetary determinants and the practical aspects of the theory of the business cycle. Moreover, we focus on the instruments of central banks and their impact on the economic cycle, inextricably affecting the socio-economic development and the state of business environment and commerce.

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KATSAROU (Α. ΚΑΤΣΑΡΟΥ), A., A. TSIRONI (Α. ΤΣΙΡΩΝΗ), M. SERAFETINIDOU (Μ. ΣΕΡΑΦΕΤΙΝΙΔΟΥ), C. VOYAZAKI (Χ. ΒΟΓΙΑΤΖΑΚΗ), V. BAUMANS, and N. KOSTOMITSOPOULOS (Ν. ΚΩΣΤΟΜΙΤΣΟΠΟΥΛΟΣ). "Age - related behaviour on individually caged rabbits." Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society 62, no. 1 (November 10, 2017): 21. http://dx.doi.org/10.12681/jhvms.15036.

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Housing conditions and environmental enrichment of individually caged laboratory rabbits is of great importance for the welfare of the animals and the quality of the experimental results. In order to improve the design of existing environmental enrichment programs for laboratory rabbits, considerable knowledge of the behavioural needs of this species is necessary. Taking this into consideration, the aim of this study was to monitor and analyze the behaviour of juvenile and young adult rabbits in order to establish whether there are any age-dependent differences in grooming, rearing, sniffing, eating, drinking and gnawing. 12 NZW rabbits were divided into two groups: group A consisted of six 6-month-old rabbits (young adults) and group Β consisted of six 2-month-old rabbits (juvenile). All animals were already housed for more than twenty days under the same conditions in the animal facility. Both groups of rabbits were video-recorded between 06:00h - 18:00h for four consecutive days. The frequency of each behaviour was determined and compared in the two groups of rabbits from the video recordings. The frequencies of grooming, eating and gnawing in the young rabbits were significantly greater than those in the older rabbits (p<0.05). No statistical differences were found between the two groups for rearing, sniffing and drinking. From these results, we concluded that even small age differences should be taken into account when designing an environmental enrichment program for individually caged rabbits.

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Fitzpatrick, Tess. "Habits and rabbits." EUROSLA Yearbook 6 (July 20, 2006): 121–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1075/eurosla.6.09fit.

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Word associations have traditionally been used in linguistic research as a means of accessing information about the organisation of the mental lexicon. A number of important studies have revealed differences in word association behaviour in the L1 and the L2, but have failed to find consistent behaviour patterns. The study reported here suggests that this failure might be due to two factors: the choice of stimulus words and the categorisation of responses, which impose artificial constraints on both association behaviour and the exploration of response types. In order to move the investigation of L2 word associations forward, this study compares native speaker responses to a specific set of stimuli with those of advanced non-native speakers. The types of association response made by each group of subjects are investigated by means of a retrospective interview, and patterns in response types are mapped. This results in a new method of categorising word association responses, and provides more precise insight into the differences between L1 and L2 association patterns.

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Elsayed Azab, Azab. "An Overview of Oxytocin: Chemical Structure, Receptors, Physiological Functions, Measurement Techniques of oxytocin, and Metabolism." Journal of Clinical Research and Reports 11, no. 4 (October 5, 2022): 01–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.31579/2690-1919/256.

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Background: Oxytocin is a peptide hormone comprising 9 amino acids. It is produced in the hypothalamus and stored and secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and synthesized in other organs such as the uterus, ovaries, placenta, heart, blood vessels, skin, kidneys, and testis. Receptors of oxytocin are present on myoepithelial cells, heart, blood vessels, macrophages, thymus, pancreas, kidneys, and adipocytes. Objectives: The current review aimed to give highlight the oxytocin structure, receptors, physiological functions, measurement techniques, and metabolism. Oxytocin is a small peptide that consists of nine amino acids in a six–amino acid ring formed by cysteine bonds and a three–amino acid tail with a terminal amine. It is synthesized in brain regions that are critical to behavioral and physiologic homeostasis. Oxytocin is involved in uterine contraction during labor and ejection of milk during breastfeeding and plays a role in social behavior, emotions love and affection, the period after childbirth, and metabolic functions. The action of oxytocin in facilitating human bonding and social relation is well known. The effects of Oxytocin on metabolism and food intake suggesting its potential effects in treating obesity. The half-life time of oxytocin in the brain is triple as long as its half-life time in the periphery. The sensitivity and density of oxytocin receptors increase during labor. After birth, the neonatal baby sucks on his mother's breast, causing the release of milk by stimulating hypothalamic neurons to produce oxytocin. Oxytocin neurons have been heavily implicated in mediating sexual behavior in both humans and animals. The social memory was enhanced by central oxytocin administration in male rats. The action of oxytocin affects social memory in multiple brain regions, including the ventral hippocampus, amygdala, olfactory bulb, and lateral septum. Oxytocin neurons may mediate MC4R-driven sexual behavior in male mice. MC4R signaling in oxytocin neurons permits ejaculation. A decreased latency to ejaculate in rabbits and rats after administration of oxytocin. The effect of oxytocin receptor ligands on the ejaculatory response may be due to the modulation of dopamine serotonin neurotransmission. Oxytocin lowers the threshold for the initiation of maternal behavior but is not involved in its maintenance. The oxytocin and the melanin-concentrating hormone (MCH) systems may interact to modulate maternal behavior. Oxytocin regulates maternal- or mating-regulated mood. Initial measurements of oxytocin by using radioimmunoassay and bioassays suggested that oxytocin concentration in blood is very low, 5 pg/ml, with small increases as pulses,15 pg/ml, during lactation and uterine contractions. Variations in oxytocin concentration, especially in rapid response to specific experiences, such as anticipation of breastfeeding, sexual stimulation, exercise, affiliative social contact, and psychologic stress. Oxytocin is rapidly removed from the plasma by the liver and kidney. Oxytocinase activity increases throughout pregnancy and peaks in the plasma, placenta, and uterus near term. It is also expressed in mammary glands, the heart, the kidney, and the small intestine. Lower levels of activity can be found in the brain, spleen, liver, skeletal muscle, testes, and colon. The plasma half-life of oxytocin ranges from 1 to 6 minutes. The half-life is decreased in late pregnancy and during lactation. Conclusion: It can be concluded that oxytocin is a peptide hormone that is synthesized in brain regions and other organs and posse's receptors in many organs. It plays a role in social behavior, emotions love, and affection, the period after childbirth, and metabolic functions. Its potential effects in treating obesity. The half-life time of oxytocin in the brain is triple as long as its half-life time in the periphery. Oxytocin neurons may mediate MC4R-driven sexual behavior. Variations in oxytocin concentration, especially in rapid response to specific experiences. Oxytocin is rapidly removed from the plasma by the liver and kidney. The plasma half-life of oxytocin ranges from 1-6 minutes. The half-life is decreased in late pregnancy and during lactation.

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