Статті в журналах: "Smoke taint"

1

Summerson, Vasiliki, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Alexis Pang, Damir D. Torrico, and Sigfredo Fuentes. "Review of the Effects of Grapevine Smoke Exposure and Technologies to Assess Smoke Contamination and Taint in Grapes and Wine." Beverages 7, no. 1 (January 25, 2021): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/beverages7010007.

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Grapevine smoke exposure and the subsequent development of smoke taint in wine has resulted in significant financial losses for grape growers and winemakers throughout the world. Smoke taint is characterized by objectional smoky aromas such as “ashy”, “burning rubber”, and “smoked meats”, resulting in wine that is unpalatable and hence unprofitable. Unfortunately, current climate change models predict a broadening of the window in which bushfires may occur and a rise in bushfire occurrences and severity in major wine growing regions such as Australia, Mediterranean Europe, North and South America, and South Africa. As such, grapevine smoke exposure and smoke taint in wine are increasing problems for growers and winemakers worldwide. Current recommendations for growers concerned that their grapevines have been exposed to smoke are to conduct pre-harvest mini-ferments for sensory assessment and send samples to a commercial laboratory to quantify levels of smoke-derived volatiles in the wine. Significant novel research is being conducted using spectroscopic techniques coupled with machine learning modeling to assess grapevine smoke contamination and taint in grapes and wine, offering growers and winemakers additional tools to monitor grapevine smoke exposure and taint rapidly and non-destructively in grapes and wine.

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Modesti, Margherita, Colleen Szeto, Renata Ristic, WenWen Jiang, Julie Culbert, Keren Bindon, Cesare Catelli, Fabio Mencarelli, Pietro Tonutti, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Potential Mitigation of Smoke Taint in Wines by Post-Harvest Ozone Treatment of Grapes." Molecules 26, no. 6 (March 23, 2021): 1798. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061798.

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When bushfires occur near grape growing regions, vineyards can be exposed to smoke, and depending on the timing and duration of grapevine smoke exposure, fruit can become tainted. Smoke-derived volatile compounds, including volatile phenols, can impart unpleasant smoky, ashy characters to wines made from smoke-affected grapes, leading to substantial revenue losses where wines are perceivably tainted. This study investigated the potential for post-harvest ozone treatment of smoke-affected grapes to mitigate the intensity of smoke taint in wine. Merlot grapevines were exposed to smoke at ~7 days post-veraison and at harvest grapes were treated with 1 or 3 ppm of gaseous ozone (for 24 or 12 h, respectively), prior to winemaking. The concentrations of smoke taint marker compounds (i.e., free and glycosylated volatile phenols) were measured in grapes and wines to determine to what extent ozonation could mitigate the effects of grapevine exposure to smoke. The 24 h 1 ppm ozone treatment not only gave significantly lower volatile phenol and volatile phenol glycoside concentrations but also diminished the sensory perception of smoke taint in wine. Post-harvest smoke and ozone treatment of grapes suggests that ozone works more effectively when smoke-derived volatile phenols are in their free (aglycone) form, rather than glycosylated forms. Nevertheless, the collective results demonstrate the efficacy of post-harvest ozone treatment as a strategy for mitigation of smoke taint in wine.

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Szeto, Colleen, Renata Ristic, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Thinking Inside the Box: A Novel Approach to Smoke Taint Mitigation Trials." Molecules 27, no. 5 (March 3, 2022): 1667. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051667.

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When bushfires occur near wine regions, grapevine exposure to smoke can taint grapes due to the uptake of smoke-derived volatile compounds that can subsequently impart unpleasant smoky, medicinal, burnt rubber and ashy characters to wine. Whereas early research sought to understand the effects of smoke on grapevine physiology, and grape and wine chemistry, research efforts have shifted towards the strategic imperative for effective mitigation strategies. This study evaluated the extent to which excised grape bunches could be reproducibly tainted during smoke exposure in a purpose-built ‘smoke box’. The volatile phenol composition of grapes exposed to smoke for 30 min was similar to that of smoke-affected grapes from field trials involving grapevine exposure to smoke. Some variation was observed between replicate smoke treatments, but implementing appropriate controls and experimental replication enabled the smoke box to be used to successfully evaluate the efficacy of several agrochemical sprays and protective coverings as methods for mitigating the smoke exposure of grapes. Whereas the agrochemical sprays did not provide effective protection from smoke, enclosing grape bunches in activated carbon fabric prevented the uptake of up to 98% of the smoke-derived volatile phenols observed in smoke-affected grapes. As such, the study demonstrated not only a convenient, efficient approach to smoke taint research that overcomes the constraints associated with vineyard-based field trials, but also a promising new strategy for preventing smoke taint.

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Oberholster, Anita, Yan Wen, Sandra Dominguez Suarez, Jesse Erdmann, Raul Cauduro Girardello, Arran Rumbaugh, Bishnu Neupane, Charles Brenneman, Annegret Cantu, and Hildegarde Heymann. "Investigation of Different Winemaking Protocols to Mitigate Smoke Taint Character in Wine." Molecules 27, no. 5 (March 7, 2022): 1732. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27051732.

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There is an increase in the levels of volatile phenols in wine made with smoke-impacted grapes. These compounds are present in wood smoke resulting from the pyrolysis (thermal decomposition) of lignin and at high levels give overpowering smoky and ashy characters to a wine. This research aimed to compare all the suggested wine mitigation strategies that evolved from prior research using smoke-impacted grapes under identical winemaking conditions except for the parameter under investigation. Cabernet Sauvignon grapes were received from three areas with varying amounts of smoke exposure in Northern California. Gas chromatography combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and descriptive analyses were performed to correlate the volatile phenol composition to smoke taint characteristics. The winemaking variables investigated were the use of different fermentation yeasts, oak additions, and fermentation temperatures. Among other attributes, smokiness and ashy aftertaste were significantly different among the wines, showing a clear difference between the wines made from smoke-impacted fruit and the control wines made from non-impacted fruit. Findings indicate that mitigation strategies during red wine fermentation have a limited impact on the extraction of smoke-taint markers and the expression of smoke-taint sensory characteristics.

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Szeto, Colleen, Renata Ristic, Dimitra Capone, Carolyn Puglisi, Vinay Pagay, Julie Culbert, WenWen Jiang, Markus Herderich, Jonathan Tuke, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Uptake and Glycosylation of Smoke-Derived Volatile Phenols by Cabernet Sauvignon Grapes and Their Subsequent Fate during Winemaking." Molecules 25, no. 16 (August 14, 2020): 3720. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25163720.

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Wine made from grapes exposed to bushfire smoke can exhibit unpleasant smoky, ashy characters, which have been attributed to the presence of smoke-derived volatile phenols, in free or glycosylated forms. Here we report the uptake and glycosylation of volatile phenols by grapes following exposure of Cabernet Sauvignon vines to smoke, and their fate during winemaking. A significant delay was observed in the conversion of volatile phenols to their corresponding glycoconjugates, which suggests sequestration, the presence of intermediates within the glycosylation pathway and/or other volatile phenol storage forms. This finding has implications for industry in terms of detecting smoke-affected grapes following vineyard smoke exposure. The potential for an in-canopy sprinkler system to mitigate the uptake of smoke-derived volatile phenols by grapes, by spraying grapevines with water during smoke exposure, was also evaluated. While “misting” appeared to partially mitigate the uptake of volatile phenols by grapes during grapevine exposure to smoke, it did not readily influence the concentration of volatile phenols or the sensory perception of smoke taint in wine. Commercial sensors were used to monitor the concentration of smoke particulate matter (PM) during grapevine exposure to low and high density smoke. Similar PM profiles were observed, irrespective of smoke density, such that PM concentrations did not reflect the extent of smoke exposure by grapes or risk of taint in wine. The sensors could nevertheless be used to monitor the presence of smoke in vineyards during bushfires, and hence, the need for compositional analysis of grapes to quantify smoke taint marker compounds.

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Mirabelli-Montan, Ysadora A., Matteo Marangon, Antonio Graça, Christine M. Mayr Marangon, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "Techniques for Mitigating the Effects of Smoke Taint While Maintaining Quality in Wine Production: A Review." Molecules 26, no. 6 (March 17, 2021): 1672. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26061672.

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Smoke taint has become a prominent issue for the global wine industry as climate change continues to impact the length and extremity of fire seasons around the world. Although the issue has prompted a surge in research on the subject in recent years, no singular solution has yet been identified that is capable of maintaining the quality of wine made from smoke-affected grapes. In this review, we summarize the main research on smoke taint, the key discoveries, as well as the prevailing uncertainties. We also examine methods for mitigating smoke taint in the vineyard, in the winery, and post production. We assess the effectiveness of remediation methods (proposed and actual) based on available research. Our findings are in agreement with previous studies, suggesting that the most viable remedies for smoke taint are still the commercially available activated carbon fining and reverse osmosis treatments, but that the quality of the final treated wines is fundamentally dependent on the initial severity of the taint. In this review, suggestions for future studies are introduced for improving our understanding of methods that have thus far only been preliminarily investigated. We select regions that have already been subjected to severe wildfires, and therefore subjected to smoke taint (particularly Australia and California) as a case study to inform other wine-producing countries that will likely be impacted in the future and suggest specific data collection and policy implementation actions that should be taken, even in countries that have not yet been impacted by smoke taint. Ultimately, we streamline the available information on the topic of smoke taint, apply it to a global perspective that considers the various stakeholders involved, and provide a launching point for further research on the topic.

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7

Fuentes, Sigfredo, Eden Jane Tongson, Roberta De Bei, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Renata Ristic, Stephen Tyerman, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Non-Invasive Tools to Detect Smoke Contamination in Grapevine Canopies, Berries and Wine: A Remote Sensing and Machine Learning Modeling Approach." Sensors 19, no. 15 (July 30, 2019): 3335. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19153335.

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Bushfires are becoming more frequent and intensive due to changing climate. Those that occur close to vineyards can cause smoke contamination of grapevines and grapes, which can affect wines, producing smoke-taint. At present, there are no available practical in-field tools available for detection of smoke contamination or taint in berries. This research proposes a non-invasive/in-field detection system for smoke contamination in grapevine canopies based on predictable changes in stomatal conductance patterns based on infrared thermal image analysis and machine learning modeling based on pattern recognition. A second model was also proposed to quantify levels of smoke-taint related compounds as targets in berries and wines using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) as inputs for machine learning fitting modeling. Results showed that the pattern recognition model to detect smoke contamination from canopies had 96% accuracy. The second model to predict smoke taint compounds in berries and wine fit the NIR data with a correlation coefficient (R) of 0.97 and with no indication of overfitting. These methods can offer grape growers quick, affordable, accurate, non-destructive in-field screening tools to assist in vineyard management practices to minimize smoke taint in wines with in-field applications using smartphones and unmanned aerial systems (UAS).

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8

Yang, Ruiwen, Armando Alcazar-Magana, Yanping L. Qian, and Michael C. Qian. "Smoked-Derived Volatile Phenol Analysis in Wine by Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry." Molecules 26, no. 18 (September 16, 2021): 5613. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26185613.

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Smoke-derived taint has become a significant concern for the U.S. wine industry, particularly on the west coast, and climate change is anticipated to aggravate it. High volatile phenols such as guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol, 4-ethylphenol, and o-, p-, m-cresols have been suggested to be related to smoke-exposed grape and wine. This paper describes an analytical approach based on ethylene glycol/polydimethylsiloxane (EG/PDMS)-stir bar sorptive extraction-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SBSE-GC-MS) to quantify or estimate the concentrations of some smoke-related volatile phenols in wines. Correlation coefficients with R2 ≥ 0.990 were obtained. This method can quantify most smoked-related volatile phenols down to 0.5 μg/L in wine in selective ion monitoring mode. Recovery for the targeted volatile phenols ranged from 72.2% to 142.4% in the smoke-tainted wine matrix, except for 4-vinylguaiacol. The standard deviations of the volatile phenols were from 0 to 23% in smoke-tainted wine. The approach provides another tool to evaluate wine smoke exposure and potential smoke taint.

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9

Favell, James W., Kerry L. Wilkinson, Ieva Zigg, Sarah M. Lyons, Renata Ristic, Carolyn J. Puglisi, Eric Wilkes, et al. "Correlating Sensory Assessment of Smoke-Tainted Wines with Inter-Laboratory Study Consensus Values for Volatile Phenols." Molecules 27, no. 15 (July 30, 2022): 4892. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27154892.

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Vineyard exposure to wildfire smoke can taint grapes and wine. To understand the impact of this taint, it is imperative that the analytical methods used are accurate and precise. This study compared the variance across nine commercial and research laboratories following quantitative analysis of the same set of smoke-tainted wines. In parallel, correlations between the interlaboratory consensus values for smoke-taint markers and sensory analyses of the same smoke-tainted wines were evaluated. For free guaiacol, the mean accuracy was 94 ± 11% in model wine, while the free cresols and 4-methylguaiacol showed a negative bias and/or decreased precision relative to guaiacol. Similar trends were observed in smoke-tainted wines, with the cresols and glycosidically bound markers demonstrating high variance. Collectively, the interlaboratory results show that data from a single laboratory can be used quantitatively to understand smoke-taint. Results from different laboratories, however, should not be directly compared due to the high variance between study participants. Correlations between consensus compositional data and sensory evaluations suggest the risk of perceivable smoke-taint can be predicted from free cresol concentrations, overcoming limitations associated with the occurrence of some volatile phenols, guaiacol in particular, as natural constituents of some grape cultivars and of the oak used for barrel maturation.

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Summerson, Vasiliki, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Damir D. Torrico, Alexis Pang, and Sigfredo Fuentes. "Digital Smoke Taint Detection in Pinot Grigio Wines Using an E-Nose and Machine Learning Algorithms Following Treatment with Activated Carbon and a Cleaving Enzyme." Fermentation 7, no. 3 (July 16, 2021): 119. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/fermentation7030119.

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The incidence and intensity of bushfires is increasing due to climate change, resulting in a greater risk of smoke taint development in wine. In this study, smoke-tainted and non-smoke-tainted wines were subjected to treatments using activated carbon with/without the addition of a cleaving enzyme treatment to hydrolyze glycoconjugates. Chemical measurements and volatile aroma compounds were assessed for each treatment, with the two smoke taint amelioration treatments exhibiting lower mean values for volatile aroma compounds exhibiting positive ‘fruit’ aromas. Furthermore, a low-cost electronic nose (e-nose) was used to assess the wines. A machine learning model based on artificial neural networks (ANN) was developed using the e-nose outputs from the unsmoked control wine, unsmoked wine with activated carbon treatment, unsmoked wine with a cleaving enzyme plus activated carbon treatment, and smoke-tainted control wine samples as inputs to classify the wines according to the smoke taint amelioration treatment. The model displayed a high overall accuracy of 98% in classifying the e-nose readings, illustrating it may be a rapid, cost-effective tool for winemakers to assess the effectiveness of smoke taint amelioration treatment by activated carbon with/without the use of a cleaving enzyme. Furthermore, the use of a cleaving enzyme coupled with activated carbon was found to be effective in ameliorating smoke taint in wine and may help delay the resurgence of smoke aromas in wine following the aging and hydrolysis of glycoconjugates.

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Whitmore, Brandon A., Stephanie E. McCann, Matthew Noestheden, Eric G. Dennis, Sarah M. Lyons, Daniel M. Durall, and Wesley F. Zandberg. "Glycosidically-Bound Volatile Phenols Linked to Smoke Taint: Stability during Fermentation with Different Yeasts and in Finished Wine." Molecules 26, no. 15 (July 27, 2021): 4519. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154519.

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When wine grapes are exposed to smoke, there is a risk that the resulting wines may possess smoky, ashy, or burnt aromas, a wine flaw known as smoke taint. Smoke taint occurs when the volatile phenols (VPs) largely responsible for the aroma of smoke are transformed in grape into a range of glycosides that are imperceptible by smell. The majority of VP-glycosides described to date are disaccharides possessing a reducing β-d-glucopyranosyl moiety. Here, a two-part experiment was performed to (1) assess the stability of 11 synthesized VP-glycosides towards general acid-catalyzed hydrolysis during aging, and (2) to examine whether yeast strains differed in their capacity to produce free VPs both from these model glycosides as well as from grapes that had been deliberately exposed to smoke. When fortified into both model and real wine matrices at 200 ng/g, all VP-disaccharides were stable over 12 weeks, while (42–50 ng/g) increases in free 4-ethylphenol and p-cresol were detected when these were added to wine as their monoglucosides. Guaiacol and phenol were the most abundantly produced VPs during fermentation, whether originating from natural VP-precursors in smoked-exposed Pinot Noir must, or due to fortification with synthetic VP-glycosides. Significant yeast strain-specific differences in glycolytic activities were observed for phenyl-β-d-glycopyranoside, with two strains (RC212 and BM45) being unable to hydrolyze this model VP, albeit both were active on the guaiacyl analogue. Thus, differences in Saccharomyces cerevisiae β-glucosidase activity appear to be influenced by the VP moiety.

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Wilkinson, Kerry, Renata Ristic, Imogen McNamara, Beth Loveys, WenWen Jiang, and Mark Krstic. "Evaluating the Potential for Smoke from Stubble Burning to Taint Grapes and Wine." Molecules 26, no. 24 (December 13, 2021): 7540. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26247540.

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It has been well established that bushfire/wildfire smoke can taint grapes (and therefore wine), depending on the timing and duration of exposure, but the risk of smoke contamination from stubble burning (a practice employed by some grain growers to prepare farmland for sowing) has not yet been established. This study exposed excised bunches of grapes to smoke from combustion of barley straw and pea stubble windrows to investigate the potential for stubble burning to elicit smoke taint. Increased levels of volatile phenols (i.e., chemical markers of smoke taint) were detected in grapes exposed to barley straw smoke (relative to control grapes), with smoke density and the duration of smoke exposure influencing grape volatile phenols. However, the sensory panel did not perceive wine made from grapes exposed to low-density smoke to be tainted, despite the presence of low levels of syringol providing compositional evidence of smoke exposure. During the pea stubble burn, grapes positioned amongst the burning windrows or on the edge of the pea paddock were exposed to smoke for ~15–20 and 30–45 min, respectively, but this only resulted in 1 µg/kg differences in the cresol and/or syringol concentrations of smoke-affected grapes (and 1 µg/L differences for wine), relative to controls. A small, but significant increase in the intensity of smoke aroma and burnt rubber flavor of wine made from the grapes positioned amongst the burning pea stubble windrows provided the only sensory evidence of any smoke taint. As such, had vineyards been located immediately downwind from the pea stubble burn, it is unlikely that there would have been any smoke contamination of unharvested grapes.

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Modesti, Margherita, Colleen Szeto, Renata Ristic, WenWen Jiang, Julie Culbert, Cesare Catelli, Fabio Mencarelli, Pietro Tonutti, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Amelioration of Smoke Taint in Cabernet Sauvignon Wine via Post-Harvest Ozonation of Grapes." Beverages 7, no. 3 (July 1, 2021): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/beverages7030044.

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Strategies that mitigate the negative effects of vineyard exposure to smoke on wine composition and sensory properties are needed to address the recurring incidence of bushfires in or near wine regions. Recent research demonstrated the potential for post-harvest ozonation of moderately smoke-exposed grapes to reduce both the concentration of smoke taint marker compounds (i.e., volatile phenols and their glycosides) and the perceived intensity of smoke taint in wine, depending on the dose and duration of ozone treatment. The current study further evaluated the efficacy of ozonation as a method for the amelioration of smoke taint in wine by comparing the chemical and sensory consequences of post-harvest ozonation (at 1 ppm for 24 h) of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes following grapevine exposure to dense smoke, i.e., ozone treatment of more heavily tainted grapes. Ozonation again yielded significant reductions in the concentration of free and glycosylated volatile phenols—up to 25% and 30%, respectively. However, although the intensities of smoke-related sensory attributes were generally lower in wines made with smoke-exposed grapes that were ozonated (compared to wines made with smoke-exposed grapes that were not ozonated), the results were not statistically significant. This suggests that the efficacy of ozone treatment depends on the extent to which grapes have been tainted by smoke.

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Puglisi, Carolyn, Renata Ristic, Jamie Saint, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Evaluation of Spinning Cone Column Distillation as a Strategy for Remediation of Smoke Taint in Juice and Wine." Molecules 27, no. 22 (November 21, 2022): 8096. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27228096.

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Where vineyard exposure to bushfire smoke cannot be avoided or prevented, grape and wine producers need strategies to transform smoke-affected juice and wine into saleable product. This study evaluated the potential for spinning cone column (SCC) distillation to be used for the remediation of ‘smoke taint’. Compositional analysis of ‘stripped wine’ and condensate collected during SCC treatment of two smoke-tainted red wines indicated limited, if any, removal of volatile phenols, while their non-volatile glycoconjugates were concentrated due to water and ethanol removal. Together with the removal of desirable volatile aroma compounds, this enhanced the perception of smoke-related sensory attributes; i.e., smoke taint intensified. Stripped wines also became increasingly sour and salty as ethanol (and water) were progressively removed. A preliminary juice remediation trial yielded more promising results. While clarification, heating, evaporation, deionization and fermentation processes applied to smoke-tainted white juice gave ≤3 µg/L changes in volatile phenol concentrations, SCC distillation of smoke-tainted red juice increased the volatile phenol content of condensate (in some cases by 3- to 4-fold). Deionization of the resulting condensate removed 75 µg/L of volatile phenols, but fermentation of reconstituted juice increased volatile phenol concentrations again, presumably due to yeast metabolism of glycoconjugate precursors. Research findings suggest SCC distillation alone cannot remediate smoke taint, but used in combination with adsorbents, SCC may offer a novel remediation strategy, especially for tainted juice.

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Culbert, Julie A., WenWen Jiang, Renata Ristic, Carolyn J. Puglisi, Elizabeth C. Nixon, Hongmei Shi, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "Glycosylation of Volatile Phenols in Grapes following Pre-Harvest (On-Vine) vs. Post-Harvest (Off-Vine) Exposure to Smoke." Molecules 26, no. 17 (August 31, 2021): 5277. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26175277.

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Taint in grapes and wine following vineyard exposure to bushfire smoke continues to challenge the financial viability of grape and wine producers worldwide. In response, researchers are studying the chemical, sensory and physiological consequences of grapevine smoke exposure. However, studies involving winemaking trials are often limited by the availability of suitable quantities of smoke-affected grapes, either from vineyards exposed to smoke or from field trials involving the application of smoke to grapevines. This study compared the accumulation of volatile phenol glycosides (as compositional markers of smoke taint) in Viognier and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes exposed to smoke pre- vs. post-harvest, and found post-harvest smoke exposure of fruit gave similar levels of volatile phenol glycosides to fruit exposed to smoke pre-harvest. Furthermore, wines made from smoke-affected fruit contained similar levels of smoke-derived volatile phenols and their glycosides, irrespective of whether smoke exposure occurred pre- vs. post-harvest. Post-harvest smoke exposure therefore provides a valid approach to generating smoke-affected grapes in the quantities needed for winemaking trials and/or trials that employ both chemical and sensory analysis of wine.

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Bell, T. L., S. L. Stephens, and M. A. Moritz. "Short-term physiological effects of smoke on grapevine leaves." International Journal of Wildland Fire 22, no. 7 (2013): 933. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/wf12140.

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In recent years, bushfires and prescribed burns have caused substantial economic loss to the wine industry due to smoke taint, which makes wine unpalatable. Considerable research is being done to ameliorate smoke taint but the information available about the effect of smoke on grapevines is limited. We examined the physiological effects of short-term exposure to smoke on leaves of several varieties of grapevines. Gas exchange was measured before and after short-term exposure of leaves to smoke that was produced by combustion of two different fuels. For most varieties, short-term exposure to smoke had little effect on leaf physiology. For varieties that were affected by smoke, patterns of recovery of leaf physiology depended on fuel type. Short-term exposure to smoke had, at best, no significant effect and, at worst, only temporary effects on functioning of leaves. All varieties had recovered to pre-smoke functioning within 48h. This study will contribute to the growing body of information relevant to fire and land management agencies and the wine industry in fire-prone areas including Australia, North and South America and Europe.

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Liu, Zhiqian, Vilnis Ezernieks, Priyanka Reddy, Aaron Elkins, Christian Krill, Kieran Murphy, Simone Rochfort, and German Spangenberg. "A Simple GC-MS/MS Method for Determination of Smoke Taint-Related Volatile Phenols in Grapes." Metabolites 10, no. 7 (July 17, 2020): 294. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo10070294.

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Volatile phenols (VPs) derived from smoke-exposed grapes are known to confer a smoky flavor to wine. Current methods for determination of VPs in grape berries either involve complex sample purification/derivatization steps or employ two analytical platforms for free and bound VP fractions. We report here a simple gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS) method for quantification of both free and bound VPs in grapes, based on optimized (1) GC-MS/MS parameters, (2) an analyte extraction procedure, and (3) phenol glycoside hydrolysis conditions. Requiring neither sample cleanup nor a derivatization step, this method is sensitive (LOD ≤ 1 ng/g berries) and reproducible (RSD < 12% for repeated analyses) and is expected to significantly reduce the sample turnover time for smoke taint detection in vineyards.

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Summerson, Vasiliki, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Colleen Szeto, Kerry L. Wilkinson, Damir D. Torrico, Alexis Pang, Roberta De Bei, and Sigfredo Fuentes. "Classification of Smoke Contaminated Cabernet Sauvignon Berries and Leaves Based on Chemical Fingerprinting and Machine Learning Algorithms." Sensors 20, no. 18 (September 7, 2020): 5099. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20185099.

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Wildfires are an increasing problem worldwide, with their number and intensity predicted to rise due to climate change. When fires occur close to vineyards, this can result in grapevine smoke contamination and, subsequently, the development of smoke taint in wine. Currently, there are no in-field detection systems that growers can use to assess whether their grapevines have been contaminated by smoke. This study evaluated the use of near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy as a chemical fingerprinting tool, coupled with machine learning, to create a rapid, non-destructive in-field detection system for assessing grapevine smoke contamination. Two artificial neural network models were developed using grapevine leaf spectra (Model 1) and grape spectra (Model 2) as inputs, and smoke treatments as targets. Both models displayed high overall accuracies in classifying the spectral readings according to the smoking treatments (Model 1: 98.00%; Model 2: 97.40%). Ultraviolet to visible spectroscopy was also used to assess the physiological performance and senescence of leaves, and the degree of ripening and anthocyanin content of grapes. The results showed that chemical fingerprinting and machine learning might offer a rapid, in-field detection system for grapevine smoke contamination that will enable growers to make timely decisions following a bushfire event, e.g., avoiding harvest of heavily contaminated grapes for winemaking or assisting with a sample collection of grapes for chemical analysis of smoke taint markers.

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Summerson, Vasiliki, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Damir D. Torrico, Alexis Pang, and Sigfredo Fuentes. "Detection of smoke-derived compounds from bushfires in Cabernet-Sauvignon grapes, must, and wine using Near-Infrared spectroscopy and machine learning algorithms." OENO One 54, no. 4 (November 27, 2020): 1105–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.20870/oeno-one.2020.54.4.4501.

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The number and intensity of wildfires are increasing worldwide, thereby raising the risk of smoke contamination of grapevine berries and the development of smoke taint in wine. This study aimed to develop five artificial neural network (ANN) models from berry, must, and wine samples obtained from grapevines exposed to different levels of smoke: (i) Control (C), i.e., no misting or smoke exposure; (ii) Control with misting (CM), i.e., in-canopy misting, but no smoke exposure; (iii) low-density smoke treatment (LS); (iv) high-density smoke treatment (HS) and (v) a high-density smoke treatment with misting (HSM). Models 1, 2, and 3 were developed using the absorbance values of near-infrared (NIR) berry spectra taken one day after smoke exposure to predict levels of 10 volatile phenols (VP) and 18 glycoconjugates in grapes at either one day after smoke exposure (Model 1: R = 0.98; R2 = 0.97; b = 1) or at harvest (Model 2: R = 0.98; R2 = 0.97; b = 0.97), as well as six VP and 17 glycoconjugates in the final wine (Model 3: R = 0.98; R2 = 0.95; b = 0.99). Models 4 and 5 were developed to predict the levels of six VP and 17 glycoconjugates in wine. Model 4 used must NIR absorbance spectra as inputs (R = 0.99; R2 = 0.99; b = 1.00), while Model 5 used wine NIR absorbance spectra (R = 0.99; R2 = 0.97; b = 0.97). All five models displayed high accuracies and could be used by grape growers and winemakers to non-destructively assess at near real-time the levels of smoke-related compounds in grapes and/or wine in order to make timely decisions about grape harvest and smoke taint mitigation techniques in the winemaking process.

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Krstic, M. P., D. L. Johnson, and M. J. Herderich. "Review of smoke taint in wine: smoke-derived volatile phenols and their glycosidic metabolites in grapes and vines as biomarkers for smoke exposure and their role in the sensory perception of smoke taint." Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 21 (November 6, 2015): 537–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/ajgw.12183.

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Ortiz, Cristopher, Johannes de Bruijn, Cristina Loyola, Ignacio Serra, Pedro Melín, and Claudia Pérez. "Amelioration of chemical and sensory properties of smoked must and wine by aeration." Journal of Agro-industry Sciences 4, no. 3 (December 30, 2022): 81–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.17268/jais.2022.009.

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Vineyards affected by smoke from wildfires may result in wines with undesired sensory properties. This study aimed to evaluate the aeration efficiency to ameliorate the chemical and sensory properties of smoke-tainted must and wine. Smoke-affected musts and wines were treated by aeration at different air flow and duration process conditions. Treated wines at intermediate aeration conditions (3 L min-1 – 4.5 h; 8 L min-1 – 0.67 h) yielded significantly lower concentrations of m-cresol, 4-methylguaiacol and guaiacol and exhibited a less intense smoke aroma and flavour compared with untreated must and wine. Aeration using the appropriate process conditions can diminish smoke taint in wine.

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Fryer, Jenna A., and Elizabeth Tomasino. "Analysis of Retronasal Flavor Alterations in Smoke-Affected Wines and the Efficacy of Various Inter-Stimulus Rinse Protocols in Clearing Smoke-Related Attributes." Beverages 8, no. 2 (April 10, 2022): 23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/beverages8020023.

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Wildfires produce smoke, which can then encounter wine grapes, causing the fruit to absorb smoke-related volatile organic compounds. These compounds impact the sensorial profiles of the resulting wines, introducing an uncharacteristic smokey flavor and ashy finish. Since these off-flavor attributes are observed to have longer-lasting perception, a proper inter-stimulus protocol is necessary to ensure an accurate sensory analysis. Previous work has indicated that a 1 g/L pectin rinse with 120 s of separation is effective for clearing the smoke flavor to mitigate potential carryover effects. The purpose of this work was to determine if there was a more efficient rinsing protocol to lessen the time taken between samples. By using wines with various levels of smoke exposure (high, moderate, and none), the efficacy of four different rinse systems were evaluated with a fixed-time-point evaluation system. These results indicate that a 4 g/L glucose solution is more efficient than pectin, requiring only 90 s of separation to clear smoke flavor perception. Additionally, this work identified appropriate references for the retronasal attributes associated with smoke taint in wine. These results can be used to guide a sensory analysis of wildfire-affected wines to ensure effective and accurate results.

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Favell, James W., Osei B. Fordwour, Sydney C. Morgan, Ieva Zigg, and Wesley F. Zandberg. "Large-Scale Reassessment of In-Vineyard Smoke-Taint Grapevine Protection Strategies and the Development of Predictive Off-Vine Models." Molecules 26, no. 14 (July 16, 2021): 4311. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26144311.

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Smoke taint in wine is thought to be caused by smoke-derived volatile phenols (VPs) that are absorbed into grape tissues, trapped as conjugates that are imperceptible by smell, and subsequently released into wines as their free odor-active forms via metabolism by yeasts during fermentation. Blocking VP uptake into grapes would, therefore, be an effective way for vineyards to protect ripening grape crops exposed to smoke. Here, we re-evaluated a biofilm that had previously shown promise in pilot studies in reducing levels of smoke-derived VPs. A suite of nine free and acid-labile VPs were quantitated in Pinot Noir grapes that had been exposed to smoke after being coated with the biofilm one, seven or 14 days earlier. In contrast with earlier studies, our results demonstrated that in all cases, the biofilm treatments led to increased concentrations of both free and total VPs in smoke-exposed grapes, with earlier applications elevating concentrations of some VPs more than the later time points. Tracking VP concentrations through the grape ripening process demonstrated that some (phenol, p/m-cresol, and guaiacol) were not entirely sequestered in grapes as acid-labile conjugates, suggesting the presence of VP storage forms beyond simple glycosides. Free VPs in grapes, though a minor portion of the total, most clearly correlated with concentrations present in the resulting wines. Finally, red table grapes, available year round, were observed to replicate the effects of the biofilm treatments and were capable of transforming most VPs into acid-labile conjugates in under 24 h, indicating that they might be an effective model for rapidly assessing smoke-taint prophylactic products in the laboratory.

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Caffrey, Andrew, Larry Lerno, Arran Rumbaugh, Raul Girardello, Jerry Zweigenbaum, Anita Oberholster, and Susan E. Ebeler. "Changes in Smoke-Taint Volatile-Phenol Glycosides in Wildfire Smoke-Exposed Cabernet Sauvignon Grapes throughout Winemaking." American Journal of Enology and Viticulture 70, no. 4 (June 7, 2019): 373–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.5344/ajev.2019.19001.

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Singh, Davinder Pal, Ayalsew Zerihun, David Kelly, Nicole Cain, Peter Nankervis, and Mark Downey. "A GC-MS Based Analytical Method for Detection of Smoke Taint Associated Phenols in Smoke Affected Wines." Current Bioactive Compounds 8, no. 3 (September 1, 2012): 190–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/157340712802762483.

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FUDGE, A. L., M. SCHIETTECATTE, R. RISTIC, Y. HAYASAKA, and K. L. WILKINSON. "Amelioration of smoke taint in wine by treatment with commercial fining agents." Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 18, no. 3 (August 24, 2012): 302–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2012.00200.x.

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27

Kennison, Kristen R., Mark R. Gibberd, Alan P. Pollnitz, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "Smoke-Derived Taint in Wine: The Release of Smoke-Derived Volatile Phenols during Fermentation of Merlot Juice following Grapevine Exposure to Smoke." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 56, no. 16 (August 2008): 7379–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf800927e.

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Fuentes, Sigfredo, Vasiliki Summerson, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Eden Tongson, Nir Lipovetzky, Kerry L. Wilkinson, Colleen Szeto, and Ranjith R. Unnithan. "Assessment of Smoke Contamination in Grapevine Berries and Taint in Wines Due to Bushfires Using a Low-Cost E-Nose and an Artificial Intelligence Approach." Sensors 20, no. 18 (September 8, 2020): 5108. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20185108.

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Bushfires are increasing in number and intensity due to climate change. A newly developed low-cost electronic nose (e-nose) was tested on wines made from grapevines exposed to smoke in field trials. E-nose readings were obtained from wines from five experimental treatments: (i) low-density smoke exposure (LS), (ii) high-density smoke exposure (HS), (iii) high-density smoke exposure with in-canopy misting (HSM), and two controls: (iv) control (C; no smoke treatment) and (v) control with in-canopy misting (CM; no smoke treatment). These e-nose readings were used as inputs for machine learning algorithms to obtain a classification model, with treatments as targets and seven neurons, with 97% accuracy in the classification of 300 samples into treatments as targets (Model 1). Models 2 to 4 used 10 neurons, with 20 glycoconjugates and 10 volatile phenols as targets, measured: in berries one hour after smoke (Model 2; R = 0.98; R2 = 0.95; b = 0.97); in berries at harvest (Model 3; R = 0.99; R2 = 0.97; b = 0.96); in wines (Model 4; R = 0.99; R2 = 0.98; b = 0.98). Model 5 was based on the intensity of 12 wine descriptors determined via a consumer sensory test (Model 5; R = 0.98; R2 = 0.96; b = 0.97). These models could be used by winemakers to assess near real-time smoke contamination levels and to implement amelioration strategies to minimize smoke taint in wines following bushfires.

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RISTIC, R., P. OSIDACZ, K. A. PINCHBECK, Y. HAYASAKA, A. L. FUDGE, and K. L. WILKINSON. "The effect of winemaking techniques on the intensity of smoke taint in wine." Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 17, no. 2 (May 13, 2011): S29—S40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00146.x.

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30

FUDGE, A. L., R. RISTIC, D. WOLLAN, and K. L. WILKINSON. "Amelioration of smoke taint in wine by reverse osmosis and solid phase adsorption." Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 17, no. 2 (May 13, 2011): S41—S48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00148.x.

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31

JIRANEK, V. "Smoke taint compounds in wine: nature, origin, measurement and amelioration of affected wines." Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research 17, no. 2 (May 13, 2011): S2—S4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-0238.2011.00154.x.

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32

Ristic, Renata, Paul Boss, and Kerry Wilkinson. "Influence of Fruit Maturity at Harvest on the Intensity of Smoke Taint in Wine." Molecules 20, no. 5 (May 18, 2015): 8913–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules20058913.

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Culbert, Julie A., Mark P. Krstic, and Markus J. Herderich. "Development and Utilization of a Model System to Evaluate the Potential of Surface Coatings for Protecting Grapes from Volatile Phenols Implicated in Smoke Taint." Molecules 26, no. 17 (August 27, 2021): 5197. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26175197.

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Due to the increasing frequency of wildfires in recent years, there is a strong need for developing mitigation strategies to manage the impact of smoke exposure of vines and occurrence of ‘smoke taint’ in wine. One plausible approach would be to prevent or inhibit the uptake of volatile phenols from smoke into grape berries in the vineyard. In this study we describe a model system we developed for evaluating under controlled conditions the effectiveness of a range of surface coatings (including existing horticultural sprays) for reducing/preventing the uptake of volatile phenols and their subsequent conversion to phenolic glycosides. Grapes were coated with the materials to be tested and then exposed to gaseous phenols, via evaporation from an aqueous solution, in a semi-closed glass container. Analysis of volatile phenols and their glycosidic grape metabolites demonstrated that the treatments typically did not provide any significant protection; in fact, some resulted in higher concentrations of these compounds in the grapes. The highest concentrations of volatile phenols and their glycosides were observed after application of oily, hydrophobic materials, suggesting that these materials may enhance the adsorption or transfer of volatile phenols into grape berries. Therefore, it is important to consider the types of sprays that are being applied in the vineyard before and during smoke events to prevent the potential of exacerbating the uptake of smoke compounds by grape berries.

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Kennison, Kristen R., Kerry L. Wilkinson, Hannah G. Williams, Jeanette H. Smith, and Mark R. Gibberd. "Smoke-derived Taint in Wine: Effect of Postharvest Smoke Exposure of Grapes on the Chemical Composition and Sensory Characteristics of Wine." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 55, no. 26 (December 2007): 10897–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf072509k.

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35

Favell, James W., Matthew Noestheden, Sarah M. Lyons, and Wesley F. Zandberg. "Development and Evaluation of a Vineyard-Based Strategy To Mitigate Smoke-Taint in Wine Grapes." Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 67, no. 51 (December 5, 2019): 14137–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.9b05859.

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Aaslyng, Margit Dall, and Anette Granly Koch. "The use of smoke as a strategy for masking boar taint in sausages and bacon." Food Research International 108 (June 2018): 387–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.03.069.

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Kelly, David, Ayalsew Zerihun, Davinder P. Singh, Christiane Vitzthum von Eckstaedt, Mark Gibberd, Kliti Grice, and Mark Downey. "Exposure of grapes to smoke of vegetation with varying lignin composition and accretion of lignin derived putative smoke taint compounds in wine." Food Chemistry 135, no. 2 (November 2012): 787–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.05.036.

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38

Summerson, Vasiliki, Claudia Gonzalez Viejo, Alexis Pang, Damir D. Torrico, and Sigfredo Fuentes. "Assessment of Volatile Aromatic Compounds in Smoke Tainted Cabernet Sauvignon Wines Using a Low-Cost E-Nose and Machine Learning Modelling." Molecules 26, no. 16 (August 23, 2021): 5108. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26165108.

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Wine aroma is an important quality trait in wine, influenced by its volatile compounds. Many factors can affect the composition and levels (concentration) of volatile aromatic compounds, including the water status of grapevines, canopy management, and the effects of climate change, such as increases in ambient temperature and drought. In this study, a low-cost and portable electronic nose (e-nose) was used to assess wines produced from grapevines exposed to different levels of smoke contamination. Readings from the e-nose were then used as inputs to develop two machine learning models based on artificial neural networks. Results showed that regression Model 1 displayed high accuracy in predicting the levels of volatile aromatic compounds in wine (R = 0.99). On the other hand, Model 2 also had high accuracy in predicting smoke aroma intensity from sensory evaluation (R = 0.97). Descriptive sensory analysis showed high levels of smoke taint aromas in the high-density smoke-exposed wine sample (HS), followed by the high-density smoke exposure with in-canopy misting treatment (HSM). Principal component analysis further showed that the HS treatment was associated with smoke aroma intensity, while results from the matrix showed significant negative correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between ammonia gas (sensor MQ137) and the volatile aromatic compounds octanoic acid, ethyl ester (r = −0.93), decanoic acid, ethyl ester (r = −0.94), and octanoic acid, 3-methylbutyl ester (r = −0.89). The two models developed in this study may offer winemakers a rapid, cost-effective, and non-destructive tool for assessing levels of volatile aromatic compounds and the aroma qualities of wine for decision making.

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van der Hulst, Lieke, Pablo Munguia, Julie A. Culbert, Christopher M. Ford, Rachel A. Burton, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "Accumulation of volatile phenol glycoconjugates in grapes following grapevine exposure to smoke and potential mitigation of smoke taint by foliar application of kaolin." Planta 249, no. 3 (January 5, 2019): 941–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00425-018-03079-x.

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Dang, Chao, Kerry L. Wilkinson, Vladimir Jiranek, and Dennis K. Taylor. "Development and Evaluation of a HS-SPME GC-MS Method for Determining the Retention of Volatile Phenols by Cyclodextrin in Model Wine." Molecules 24, no. 19 (September 21, 2019): 3432. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24193432.

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Volatile phenols exist in wine and can be markers for Brettanomyces and smoke taint off-odors. Cyclodextrins (CDs) are found to be capable of forming inclusion complexes with volatile phenols. Cross peaks on 2D 1H ROESY nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectra demonstrated inclusion of volatile phenols in the β-CD cavity, while difference tests confirmed this resulted in a perceptible reduction of their sensory impact. However, a conventional headspace solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) method using an isotopically labelled normalizing standard failed to quantify the residual volatile phenols by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) because of inclusion of the standard by the CDs. A new method involving an additional liquid phase was developed and validated for quantitation of volatile phenols in the presence of CDs. The retention of eight volatile phenols by α-, β-, and γ-CD was subsequently studied.

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Rogiers, S. Y., D. J. Fahey, and B. P. Holzapfel. "Mitigating sunburn, dehydration and smoke taint in the vineyard: is there a role for sunscreens, antitranspirants and film forming barriers?" Acta Horticulturae, no. 1274 (March 2020): 71–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2020.1274.8.

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42

Charalambous, Giorgos. "Reclaiming Radicalism: Discursive Wars and the Left." tripleC: Communication, Capitalism & Critique. Open Access Journal for a Global Sustainable Information Society 19, no. 1 (December 23, 2020): 212–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.31269/triplec.v19i1.1182.

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The aim of this article is to identify and discuss a number of labels that have been increasingly used to describe, categorise and study the contemporary radical left – the movements and parties of the socialist tradition and its contemporary derivatives – pointing to the deeply political implications of these trends. More specifically, ‘extremism’, ‘populism’ and ‘nationalism’ as signifiers of what left radicalism looks like are scrutinised in terms of both the political logic and the historical background behind their use, and the challenges they raise for emancipatory, progressive politics. A plea for recasting contemporary social and political struggles for equality and rights is subsequently articulated, the central conviction advanced being terminological: the left’s struggles today must rise above the verbal smoke of the predominant discourse about this political space. It is a key task to appropriately qualify those terms that taint contemporary radicals with colours which do not represent them or fall far short from defining them. Put simply, if the radical left is to succeed electorally and channel its vision into society effectively it needs to reclaim its chief identity trait in the public sphere: left radicalism itself. Reclaiming radicalism entails a number of strategic tasks. These are laid out in terms of imperative discursive articulations, which are, however, paralleled by particular political actions on the ground that can either confirm or undermine any terminological claims.

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Cravero, Maria Carla. "Musty and Moldy Taint in Wines: A Review." Beverages 6, no. 2 (June 16, 2020): 41. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/beverages6020041.

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The literature about musty and moldy taint—the so-called cork taint—in wines is varied because there are many different molecules involved in this wine defect. Chloroanisoles are the most relevant compound responsible for cork taint and of these, 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA) is the most common, but 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole (TeCA) and 2,4,6-tribromoanisole (TBA) can also be responsible of this defect. For other compounds involved in cork taint, geosmin and 2-methylisoborneol (2-MIB) are responsible for earthy off-flavor; pyrazines cause vegetable odors, and guaiacol results in smoked, phenolic and medicinal defects. Off-odors of mushroom in wines are caused by 1-octen-3-ol and 1-octen-3-one coming from grapes contaminated by bunch rot (Botrytis cinerea). The sensory aspects of these molecules are illustrated in this review. Generally, the most important cause of this wine contamination is the natural cork of bottle stoppers, but this is not always true. Different origins of contamination include air pollution of the cellars, wood materials, barrels and chips. A review of the possible prevention or remedial treatments to cork taint is also presented. The best solution for this off-flavor is to prevent the wine contaminations.

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Clarke, Frederic B., Henri Van Kuijk, Rudolph Valentine, G. T. Makovec, William C. Seidel, Bertsil B. Baker, Daniel J. Kasprzak, Joanne K. Bonesteel, Marc Janssens, and Claire Herpol. "The Toxicity of Smoke from Fires Involving Perfluoropolymers: Full-Scale Fire Studies." Journal of Fire Sciences 10, no. 6 (November 1992): 488–527. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073490419201000603.

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The combustion or pyrolysis of perfluorinated resins, under cer tain laboratory conditions (e.g., the "NIST" smoke toxicity test), produces fumes which are 2-3 orders of magnitude more toxic than the smoke from common plastics or wood. To determine whether these materials show the same high level of toxicity under realistic fire conditions, a series of twenty full-scale test burns was carried out at the facilities of the Laboratory for Heat Transfer and Fuel Technology, State University of Ghent, Belgium. A metal tray holding up to 30 kg of 25-pair telecommunications cable in sulated and jacketed with fluorinated materials (Teflon® FEP and/or Teflon® PFA) was exposed to fires involving 110 kg wood cribs, or energetically equiva lent amounts of diesel fuel or polyurethane foam. The burn facility was an 8' × 12' × 8' high (2.4 m × 3.7 m × 2.4 m) masonry room connected to a 43- foot (13 m) corridor. Smoke flowed out of the burn room, down the corridor, and into a smoke collection stack. Near the end of the corridor, a portion of the smoke was extracted, diluted and cooled, and passed through one of a series of stainless steel exposure chambers, each containing ten male Sprague-Dawley rats. Temperature and fuel weight loss were measured at regular time inter vals in the burn room, as were smoke temperature and composition (CO, CO2 and fluorine analysis), as it passed down the hallway and into the smoke collec tion stack. Carbon monoxide, oxygen, fluorine content and temperature of the smoke were also monitored in the animal exposure chambers. Fires were allowed to burn for 30-40 minutes. Animals were exposed to smoke for 30 minutes, after which the surviving animals were observed for a two-week post-exposure period. Selected animals were killed and tested for blood carboxyhemoglobin (COHb) content and tissue samples from the respira tory tract were subsequently examined for histopathological characteristics. Smoke reaching the end of the corridor contained only about one-third of the theoretical amount of fluorine. Additional losses were incurred during dilution and in the animal chamber. The fluorine loss is probably attributable to deposi tion of hydrogen fluoride in the high-humidity conditions associated with com bustion. The exposed animals showed some of the effects previously attributed to combustion products of fluoropolymers, but also showed near-lethal amounts of blood COHb, attributable to carbon monoxide from the principal fuel. Simi lar results were obtained whether the fire fuel was wood or diesel fuel. Use of polyurethane foam as a fuel was found to be unsuitable. The lethal smoke con centration of the cable smoke alone, i.e., without the effects of the carbon monoxide contributed by the principal fuel, is estimated to be 1.6 mg/l, or about 80 times less toxic than would be expected based on the NIST test. This toxicity is within a factor to two of what would be expected if the princi pal toxic agent (in addition to CO) were hydrogen fluoride or carbonyl fluoride. No evidence was found for the highly toxic agent present in the NIST test, which either did not form or existed only transiently in these experiments.

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45

Irwin, WDE. "Discussion of a Study on the “Determination of Mainstream and Sidestream Cigarette Smoke Components for Cigarettes of Different Tobacco Types and a Set of Reference Cigarettes”." Beiträge zur Tabakforschung International/Contributions to Tobacco Research 18, no. 3 (December 1, 1998): 115–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/cttr-2013-0675.

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AbstractThe following discussion looks at some of the results of the paper by PERFETTI et al. (1) from a different perspective. Those results are in Tables 3 and 7 of PERFETTI et al. Tables in this discussion are identified by letter rather than number to avoid confusion. The main purpose of the discussion is to suggest that sidestream (SS) and mainstream (MS) yields of a smoke component should be “normalised” to SS and MS tars respectively before calculating SS/MS ratios. With the ubiquitous use of filter ventilation, simple SS/MS ratios are subject to substantial variation and may be of limited value in understanding the smoke system. BROWNE et al. (2) found that as ventilation increases (0-83 %), the SS/MS ratio for smoke nicotine increased (3.49-13.11) and PERFETTI et al. found a similar trend. This is because of the known reduction in mainstream nicotine with ventilation and the known relatively minor effect of ventilation on sidestream yields. It follows that, with the introduction of ventilation in many products, SS/MS ratios for many smoke components will have a very wide range, making this ratio of relatively little value in understanding the underlying system. However, if the SS and MS yields of component X (in this case nicotine) are “normalised” to SS and MS tar yields respectively, then a more useful ratio can be calculated. That ratio is SS yield of X per unit SS tar divided by MS yield of X per unit MS tar. In the case of nicotine/tar ratio (NTR) it is conveniently expressed as a percentage, or milligrams of nicotine per 100 mg of tar. Tables A - C use tobacco nicotine (%), weight of nicotine consumed (mg), weight of tobacco consumed (mg), MS and SS tar and nicotine (mg) from tables of PERFETTI et al. to calculate other variables and construct scatter plots. In Table A, “nicotine transfer” is the MS or SS nicotine (mg) divided by weight of nicotine consumed (mg) expressed as a percentage. “NTR” was defined previously. “TANT” (“Tar Adjusted Nicotine Transfer”) is the NTR (%) divided by tobacco nicotine (%). Table B gives the SS/MS nicotine ratios from Table 3 of PERFETTI et al. and, additionally, the SS/MS NTR ratios calculated from Table A.

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Dang, Chao, Vladimir Jiranek, Dennis K. Taylor, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "Removal of Volatile Phenols From Wine Using Crosslinked Cyclodextrin Polymers." Molecules 25, no. 4 (February 18, 2020): 910. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules25040910.

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Volatile phenols have been implicated as contributors to off-odors associated with taints from bushfire smoke and microbial spoilage. Various methods for the amelioration of off-odors have been evaluated, but to date, they have not included cyclodextrin (CD) polymers. In the current study, two CD polymers were prepared from β- and γ-CD, using hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI) as a crosslinking agent. Adsorption tests were performed with four volatile phenols (guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, 4-ethylguaiacol and 4-ethylphenol) at concentrations up to 1 mg/L. The removal of volatile phenols by CD polymers achieved equilibrium almost instantly, with isotherm tests suggesting an adsorption capacity of 20.7 µg of volatile phenol per gram of polymer. Langmuir and Freundlich models were subsequently used to fit the data. In batch adsorption tests, the CD polymers achieved 45 to 77% removal of volatile phenols. Polymer reusability was also evaluated and was found to be excellent. A comparison between volatile phenol adsorption by CDs vs. CD polymers, determined using a novel four-phase headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) method for gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), suggests CD polymers offer several advantages for use by the wine industry.

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47

Goulder, Michael. "Two Significant Minor Agreements (Mat. 4:13 Par.; Mat. 26:67-68 Par.)." Novum Testamentum 45, no. 4 (2003): 365–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1163/156853603322538758.

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AbstractThree of our oldest witnesses, Origen and P70 from the third century, and Eusebius from the fourth, read Nαζαρα at Mat. 2:23, and this should be accepted as the original, as at 4:13. Matthew is probably inferring the form from his (amended) citation of Jg. 13:5,7, Nαζωραîoζ εσται, on analogy with Ioυoυδαîoζ Ioυδα. So Nαζαρα is Matthaean, and Luke's use of the Matthaean form at Lk. 4:16 is an indication that he knows Matthew's Gospel. At 26:67-68 Matthew has divided the mockers into two groups. The first spit in Jesus' face, and punch it, and the evangelist therefore suppresses Mark's blindfolding, which would protect Jesus. The second group belabour Jesus with sticks from around and behind; as he cannot see them, the "Prophesy!" taunt is transferred to them, with its explanatory, "Who is it who smote you?" Luke has the same addition of five words in the same order, including a hapax. It is difficult to resist the conclusion here that Luke knew Matthew's Gospel.

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48

Adomeh, E. E. "Assessment of the stability of processed broiler chicken under storage." Nigerian Journal of Animal Production 48, no. 5 (November 10, 2021): 143–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.51791/njap.v48i5.3195.

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Meat is very nutritious and as such can easily be contaminated with microorganisms especially when stored under conditions where temperature cannot be controlled. This study was conducted to assess the storage stability of the processed meat type chicken. Differently processed chicken samples were carefully packaged in sterile high density polythene bags. The samples were stored at room temperature (25± 2 C), fridge temperature (4 C), and freezer temperature (-18 C) for 28 days. In each case, a detailed microbial analysis was carried out on the samples. The three treatment samples and the control were packaged separately according to the number of period they would be analyzed. Each of the treatment samples were withdrawn and analyzed for microbiological quality. Samples were taken at 7 days interval, namely, day 1, day 7, day 14, day 21, and day 28. The effect of storage period on microbiological status was also determined. The microbial isolates of meat stored under room temperature increased with increased storage period from day 14 through day 21 to day 28 (Day 14 = 71, Day 21 =81 and Day 28 =86 for smoked chicken; Day 14 = 72, Day 21 =81 and Day 28 =89 for oven dried chicken; Day 14 = 65, Day 21 = 77 and Day 28 =86 for fried chicken). While the isolates of meat stored under condition decreased with storage period from day 14 through day 21 to day 28 (Day 14 = 49, Day 21 = 42 and Day 28 = 21 for smoked chicken; Day 14 = 44, Day 21 = 35 and Day 28 = 20 for oven dried chicken; Day 14 = 44, Day 21 = 39 and Day 28 =27 for fried chicken). The meat stored under freezing condition did not only decrease from day 14 through day 21 to day 28, it also had the least number of isolates at day 28 of storage (Day 14 = 36, Day 21 = 25 and Day 28 = 20 for smoked chicken; Day 14 = 40, Day 21 = 25 and Day 28 = 20 for oven dried chicken; Day 14 = 46, Day 21 = 31 and Day 28 =17 for fried chicken). La viande est très nutritive et, en tant que telle, peut facilement être contaminée par des micro-organismes, en particulier lorsqu'elle est stockée dans des conditions où la température ne peut pas être contrôlée. Cette étude a été menée pour évaluer la stabilité au stockage du poulet de type viande transformée. Des échantillons de poulet traités différemment ont été soigneusement emballés dans des sacs stériles en polyéthylène haute densité. Les échantillons ont été conservés à température ambiante (25±2oC), au réfrigérateur (4oC) et au congélateur (-18oC) pendant 28 jours. Dans chaque cas, une analyse microbienne détaillée a été réalisée sur les échantillons. Les trois échantillons de traitement et le contrôle ont été emballés séparément selon le nombre de période où ils seraient analysés. Chacun des échantillons de traitement a été prélevé et analysé pour la qualité microbiologique. Des échantillons ont été prélevés à 7 jours d'intervalle, à savoir le jour 1, le jour 7, le jour 14, le jour 21 et le jour 28. L'effet de la période de stockage sur l'état microbiologique a également été déterminé. Les isolats microbiens de viande conservée à température ambiante ont augmenté avec l'augmentation de la période de stockage du jour 14 au jour 21 jusqu'au jour 28 (jour 14 = 71, jour 21 = 81 et jour 28 = 86 pour le poulet fumé ; jour 14 = 72, jour 21 = 81 et Jour 28 = 89 pour le poulet séché au four ; Jour 14 = 65, Jour 21 = 77 et Jour 28 = 86 pour le poulet frit). Alors que les isolats de viande conservés dans des conditions ont diminué avec la période de stockage du jour 14 au jour 21 jusqu'au jour 28 (jour 14 = 49, jour 21 = 42 et jour 28 = 21 pour le poulet fumé ; jour 14 = 44, jour 21 = 35 et Jour 28 = 20 pour le poulet séché au four; Jour 14 = 44, Jour 21 = 39 et Jour 28 = 27 pour le poulet frit). La viande stockée dans des conditions de congélation n'a pas seulement diminué du jour 14 au jour 21 jusqu'au jour 28, elle avait également le moins d'isolats au jour 28 de stockage (jour 14 = 36, jour 21 = 25 et jour 28 = 20 pour poulet ; Jour 14 = 40, Jour 21 = 25 et Jour 28 = 20 pour le poulet séché au four ; Jour 14 = 46, Jour 21 = 31 et Jour 28 = 17 pour le poulet frit).

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49

Mirabelli-Montan, Ysadora A., Matteo Marangon, Antonio Graça, Christine M. Mayr Marangon, and Kerry L. Wilkinson. "A review of the techniques for mitigating the effects of smoke taint in wine production." IVES Technical Reviews, vine and wine, September 29, 2021. http://dx.doi.org/10.20870/ives-tr.2021.4846.

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Smoke taint has become a prominent issue for the global wine industry as climate change continues to impact the length and extremity of fire seasons around the world. When grapevines are exposed to smoke, their leaves and fruit can adsorb volatile smoke compounds (for example, volatile phenols such as guaiacol, 4-methylguaiacol, o-, m- and p-cresol, and syringol), which can initially be detected in free (aglycone) forms but are rapidly converted to glycoconjugate forms due to glycosylation. During the fermentation process, these glycoconjugates can be broken down, releasing volatile phenols that contribute undesirable sensory characteristics to the resultant wine (i.e. smokey and ashy attributes). Several methods have been evaluated, both viticultural measures and winemaking techniques, for mitigating and/or remediating the negative effects of grapevine smoke exposure. While there is currently no single method that universally solves the problem of smoke taint, this paper outlines the tools available that can help to minimize the negative impacts of smoke taint (Figure 1).

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50

Antolini, A., R. Forniti, M. Modesti, A. Bellincontro, C. Catelli, and F. Mencarelli. "First Application of Ozone Postharvest Fumigation to Remove Smoke Taint from Grapes." Ozone: Science & Engineering, July 29, 2020, 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2020.1796583.

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