Дисертації з теми "Sensor magnetostrictive"

The magnetoelectric (ME) effect, i.e., the induction of magnetization by an applied electric field (E) or a polarization by an applied magnetic field (H), is of great interest to researchers due to its potential applications in magnetic sensors. Moreover, the ME effect in laminate composites is known to be much higher than in single phase and particulate composites due to combination of the magnetostrictive and piezoelectric effects in the individual layers. Given that the highest ME coefficient have been found in Metglas/piezo-fiber laminate composites, this study was designed to investigate and enhance the magnetoelectric (ME) effect in Metglas/piezo-fiber laminate composites, as well as develop their potential for magnetic sensor applications. To initiate this investigation, a theoretical model was derived to analyze the thickness effect of the magnetostrictive, piezoelectric, epoxy and Kapton layers on the ME coefficient. As a result, the importance of the coupling effect by epoxy layers was revealed. I used spin-coating, vacuum bagging, hot pressing, and screen printing techniques to decrease the thickness of the epoxy layer in order to maintain homogeneity, and to obtain good repeatability of the 16 ME laminates fabricated at one time. This protocol resulted in a more efficient way to induce self-stress to Metglas/PZT laminates, which is essential for increasing the ME coefficient. With an enhanced ME effect in the Metglas/piezo-fiber laminates, magnetic field sensitivity could then be increased. An ME sensor unit, which consisted of a Metglas/PMN-PT laminate and a low noise charge amplifier, had a magnetic field sensitivity of 10 pT/Hz0.5 in a well-shielded environment. Stacking four of these ME laminates could further increase the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio. I studied the optimized distance between a pair of Metglas/PZT ME laminates. A stack of up to four ME sensors was constructed to decrease the equivalent magnetic noise. The magnetic field sensitivity was effectively enhanced compared to a single laminate. Finally, a number of four Metglas/PZT sensor units array was constructed to further increase the sensitivity. ME laminate composites operated in passive mode have typically required an external magnetic bias field in order to maximize the value of the piezomagnetic coefficient, which has many drawbacks. I studied the ME effect in an Ni/Metglas/PZT laminate at zero bias field by utilizing the remnant magnetization between the Ni and Metglas layers. To further enhance this effect, annealed Metglas was bonded on the Metglas/PZT laminate since it is known that hard-soft ferromagnetic bilayers generate built-in magnetic field in these Metglas layers. As a result, giant αME values could be achieved at a zero bias field at low frequency range or at electromechanical resonance (EMR). The sensor unit consisting of self-biased ME laminate arrays is considerably smaller compared to a unit that uses magnet-biased ME laminates. Introducing the converse ME effect and nonlinear ME effect in Metglas/piezo-fiber laminates affords a variety of potential applications. Therefore, I theoretically and experimentally studied converse ME effects in laminates with longitudinally magnetized and longitudinally poled, or (L-L) mode. The optimum structure for producing the maximum effect was obtained for Metglas/PZT laminates. Additionally, the optimum structure and materials for enhancing the nonlinear ME effect in Metglas/PZT laminates are reviewed herein. In particular, this study revealed that modulating the EMR in laminates with high-Q piezo-fibers could enhance the SNR. The stress effect on nonlinear ME effect is also discussed—namely that magnetic field sensitivities can be enhanced by this modulation-demodulation technique.
Ph. D.

The transmission is probably the drivetrain component with the greatest impact on driveability of an automatic transmission equipped vehicle. Since the driver only has an indirect influence on the gear shift timing, except for situations like kick-down accelerations, it is desirable to improve shift quality as perceived by the driver. However, improving shift quality is a problem normally diametrically opposed to minimizing transmission clutch energy dissipation. The latter has a great impact on transmission lifetime, and has to be defined and taken into consideration along with the notion of shift quality. The main focus of this thesis is the modeling of a drivetrain of an automatic transmission vehicle, and the implementation in MatLab/Simulink, including the first to second gear upshift. The resulting plant based on the derived equations is validated using data from a test vehicle equipped with a torque sensor located at the transmission output shaft. The shaft torque is more or less proportional to the driveline jerk, and hence of great interest for control purposes. Control strategies are discussed and a PID controller structure is developed to control the first to second gear upshift, as opposed to the traditional open-loop upshift control. Furthermore, the proposed controller structure uses the transmission output torque and the differential speed of the engaging clutch as inputs, to control the clutch pressure and the engine output torque, respectively. The structure is unsophisticated and transparent compared to other approaches, but shows great theoretical results in terms of improved shift quality and decreased clutch wear.

In this paper a new equivalent circuit is presented which describes the dynamics of a prototype micro-gyro sensor. The concept takes advantage of the principles employed in vibratory gyro sensors and the ductile attributes of GalFeNOL to target high sensitivity and shock tolerance. The sensor is designed as a tuning fork structure. A GalFeNOL patch attached to the y-z surface of the drive prong causes both prongs to bending the x-z plane (about the y axis) and a patch attached to the x-z surface of the sensing prong detects Coriolis-force induced bending in the y-z plane (about the x axis). A permanent magnet is bonded on top of each prong to give bias magnetic fields. A solenoid coil surrounding the drive prong is used to produce bending in the x-z plane of both prongs. The sensing prong is surrounded by a solenoid coil with N turns in which a voltage proportional to the time rate of change of magnetic flux is induced. The equivalent circuit enables the efficient modeling of a gyro sensor and an electromechanical behavioral simulation using the circuit simulator SPICE. The prongs are modeled as wave guiding bending beams which are coupled to the electromagnetic solenoid coil transducer. In contrast to known network approaches, the proposed equivalent circuit is the first tuning fork model, which takes full account of the fictitious force in a constant rotating frame of reference. The Coriolis force as well as the centrifugal force on a concentrated mass are considered.

Magnetoelectric (ME) effect is defined as the change in dielectric polarization (P) of a material under an applied magnetic field (H) or an induced magnetization (M) under an external electric field (E). ME materials have attracted number of investigators due to their potential for improving applications such as magnetic field sensors, filters, transformers, memory devices and energy harvesters. It has been shown both experimentally and theoretically that the composite structures consisting of piezoelectric and magnetostrictive phases possess stronger ME coupling in comparison to that of single phase materials. Giant magnetoelectric effect has been reported in variety of composites consisting of bulk-sized ME composites and thin film ME nanostructures. In this dissertation, novel ME composite systems are proposed, synthesized and characterized in both bulk and thin films to address the existing challenges in meeting the needs of practical applications. Two applications were the focused upon in this study, tunable transformer and dual phase energy harvester, where requirements can be summarized as: high ME coefficient under both on-resonance and off-resonance conditions, broad bandwidth, and low applied DC bias. In the first chapter, three challenges related to the conventional ME behavior in bulk ME composites have been addressed (1) The optimized ME coefficient can be achieved without external DC magnetic field by using a self-biased ME composite with a homogenous magnetostrictive material. The mechanism of such effect and its tunability are studied; (2) A near-flat ME response regardless of external magnetic field is obtained in a self-biased ME composite with geometry gradient structure; (3) By optimizing interfacial coupling with co-firing techniques, the ME coefficient can be dramatically enhanced. Theses co-fired ME laminates not only exhibit high coupling coefficient due to direct bonding, but also illustrate a self-biased effect due to the built-in stress during co-sintering process. These results present significant advancement toward the development of multifunctional ME devices since it eliminates the need for DC bias, expands the working bandwidth and enhances the ME voltage coefficient. Next, magnetoelectric nanocomposites were developed for understanding the nature of the growth of anisotropic thin film structures. In this chapter following aspects were addressed: (1) Controlled growth of nanostructures with well-defined morphology was obtained. Microstructure and surface morphology evolution of the piezoelectric BaTiO3 films was systematically analyzed. A growth model was proposed by considering the anisotropy of surface energy and the formation of twin lamellae structure within the frame work of Structure Zone Model (SZM) and Dynamic Scaling Theory (DST). In parallel to BaTiO3 films, well-ordered nanocomposite arrays [Pb1.1(Zr0.6Ti0.4)O3/CoFe2O4] with controlled grain orientation were developed and investigated by a novel hybrid deposition method. The influence of the pre-deposited template film orientation on the growth of ME composite array was studied. (2) PZT/CFO/PZT thick composite film and BTO/CFO thin film were synthesized using sol-gel deposition (SGD) and pulsed laser deposition (PLD) techniques, respectively. The HRTEM analysis revealed local microstructure at the interface of consecutive constituents. The interfacial property variation of these films was found to affect the coupling coefficient of corresponding ME nanocomposites. Subsequently, a novel complex three-dimensional ME composite with highly anisotropic structure was developed using a hybrid synthesis method. The influence of growth condition on the microstructure and property of the grown complex composites was studied. The film with highly anisotropic structure was found to possess tailored ferroelectric response indicating the promise of this synthesis method and microstructure. Based on the laminated ME composites, three types of ME tunable transformer designs were designed and fabricated. The goal was to develop a novel ME transformer with tunable performance (voltage gain and/or working resonance frequency) under applied DC magnetic field. Conventional ME transformers need either winding coil or large external magnetic field to achieve the tunable feature. Considering the high ME coupling of ME laminate, two ME transformers were developed by epoxy bonding Metglas with transversely/longitudinally poled piezoelectric ceramic transformer. The influence of different operation modes toward magnetoelectric tunability was analyzed. In addressing the concern of the epoxy bonding interface, a co-fired ME transformer with unique piezoelectric transformer/magnetostrictive layer/piezoelectric transformer trilayer structure was designed. The design and development strategy of thin film ME transformer was discussed to illustrate the potential for ME transformer miniaturization and on-chip integration. Lastly, motivated by the increasing demand of energy harvesting (EH) systems to support self-powered sensor nodes in structural health monitoring system, a magnetoelectric composite based energy harvester was developed. The development and design concept of the magnetoelectric energy harvester was systematically discussed. In particular, the first dual-phase self-biased ME energy harvester was designed which can simultaneously harness both vibration and stray magnetic field (Hac) in the absence of DC magnetic field. Strain distribution of the EH was simulated using the finite element model (FEM) at the first three resonance frequencies. Additionally, the potential of transferring this simple EH structure into MEMS scalable components was mentioned. These results provide significant advancement toward high energy density multimode energy harvesting system.
Ph. D.

Uma vasta gama de sensores são aplicados no mercado atual na busca pela melhoria de processos e produtos. Há um grande crescimento em novos sistemas que possam apresentar recursos que técnicas convencionais não apresentam. A busca por uma nova plataforma de sensoriamento surge a partir do interesse em identificar e controlar parâmetros ambientais isolados. Esta pesquisa em área incipiente no Brasil mostra o desenvolvimento de um sensor a partir de um material inteligente (smart material), que por definição, possui uma ou mais propriedades que podem sofrer mudanças significativas a partir de um estímulo externo. O presente trabalho é baseado na investigação de uma fita de material magnético amorfo, que ao exibir propriedades magnéticas e elásticas pelo efeito da magnetostricção, permite o monitoramento remoto de fenômenos físico-químicos do ambiente em que estiver exposta. O desenvolvimento deste sensor tem finalidade no monitoramento sem fio de solicitação mecânica, e alteração do tipo de fluido presente em um dado ambiente. O estudo e avaliação do sensor contou com técnicas de caracterização experimentais e de simulação. São apresentados sistemas e ensaios capazes verificar as ressonâncias do modo de vibração puro da amostra a partir de medidas ópticas e elétricas, quando submetidos a variação de fenômenos físicos. Os resultados indicam a dependência do efeito direto ao estímulo na ação externa do campo magnético em decorrências das características do material. Os resultados quantificados e qualificados na correlação entre os métodos utilizados, justificam a aplicação do smart material no sensoriamento de viscosidade e carregamento aplicado em ambientes isolados. Em consequência das discussões apresentadas para as curvas comportamentais na variação dos parâmetros físico-químico a plataforma de sensoriamento é validada.
New amorphous magnetic materials have magnetic and elastic properties which allows the identification and control of environmental parameters remotely. This work was based in the investigation of a magnetoelastic thin strip, widely used as anti-theft device. In this study it was discussed the employment of this material as a sensor capable identify an environmental change through magnetoelasticity. In order to characterize the strips it was employed several techniques, namely: finite element modeling of the vibrational modes, electromagnetic impedance and laser interferometry. It was presented an analysis of the displacement of the longitudinal modes. The knowledge of the vibration mode allowed the sensor electric characterization when subjected to environmental changes. According to the sample dimensions under magnetic field, test systems were developed in order to perform optic and electric measurements. A proper parameter adjustment of the power supply allowed the determination of the fundamental and higher order resonance frequencies. The magnetostrictive behaviour of the anti-theft strips is related to the Young modulus where the vibration frequency is inversely proportional to the length of the strip. Studies showed that the strip performance is also related to many other parameters, such as the mechanical and electromagnetic properties and the environment to which it is exposed. The strips here presented are largely employed as sensor for temperature, pressure, density, mas variation, viscosity and flux velocity mainly because their wireless capabilities. The data from the polarization field are a section of the knowledge required to better investigate the best performance of the sensor. The sensor characterization through several techniques applied in viscous media and under pressure raise some issues. However, the construction of some devices allowed the application of different values of viscosity and pressure upon the magnetized strip. This made the results interpretation less complex. The resonances were observed in the experimental data and mathematical modellin. Calibration curves were defined to make the results interpretation easier.Previously applied and studied techniques which cover the characterization and behaviour of the material provide valid justifications for the implementation of remote sensors made of amorphous metallic strips. The results presented here justify the application of the analysed amorphous strip as a viscosity and pressure sensor in isolated enviroments.

Метою робота є аналіз існуючих електрогідравлічних мехатронних модулів поступального руху, виявлення основних напрямків їх розвитку та перспектив подальшого вдосконалення. В результаті прослідковано еволюцію таких систем. Запропоноване схемне рішення мехатронного модуля для проведення подальших науково-дослідних та проектно-конструкторських робіт в цьому напрямку.
The aim is to analyze existing electro-mechatronic modules translational motion, identifying the main areas of development and prospects for further improvement. The result followed the evolution of such systems. The proposed schematics mechatronic module for further research and design work in this direction.

CONSELHO NACIONAL DE DESENVOLVIMENTO CIENTÍFICO E TECNOLÓGICO
A magnetostricção é a propriedade dos materiais ferromagnéticos de se deformarem pela presença de um campo magnético externo. Trata-se de uma propriedade inerente ao material, que não muda com o tempo. Materiais que apresentam deformações da ordem de 10-3 são conhecidos como materiais de magnetostricção gigante (GMM). Esta dissertação de mestrado estuda a aplicação destes materiais em sensores de deslocamento onde não há contacto entre o elemento cursor (um ímã) e o elemento sensor (GMM). O princípio de funcionamento consiste em aplicar um gradiente de campo magnético ao GMM que está fixo. O gradiente de campo magnético é gerado por um ímã preso ao componente ou estrutura na qual se quer medir o deslocamento. As variações no campo magnético no material GMM originados pelo deslocamento do ímã (estrutura), provocam uma deformação no GMM, que é detectada com extensômetros do tipo Strain Gauge ou Redes de Bragg. Neste trabalho apresenta-se a caracterização da deformação de GMM em relação a um campo constante aplicado, e análises do seu comportamento para diferentes geometrias. Efeitos de pressão, polarização com um segundo ímã, e diferentes gradientes de campo magnético são também estudados. É observado um comportamento local para a deformação quando a medida é realizada em diferentes regiões do GMM. Os resultados obtidos permitiram a medição de deslocamentos de alguns micra estando o elemento sensor a até 10 mm de distância do elemento cursor.
Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials to deform in the presence of a magnetic field. Magnetostriction is an inherent property of magnetic materials, which is unchangeable with time. Materials exhibiting strains in the order of 10-3 are known as giant magnetostrictive materials (GMM).In this dissertation we study the application of these materials in displacement sensors where there is not contact between the cursor element (magnet) and sensor element (GMM). Its principle of operation consists of applying a magnetic field gradient to a GMM located at a fixed position. The magnetic field gradient is produced by a magnet attached to the component or structure in which the displacement will be measured.The variation on the magnetic field in the GMM position originated from the displacement of the magnet, results in a strain in the GMM that can be detected with a Strain Gauge or Bragg Grating extensometers. In this work is presented the characterization of the strain on GMM cuboids against a constant magnetic field and the analysis of its behavior for different geometries. Effects of pressure, polarization with a second magnet, and different gradients of magnetic field are also studied. It is observed a local behavior for strains when it is measured in different regions of GMM cuboid. The results obtained allow us to measure displacements of about few micra when the sensor is at a distance of 10 mm from the cursor element.

Une recherche bibliographique a permis de faire un état de l'art, d'une part des différents principespermettant de détecter le givre et d'autre part de l'application de matériaux magnétostrictifs à la mesure defaibles masses. La faisabilité et l'applicabilité de certains alliages amorphes et nanocristallins à la réalisationde capteurs de givre ont été démontrées.Suite à cet état de l'art, le principe de détection par résonateur magnétostrictif qui a été retenu, a faitl'objet d'une étude approfondie aboutissant à l'établissement d'un nouveau modèle analytique complet desrésonateurs magnétostrictifs sous forme de ruban. L'intérêt principal de ce modèle est la prise en compte depertes mécaniques et l'expression finale contenant la fonction de transfert complète entre les entrées et sortiesélectriques. Ainsi, la réponse en fréquence du modèle est vraiment similaire aux réponses expérimentales. Deplus, il apporte une explication aux retournements observés, pour certains harmoniques entre les fréquencesde résonance et d'antirésonance, pour lesquels l'origine n'avait pu être clairement identifiée.La mise en œuvre de ce nouveau modèle pour la caractérisation de rubans amorphes a montré qu'ilest possible de déterminer le coefficient de couplage à partir de la réponse en fréquence ainsi que le moduled'Young ou l'amortissement. On a donc pu tracer pour des rubans de 2605SC et 2826MB les évolutions avecle champ de polarisation des paramètres du résonateur. De l'évolution de ces paramètres, il est possible dereconstruire les courbes de magnétostriction d'un ruban, ce qui constitue actuellement une méthode decaractérisation.La mise en œuvre d'un prototype a permis de détecter du givre et ainsi de confirmer la faisabilité dela détection de givrage par ce moyen, mais les essais préliminaires qui sont très prometteurs n'ont puapporter une réponse quantitative du capteur soumis à un dépôt de givre. Des mesures utilisant des enceintesde givrage contrôlées en température et en hygrométrie constituent une première perspective. Par ailleurs, lesrésultats présentés dans ce manuscrit s'avèrent une bonne base pour la valorisation de ces travaux,notamment pour la réalisation d'un prototype de capteur, son conditionnement et sa mise en œuvre dans devraies conditions de givrage.

Materiais amorfos demonstraram possuir um comportamento magnetomecânico superior ao de qualquer outro material magnético. Isso vêm permitindo sua utilização para um crescente número de finalidades de sensoriamento. A capacidade de interrogar remotamente a frequência de ressonância de fitas de material amorfo através de campos magnéticos permite a aplicação destas como sensores em situações que não permitem acesso direto à superfície de medição. Essa qualidade pode ser útil no monitoramento de risers que trazem petróleo do fundo do mar até plataformas na superfície. A frequência de ressonância das fitas amorfas depende, entre outras propriedades, da intensidade do campo magnético no qual estão inseridas. Desta forma, a deformação de um substrato pode ser monitorada através do uso de um transdutor nele colado, o qual se magnetiza à medida que o substrato deforma, consequentemente mudando o campo magnético imposto sobre o ressonador e a sua frequência de ressonância. Neste trabalho, a construção de um sensor magnetoelástico de deformação é investigada, onde uma liga policristalina de FeAlB foi utilizada como transdutor, e fitas de materiais amorfos, de nomes comerciais Metglas 2826 MB3 e 1K501, foram utilizadas como ressonadores. A liga de Fe80Al20, com 2%at. de B, mostrou ter uma magnetostricção de 80 ppm, o que inspirou o seu uso como transdutor, o que possibilita a substituição das fitas amorfas utilizadas anteriormente. Uma bancada de testes, capaz de aplicar tensão mecânica a um substrato de latão, foi construída com o objetivo de testar a sensibilidade do sensor magnetoelástico à deformação. Foi observado um comportamento altamente linear da frequência de ressonância do sensor com a tensão aplicada sobre o substrato de latão, com Gauge Factors de 120 e 90 para os sensores que utilizaram Metglas 2028 MB3 e 1K501 como ressonadores, respectivamente. Este resultado instigou a exploração da aplicabilidade do sensor magnetoelástico em substratos ferromagnéticos. Por fim, ensaios de tração foram realizados, nos quais a deformação dos substratos de aço SAE 1010 foram monitoradas simultaneamente pelo sensor magnetoelástico e por um Strain Gauge. A variação de frequência de ressonância do sensor nestes esaios apresentou uma forma mais sigmoidal, com uma região quase linear. O monitoramento de um riser com este dispositivo seria factível
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior, CAPES
Amorphous metals have been shown to have magnetomechanical properties which are superior to those of any other magnetic materials. This has allowed their usage in a growing number of sensing purposes. The capacity of remotely interrogating the resonant frequency of amorphous material stripes trough magnetic fields allows their application as sensor in situations that do now allow direct contact with the measurement surface. This quality may be useful for the monitoring of risers that bring petrol from deep sea to platforms on the surface. The resonant frequency of the stripes is a function of, alongside other properties, the intensity of the magnetic field in which they are inserted. Thus, a substrate’s deformation may be monitored trough the use of a transducer in him affixed, which magnetizes as the substrate deforms, consequently altering the magnetic field imposed over the resonator, and its resonant frequency. In this work, the construction of a magnetoelastic strain sensor is investigated, where a polycrystalline FeAlB alloy was used as transducer, and amorphous materials, by the commercial name of Metglas 2826 MB3 and 1K501, were used as resonators. The Fe80Al20 alloy, with 2%at. B, was shown to have an 80 ppm magnetostriction, which inspired its use as transducer, which enabled the substitution of the amorphous ribbons previously used. A testing bench, capable of applying mechanical stress to a brass substrate, was built with the goal of teste the sensibility of the magnetoelastic sensor to strain. A highly linear behavior of the sensor’s resonant frequency to the applied stress on the brass substrate was observed, with Gauge Factors of 120 for the sensors that used Metglas 2826 MB3 and 1K501 as resonators, respectively. This result instigated the exploration of the magnetoelastic sensor’s applicability on ferromagnetic surfaces. Finally, mechanical stress tests were conducted, in which the deformation of the SAE 1010 steel substrate were simultaneously monitored by the magnetoelastic sensor, and a Strain Gauge. The resonant frequency of the sensor is this test showed a sigmoidal form, with a nearly linear region. The monitoring of a riser with this device is feasible

Thesis (Ph. D.) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2008.
Thesis research directed by: Dept. of Aerospace Engineering. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Maryland, College Park, 2009.
Thesis research directed by: Dept. of Aerospace Engineering. Title from t.p. of PDF. Includes bibliographical references. Published by UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Mich. Also available in paper.

Vibration energy harvesting has been widely investigated by academia and industry in the past decade with focus on developing distributed power sources. One of the prime goals of energy harvesters is to provide power to wireless sensors allowing for the placement of these sensors in the remote and inaccessible areas where battery is not an option. Electromechanical modeling approaches have been developed for enhancing the mechanical to electrical conversion efficiencies utilizing electromagnetic, piezoelectric, and magnetostrictive mechanisms. Models based upon the constitutive equations for these three conversion mechanisms, supported by extensive experimental results available in literature, suggest that power requirement through energy harvesters can be met only when the total volume is in the range of 1-100 cm3. There exists a critical volume of 0.5 cm3 at which above which the electromagnetic mechanism exhibits higher power density as compared to the other mechanisms. Therefore, in this thesis electromagnetic energy conversion was adopted to develop high power energy harvesters. We also present a novel vibration energy harvesting method which rivals the power density and bandwidth of the traditional methods. The overarching theme throughout the design process was selecting the structure and fabrication methodology that facilitates the transition of the technology. The experimental models were characterized at accelerations and frequencies typically found in the environmental vibration sources.
The thesis provides in-depth the design, modeling, and characterization of a vibration energy harvester which creates relative motion differently than the conventional harvesters. Conventional designs rely on amplifying the original source displacement operating at the resonance condition. In the harvester design proposed in this thesis, the relative motion is created by cancelling the vibration at one location and transferring the source vibration directly to another location by combining a vibration isolator with a vibration absorber. In this novel configuration, termed as Direct Vibration Harvester (DVH), the energy is harvested directly from the vibrating source mass rather than a vibrating seismic mass attached to the source increasing the harvesting bandwidth and power density.
Four bar magnet and magnetic levitation architectures were modified and modeled to reach closer to the theoretical maximum power densities. Extensive FEM was utilized to understand the performance limitations of the existing structures and the results from this analysis paved the pathway towards the development of the DVH. �A comparative analysis of the performance of the DVH with the traditional harvesting methods in terms of normalized power output and bandwidth was conducted. Performance improvements of DVH required development of the high efficiency rotational generators as linear to rotational conversion occurs in the DVH. The optimized rotational generator was modeled and all the predicted performance metrics were validated through experiments. The generator was applied towards the fabrication of DVH and also in a micro windmill. The power density of the micro windmill was found to be better than all the other results reported in literature. Extensive fluid and structural modeling was conducted to tailor the performance of the micro windmill in the desired wind speed range.
Combined, this thesis provides significant advancement on many fronts. It pushes the magnetic levitation and four-bar mechanism harvester systems to their theoretical limits. It demonstrates a novel direct vibration harvester that has the possibility of surpassing the power density and bandwidth of all the known vibration harvester with large magnitude of output power. It provides a design process for an efficient small scale electromagnetic generator that can form for the backbone of many rotational and linear harvesters. This generator was used to develop the world\'s highest power density micro windmill in the small wind speed range.

Ph. D.

O trabalho de doutorado teve como objetivo desenvolver um modulador óptico baseado em filme magnetostrictivo para aplicação como magnetômetro. A modelagem e simulação do dispositivo foi realizada utilizando software com cálculo por método dos elementos finitos (MEF) e teve como finalidade auxiliar iterativamente os processos de projeto e fabricação do modulador. A originalidade da proposta baseia-se na construção de um guia de onda em óptica integrada recoberto por um filme magnetostrictivo para permitir a modulação , via efeito elasto-óptico, da onda guiada pela aplicação de campos magnéticos externos. O campo magnético aplicado provoca a deformação o material magnetostrictivo que induz uma modificação no perfil de esforço aplicado ao substrato. O substrato tem suas propriedades ópticas alteradas devido ao efeito elasto-óptico, o que provoca mudanças nas propriedades da luz transmitida. O trabalho tem seu início com o estudo e a caracterização de filmes magnetostrictivos de Tb25F275 e Tb23Co77 depositados por sputtering sobre substratos de silício. Uma técnica para preparação das amostras e medição da magnetostricção foi estabelecida e os coeficientes de magnetostrição dos filmes foram determinados a partir das medições diretas dos deslocamentos das amostras, em função dos campos magnéticos aplicados, utilizando a técnica de Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Os resultados experimentais obtidos permitiram a realização de simulações por MEF para verificação dos modos de guiamento da luz gerados pelo perfil de esforços induzidos termicamente no processo de deposição do filme magnetostrictivo sobre substrato de B12GeO4 (BGO). Foi modelado e simulado também o efeito da aplicação do campo magnético sobre o guia óptico obtido inicialmente pelo efeito de esforço térmico. No resultado das simulações foi possível verificar as alterações do índice de refração efetivo e da intensidade óptica do modo guiado em função de campos magnéticos aplicados ao modulador. Ao final do trabalho realizaram-se a fabricação de alguns protótipos. Os resultados das caracterizações dos moduladores construídos permitirão, no futuro, ajustar os modelos de simulação elaborados.
The doctoral work aims are the development and simulation of an optical modulator based on the effect of magnetostriction for application as magnetometer. The multiphysics simulations were performed using the Finite Elements Method (FEM). In the manufacturing process of optical modulator integrated optics techniques were applied. The originality of the proposal is based on the construction of an integrated optical waveguide covered by a magnetostrictive film to allow the modulation of the guided wave, through the elasto-optical effect, by the application of external magnetic fields. The applied magnetic field causes deformation of the magnetostrictive material that induces a modification of the stress profile produced in substrate. The substrate has its optical properties altered due to the elasto-optical effect, which causes changes in the properties of transmitted light. The work begins with the study and characterization of TbFe and TbCo2 magnetostrictive films deposited by sputtering on silicon substrates. A method for sample preparation and measurement of magnetostriction was established. The magnetostrictive coefficient of the films was determined from the direct measurement of displacements of samples by AFM technique for magnetic fields applied. The experimental results obtained allowed to perform MEF simulations to verify the light guided modes generated by the profile of thermally induced stress created by deposition process of magnetostrictive film on B12GeO4 (BGO) substrate. It was also modeled and simulated the effect of the application of magnetic field on the optical guide obtained initially by the effect of thermal stress. In simulation results, it was possible to verify the changes of effective refractive index and optical intensity of guided modes as functions of magnetic fields applied to the modulator. At the end of the work, some prototypes were fabricated. The results of characterizations of the built modulators will allow, in the future, adjustments in simulation models.

Le développement de matériaux avec différents ordres ferroïques couplés (multiferroïques) motive d’intenses activités de recherche. Une combinaison particulièrement intéressante est celle des paramètres d'ordre magnétique et électrique qui, dans le cas favorable où ceux-ci sont couplés, ouvre la voie au contrôle électrique de l’aimantation. Celui-ci peut être envisagé via la manipulation de la polarisation d’un ferroélectrique ou des déformations d’un piézoélectrique Les propriétés du matériau ferroélectrique/piézoélectrique peuvent être inversement modifiées par l’état d’aimantation, ce qui laisse envisager des applications dans le domaine des capteurs de champs magnétiques. Ce travail s’inscrit dans l’étude de systèmes piézoélectrique/ magnétostrictif, avec un intérêt spécifique porté à l’influence de l’aimantation sur les ondes acoustiques de surface (SAW) générées dans le dispositif. Nous avons ainsi déposé des couches polycristallines de Ni, des multicouches [Co/IrMn], ainsi que des couches épitaxiées de TbFe2 sur des substrats de Niobate de Lithium (LNO) de différentes orientations. Sur LNO Z-cut, la croissance de TbFe2 est réalisée en utilisant différentes couches tampons simples ou doubles qui permettent d’obtenir des directions de croissance [111] ou [110] avec des anisotropies magnétiques respectivement perpendiculaire et planaire. Sur des substrats de coupe 128Y et 41Y, la croissance s’avère beaucoup plus complexe mais il est néanmoins possible d’obtenir un film cristallisé de TbFe2 multidomaines avec des relations d’orientation 3D similaires à celles obtenus sur LNO Z-cut, que ce soit entre la couche magnétique et la couche tampon, ou entre la couche tampon et le substrat. Des dispositifs magnétiques à ondes acoustiques de surface (MSAW) ont été ensuite fabriqués dans une géométrie de résonateur permettant une interrogation à distance aisée. La fréquence de résonance des dispositifs MSAW est sensible à l’application d’un champ magnétique externe, via des effets statiques liés à l’orientation de l’aimantation sous champ et via des effets dynamiques d’origine magnétoélastique liés à l’excitation acoustique. Nous avons examiné les réponses magnéto-acoustiques des différents dispositifs, en corrélation étroite avec les propriétés magnétiques statiques, en particulier l’anisotropie, la coercivité et l’hystérèse. Un modèle piézomagnétique équivalent a été utilisé pour simuler certaines de ces réponses. De manière générale, nous montrons qu’un choix judicieux du matériau magnétique et le contrôle de ses propriétés permettent d’élaborer des capteurs spécifiques : un matériau magnétique doux permet de contrôler l’anisotropie de la réponse acoustique via la forme des IDT; un matériau magnétique dur ouvre la voie au développement de capteurs de forts champs magnétiques; un système à anisotropie d’échange dont on peut contrôler la réversibilité de la réponse magnétique permet d’envisager un capteur de champ magnétique hors plan
The development of materials with different coupled ferroic orders (multiferroics) drives an intense research activity. A particularly interesting combination is the case where magnetic and electrical orders are simultaneously present, which, in the favorable case where these are coupled, opens the way to the electrical control of magnetization. This can be achieved in manipulating the polarization in a ferroelectric or the strains in a piezoelectric compound. Ferroelectric or piezoelectric properties can inversely be influenced by the magnetic state, an interesting feature for the development of magnetic field sensors. This work aims in the investigation of piezoelectric/magnetostrictive systems, more especially in the role of the magnetization and of the magnetization versus field behavior on the surface acoustic waves (SAW). Polycristalline Ni films, [Co/IrMn] multilayers and epitaxial TbFe2 films have been deposited on Lithium Niobate (LNO) substrates of different orientations. On LNO Z-cut, various single or double buffer layers have been used to achieve the TbFe2 epitaxial growth, along either [111] or [110] directions and with either perpendicular or in-plane magnetic anisotropy. On LNO 128Y and 41Y substrates, the growth is more complex but it is nevertheless possible to obtain crystalline multidomains TbFe2 films with 3D orientation relationships similar to those obtained on LNO Z-cut, both between the magnetic and the buffer layers, and between the buffer layer and the substrate. Magnetic surface acoustic wave (MSAW) devices have been patterned in a resonator geometry that enables an easy wireless interrogation. The MSAW device resonance frequency is sensitive to an external magnetic field, both via static effects related to the field-induced magnetization changes, and via magnetoelastic dynamic effects related to the acoustic excitation. We have investigated the MSAW magneto acoustic responses of the various devices in close connection with the static magnetic properties, especially the anisotropy, the coercivity and the hysteresis. An equivalent piezomagnetic model could support some of these observations. We show more generally that the proper choice of magnetic material and the control of the magnetic properties helps to build up specific sensors: soft magnetic materials enable to tailor the anisotropy of the MSAW response by engineering the IDT’s shape; hard magnetic materials enable to achieve high field unipolar or bipolar field response; exchange-biased systems in which the reversibility of the magnetic response is achieved let envision the development of sensors for out-of-plane magnetic fields

Les capteurs magnéto-électrique (ME) sont une alternative prometteuse pour mesurer de faibles signaux magnétiques. Précédemment le choix était généralement de déposer des couches minces magnétostrictives sur un matériau piézoélectrique massif conduisant à des systèmes macroscopiques de taille milllimétrique. L’intégration de ces systèmes dans des MEMS (micro-electro-mechanical systems) requiertà la fois de résoudre les problèmes d’intégration de matériaux actif sur silicium, et de mesurer des petits signaux étant donné l’importante réduction de la réponse du système lorsqu’il est miniaturisé.Dans cette optique, le premier objectif de ce travail de thèse a été d’intégrer un matériau piézoélectrique sur un substrat de silicium tout en conservant une excellente qualité cristalline. Pb(Zr ₀ , ₅ ₂Ti ₀ ,₄₈)O₃ (PZT) a été retenu pour ces excellente propriétés piézoélectriques. L’intégration de la couche mince ce fait sur silicium qui est le substrat de prédilection pour la fabrication de microsystèmes avec les procédés microélectroniques standards. La qualité cristalline des matériaux actifs est directement corrélée aux couches d'adaptation utilisées pour obtenir une bonne qualité cristalline sur silicium. Pour cel l'intégration d'une tricouche composée de zircone stabilisée à l'yttrium (YSZ), d'oxyde de cérium (CeO₂) et de SrTiO₃ permet ensuitela croissance des pérovskites d'intérêt pour le dispositif. Le choix de l’électrode conductrice inférieure (SrRuO₃ ou La ₀ ,₆₆Sr₀₃₃MnO₃ dans le cas présent) permet de contrôler l’orientation de la maille de PZT.Une première étude des propriétés piézoélectriques de la couche mince de PZT sous la forme d’une poutre libre pour son intégration dans un système magnétoélectrique a été réalisé. La mesure de la déformation de la poutre induite par l'application d'une tension électrique permet d'extraire un coefficient d₃₁ de -53pmV⁻¹, valeur inférieure au matériau massif mais à l'état de l'art dans ce type de dispositif. Dans une seconde étape, l’utilisation de la poutre comme résonateur à été étudiée. L’étude dynamique du système a permis d'obtenir la fréquence de résonance et le facteur de qualité. Le déplacement de la fréquence caractéristique du système en fonction d'une contrainte induite par une tension DC a été investigué. Enfin, l'ajout d'une couche de matériau magnétostrictif (TbFeCo) sur la poutre a finalisé la structure du capteur. Le capteur ainsi obtenu a été caractérisé et une sensibilité d’une dizaine de micro Tesla a été obtenue
Magneto-electric (ME) sensors have been demonstrated as a promising alternative for the detection of weak magnetic signals with high sensitivity. To date, most applications focused on the use of bulk piezoelectric materials on which magnetostrictive thin films are deposited leading to millimeter-sized devices. The integration of such devices into micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), bringing smaller size and lower power consumption, involves addressing several scientific issues ranging from the integration of active materials on silicon to the strong reduction in amplitude of generated signals related to the size reduction of the sensor.In this context, the first goal of this thesis work was to integrate high crystalline quality piezoelectric thin films on silicon.Pb(Zr ₓTi ₁ ₋₁)O₃ (PZT) with a morphotropic composition (x=0.52) having high electromechanical coupling factor was chosen. Silicon is a necessary template as it allows for the use of conventional clean room processes for the realization of the microsystem. The crystalline quality of the active films is directly linked to the buffer layers that promote the crystalline growth on silicon. For this purpose, Yttria-stabilized Zirconia (YSZ) was used in combination with CeO₂ and SrTiO₃ to allow further growth of epitaxial perovskites. The choice of the bottom electrode material (SrRuO₃ or La ₀ ,₆₆Sr₀₃₃MnO₃ in this work) further tunes the crystalline orientation of the PZT layer.To probe the potential of such PZT thin films for ME devices, the first step was to characterize the electromechanical properties of this material in a free standing cantilever structure. Under an applied electric field, the measured displacement of the epitaxial PZT-based cantilevers is characterized by a coefficient d₃₁ =-53pmV⁻¹ , a reduced value with respect to the bulk material but that can be enhanced by further optimizing the film growth. The second step consists in ascertaining the ability of the cantilever to be used as resonator. For that purpose, first characterizations of oscillators have been performed to extract the resonant frequencies and the associated quality factors. Then, the resonant frequency shift with DC bias-induced stress was measured. Finally, a magnetostrictive layer of TbFeCo was added on the PZT cantilevers to sense magnetic field based on the ME effect. The resulting resonant frequency shift with external applied magnetic field was characterized with a typical sensitivity of 10’s of µT

Materiais magnetostrictivos, como o TERFENOL-D (Tb0,27-0,30Dy0,73-0,70Fe2) e o GALFENOL (Fe72-82Ga18-28), são aplicados em diversos tipos de atuadores, sensores e coletores de energia. Contudo, existe a necessidade de novos materiais que sejam mais baratos, ambientalmente amigáveis e com melhores propriedades mecânicas. Por essa razão, as ligas de Fe-Al são uma alternativa, já que o alumínio é mais abundante na natureza e é sete vezes mais barato que o gálio. O objetivo desse trabalho foi estudar a influência de dois tratamentos termomecânicos nas propriedades magnéticas das ligas (Fe1-xAlx)98,4B1,6, onde x = 0,18; 0,13 e 0,21. No primeiro processamento, as ligas foram submetidas a um tratamento térmico sob compressão para introduzir uma anisotropia magnetocristalina extrínseca. Para compressões de até 180 MPa, as ligas tratadas sob tensão obtiveram valores de magnetostricção e dos coeficientes piezomagnéticos maiores que o das ligas sem tratamento. Ou seja, este processamento aumentou a sensibilidade das ligas como atuador (d33) e sensor (d33 *). No segundo processamento termomecânico, amostras com formato de chapa foram laminadas e tratadas termicamente para induzir um crescimento anormal de grãos e consequentemente uma textura. Embora não tenha ocorrido crescimento de grão anormal durante o tratamento térmico, os valores de magnetostricção foram maiores que o das amostras como fundidas. Ambos processamentos termomecânicos foram efetivos para melhorar as propriedades magnéticas e a liga (Fe0,87Al0,13)98,4B1,6 foi a que obteve os maiores valores de magnetostricção e dos coeficientes piezomagnéticos. Em outras palavras, dentre as ligas estudadas, esta composição foi mais promissora para ser aplicada em atuadores e sensores.
Magnetostrictive materials, like TERFENOL-D (Tb0.27-0.30Dy0.73-0.70Fe2) and GALFENOL (Fe72-82Ga18-28), are applied in several types of sensors, actuators and energy harvesting. Nevertheless, there is the necessity of new materials that are cheaper, environmentally friendly and with good mechanical properties. For that reason, the Fe-Al alloys are an alternative, since the aluminum is more abundant in nature and is seven times cheaper than gallium. The goal of this work is to study the influence of two thermomechanical proceeding at magnetic properties of the (Fe1- xAlx)98.4B1.6 alloys, which x = 0.18; 0.13 e 0.21. At the first proceeding, the alloys were submitted to a stress annealing to introduce an extrinsic magnetocrystalline anisotropy. Up to 180 MPa of compression stress, stress annealed alloys have magnetostriction and piezomagnetic coefficient values higher than the alloys without annealing. In other words, this proceeding increased the alloys sensibility to be applied like actuators (d33) and sensors (d33 *). At the second thermomechanical proceeding, samples with sheet format were rolled and annealed to induce an abnormal grain growth and, consequently, a texture. Although the annealing not produced an abnormal grain growth, the magnetostriction values are higher than for the as-cast samples. Both proceedings were efficient to improve the magnetic properties and the (Fe0.87Al0.13)98.4B1.6 alloy achieved the higher values of magnetostriction and piezomagnetic coefficient. In another words, between the studied alloys, this composition was the most promising to be applied like actuators and sensors.

Les capteurs magnetiques resonnants (c. M. R. ) sont des dispositifs passifs dont la frequence propre depend principalement du materiau, de la geometrie et du champ magnetique statique applique. La relation champs / frequence est leur caracteristique fondamentale. Cette derniere est liee aux materiaux magnetiques amorphes constituants les c. M. R. Des 2 technologies de capteurs (l. C. Et magnetostrictifs) que nous avons etudiees et realisees. Differents types de c. M. R. Ont ete caracterises et evalues. Ceci a permis d'elaborer un modele des resonateurs seuls, ainsi que groupes. Pour cela, les effets d'interaction entre resonateurs, ont ete pris en compte, mais aussi les effets internes a un c. M. R. Il en resulte une comprehension et une prediction appreciable de leur comportement. L'etude des c. M. R. A ete facilitee par la conception et la realisation d'un systeme de teledetection sensible et evolutif, compose de systeme de polarisation, d'excitation et de detection, pilotes par un logiciel qui comporte une partie traitement du signal et analyse d'informations. Nous avons developpe un modele theorique prenant en compte la chaine complete excitation / c. M. R. / detection. Les predictions de cette chaine analytique, ont ete validees grace aux mesures et aux informations donnees par le logiciel flux3d. Ces calculs analytiques permettent ainsi de prevoir les types et ordres de grandeurs des signaux a traiter et par consequent, represente une aide utile pour la conception du systeme de teledetection. Ces connaissances ont permis le developpement d'applications telles que la mesure de champs magnetiques, le positionnement d'objet a distance, ainsi que leur identification. Parmi les resultats experimentaux les plus representatifs, se trouve l'identification a distance, d'une etiquette constituee de 4 c. M. R. , parmi 1 001 000 de combinaisons possibles.

Les hétérostructures piézo-électro-magnéto-élastiques en couches minces se dressent comme des candidats prometteurs dans le domaine de la détection de champ magnétique de faible intensité et spatialement résolu, à température ambiante. Cette thèse porte donc sur l’étude du couplage piézo-magnétique dans les guides d’ondes électro-acoustiques hyperfréquences basés sur des couches minces nanostructurées à anisotropie uniaxiale, déposées sur substrats piézoélectriques. Premièrement, les structures investiguées sont constituées d’un empilement multicouche TbCo2/FeCo déposé sur un substrat de Quartz ST-X90°. Celles-ci permettent d’exploiter le mode transverse horizontal présentant la plus grande sensibilité. La possibilité d’induire, par le champ magnétique, une conversion de mode acoustique, pouvant potentiellement être utilisé dans la conception de capteurs de champ magnétique ultra-sensibles, est également démontrée. Cette étude permet aussi de valider le modèle théorique piézo-magnétique développé, par la mesure des variations de vitesse de phase des ondes élastiques guidées en fonction de l’intensité et de la direction du champ magnétique. Ensuite, deux concepts de mesure sont proposés afin d’améliorer la résolution de la mesure des capteurs, dépendante essentiellement du temps de transit de l’onde élastique dans la couche magnéto-élastique : la réflectométrie temporelle acoustique et l’exploitation d’un mode de cavité localisé dans la couche magnéto-élastique. Enfin, l’optimisation du couple anisotropie uniaxiale/magnétostriction de l’empilement multicouche TbCo2/FeCo est abordée, celui-ci jouant un rôle majeur dans la sensibilité et la dynamique des capteurs étudiés
Thin-film piezo-electro-magneto-elastic heterostructures stand out as promising candidates in the field of spatially resolved, low-intensity magnetic field detection at room temperature. Thus, this thesis focuses on the study of piezomagnetic coupling in microwave electro-acoustic waveguides based on nanostructured thin films with uniaxial anisotropy, deposited on piezoelectric substrates. Firstly, the investigated structures consist in a TbCo2/FeCo multilayer stack deposited on a ST-X90° Quartz substrate, to exploit the horizontal transverse mode presenting the highest sensitivity. The possibility to induce, via the magnetic field, an acoustic mode conversion, potentially usable in the design of ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensors, is also demonstrated. In addition, this study validated the developed theoretical piezo-magnetic model, by measuring the phase velocity variations of the guided elastic waves as a function of the intensity and direction of the applied magnetic field. Then, two measurement concepts are proposed in order to improve the resolution of the sensor measurement, which depends essentially on the transit time of the elastic wave in the magneto-elastic layer: the acoustic time domain reflectometry and the exploitation of a cavity mode located in the magneto-elastic layer. Finally, the optimization of the uniaxial anisotropy/magnetostriction couple of the TbCo2/FeCo multilayer stack is addressed, as it plays a major role in the sensitivity and dynamics of the studied sensors

Les hétérostructures piézo-électro-magnéto-élastiques en couches minces se dressent comme des candidats prometteurs dans le domaine de la détection de champ magnétique de faible intensité et spatialement résolu, à température ambiante. Cette thèse porte donc sur l’étude du couplage piézo-magnétique dans les guides d’ondes électro-acoustiques hyperfréquences basés sur des couches minces nanostructurées à anisotropie uniaxiale, déposées sur substrats piézoélectriques. Premièrement, les structures investiguées sont constituées d’un empilement multicouche TbCo2/FeCo déposé sur un substrat de Quartz ST-X90°. Celles-ci permettent d’exploiter le mode transverse horizontal présentant la plus grande sensibilité. La possibilité d’induire, par le champ magnétique, une conversion de mode acoustique, pouvant potentiellement être utilisé dans la conception de capteurs de champ magnétique ultra-sensibles, est également démontrée. Cette étude permet aussi de valider le modèle théorique piézo-magnétique développé, par la mesure des variations de vitesse de phase des ondes élastiques guidées en fonction de l’intensité et de la direction du champ magnétique. Ensuite, deux concepts de mesure sont proposés afin d’améliorer la résolution de la mesure des capteurs, dépendante essentiellement du temps de transit de l’onde élastique dans la couche magnéto-élastique : la réflectométrie temporelle acoustique et l’exploitation d’un mode de cavité localisé dans la couche magnéto-élastique. Enfin, l’optimisation du couple anisotropie uniaxiale/magnétostriction de l’empilement multicouche TbCo2/FeCo est abordée, celui-ci jouant un rôle majeur dans la sensibilité et la dynamique des capteurs étudiés
Thin-film piezo-electro-magneto-elastic heterostructures stand out as promising candidates in the field of spatially resolved, low-intensity magnetic field detection at room temperature. Thus, this thesis focuses on the study of piezomagnetic coupling in microwave electro-acoustic waveguides based on nanostructured thin films with uniaxial anisotropy, deposited on piezoelectric substrates. Firstly, the investigated structures consist in a TbCo2/FeCo multilayer stack deposited on a ST-X90° Quartz substrate, to exploit the horizontal transverse mode presenting the highest sensitivity. The possibility to induce, via the magnetic field, an acoustic mode conversion, potentially usable in the design of ultra-sensitive magnetic field sensors, is also demonstrated. In addition, this study validated the developed theoretical piezo-magnetic model, by measuring the phase velocity variations of the guided elastic waves as a function of the intensity and direction of the applied magnetic field. Then, two measurement concepts are proposed in order to improve the resolution of the sensor measurement, which depends essentially on the transit time of the elastic wave in the magneto-elastic layer: the acoustic time domain reflectometry and the exploitation of a cavity mode located in the magneto-elastic layer. Finally, the optimization of the uniaxial anisotropy/magnetostriction couple of the TbCo2/FeCo multilayer stack is addressed, as it plays a major role in the sensitivity and dynamics of the studied sensors

Dehnungssensoren werden zur Überwachung von sicherheitsrelevanten Bauteilen, besonders in Bauteilen aus faserverstärkten Polymermatrixverbundwerkstoffen eingesetzt. Durch deren Integration in das Bauteilinnere werden sie vor schädigenden mechanischen sowie korrosiven Einwirkungen geschützt. Dies gewährleistet eine zuverlässige sowie dauerhafte Funktion. Verschiedene Ansätze zur Weiterentwicklung integrierbarer Dehnungssensoren werden international untersucht. Die Verringerung des Sensordurchmessers auf Abmaße im Bereich des Durchmessers von Verstärkungsfasern ist dabei ein bedeutendes Entwicklungsziel. Insbesondere bei der Integration in Bauteile aus faserverstärkten Kunststoffen sorgen zum Durchmesser von Fasern vergleichbare Sensordurchmesser für eine optimale Sensoranbindung. Die Bildung von Harznestern sowie schwächender Unstetigkeiten kann mittels dünner Sensoren verhindert werden. Dies gewährleistet eine artefaktefreie Dehnungsmessung. Drei verschiedene Ansätze für neuartige Dehnungssensoren mit kleinem Querschnitt wurden in dieser Arbeit untersucht
Strain sensors are used for structural health monitoring issues, certainly in parts with high safety requirements made of fibre-reinforced plastic composites. The integration of these sensors inside the parts protects them against any mechanical and corrosive impact. The sensor functionality can be enhanced by integration. There is a lot of international research effort to further develop integratable strain sensors. Different approaches are currently pursued. This thesis presents the results of investigations on three different approaches for novel strain sensors. The main goal of these investigations was to minimise the sensor diameter down to the diameter of reinforcing fibres. The small diameter allows for an optimum and artefact free integration of the sensors. The formation of resin nests and notches to the material structure can be prevented by integrating sensor with a smaller diameter. The strain measurement and monitoring is enhanced and more reliable then

This dissertation reports the fabrication and characterization of integrated micro sensors consisting of magnetostrictive 500 μm long cantilevers or bridges and conducting interrogation elements. The thin films are fabricated by sputter deposition of NiFe doped with B and Mo and their magnetic properties are optimized by field annealing resulting in a coercivity of 2.4 Oe. An alternating current applied to the interrogation elements magnetizes the magnetostrictive structures, and their longitudinal resonant frequency is detected as an impedance change of the interrogation elements. The significance of using magnetostrictive micro beams is the high resonant frequency of the longitudinal vibration compared to transverse vibration, which can be exploited to develop sensors of high sensitivity.

碩士
南台科技大學
電子工程系
97
In recent year, fiber optic sensor technology has been widely utilized in both industry and biomedical fields. Several fiber optic devices have been designed and hundreds of products have been commercialized. Among them, current/magnetic field sensor is one of more successful sensor used in high voltage power line application. Two well-known fiber optic techniques are Faraday Effect sensors and magnetostrictive sensors. The Faraday Effect utilizes the birefringence effect of the optical fiber to measure the presence of magnetic field. The magnetostrictive sensor on the other hand utilizes a strain induced by external magnetic field on a ferromagnetic transducer. Advantages of using fiber-optic sensors are its relatively simple design, smaller package, and immunity to RF interference that is common in typical electromagnetic type sensors. 　　In this work, a fiber optic sensor utilizes a newly developed ferromagnetic polymer as magnetostrictive coating for magnetic field and electric current detection is presented. A simple fiber-optic Mach-Zehnder interferometer is deployed; where magnetic field induced magnetostriction effect is detected based on the phase modulation measurement. In addition, magnetic property and magneto-optic measurement of several newly developed magnetostrictive polymers will be investigated. However due to IP issue with University of Washington, materials and process will not be presented. Instead application using magentostriction effect will be discussed in great length. Results and potential application will be presented.

博士
國立臺灣大學
工程科學及海洋工程學研究所
101
This dissertation describes the design and construction of a magnetostrictive composite-fiber-optic Mach-Zehnder interferometer capable of magnetic field and metal profile measurement. Unlike previous metal detectors, the sensor makes use of the magnetostriction effect on a fiber-optic interferometer to detect metallic objects. The metal detector overcomes many difficulties existing in conventional metal detectors. Aside from offering relatively high sensitivity (sensitivity of about 70.7x10-3 rad/gauss), the optical detection provides resistance to RF interference which is common in typical electromagnetic type metal detectors. The magnetostrictive sensor is also relatively compact and able to achieve a minimum spatial resolution of 1cm2 for metal profile detection. This dissertation will introduce the detailed design and application of this fiber-optic magnetostrictive sensor in magnetic field measurement and metal detection. In the course of study, a new ferromagnetic polymer based on magnetostrictive material and detection techniques were developed. Configuration and optimization of the sensors is also studied in the context of designing sensors capable of achieving greater sensitivity (70.7x10-3 rad/gauss).

Fiber reinforced composite materials are widely used in aerospace, mechanical, civil and other industries because of their high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. However, composite structures are highly prone to impact damage. Possible types of defect or damage in composite include matrix cracking, fiber breakage, and delamination between plies. In addition, delamination in a laminated composite is usually invisible. It is very diffcult to detect it while the component is in service and this will eventually lead to catastrophic failure of the structure. Such damages may be caused by dropped tools and ground handling equipments. Damage in a composite structure normally starts as a tiny speckle and gradually grows with the increase in load to some degree. However, when such damage reaches a threshold level, serious accident can occur. Hence, it is important to have up-to-date information on the integrity of the structure to ensure the safety and reliability of composite components, which require frequent inspections to identify and quantify damage that might have occurred even during manufacturing, transportation or storage. How to identify a damage using the obtained information from a damaged composite structure is one of the most pivotal research objectives. Various forms of structural damage cause variations in structural mechanical characteristics, and this property is extensively employed for damage detection. Existing traditional non-destructive inspection techniques utilize a variety of methods such as acoustic emission, C-scan, thermography, shearography and Moir interferometry etc. Each of these techniques is limited in accuracy and applicability. Most of these methods require access to the structure.They also require a significant amount of equipment and expertise to perform inspection. The inspections are typically based on a schedule rather than based on the condition of the structure. Furthermore, the cost associated with these traditional non-destructive techniques can be rather prohibitive. Therefore, there is a need to develop a cost-effective, in-service, diagnostic system for monitoring structural integrity in composite structures. Structural health monitoring techniques based on dynamic response is being used for several years. Changes in lower natural frequencies and mode shapes with their special derivatives or stiffness/ exibility calculation from the measured displacement mode shapes are the most common parameters used in identification of damage. But the sensitivity of these parameters for incipient damage is not satisfactory. On the other hand, for in service structural health monitoring, direct use of structural response histories are more suitable. However, they are very few works reported in the literature on these aspects, especially for composite structures, where higher order modes are the ones that get normally excited due to the presence of flaws. Due to the absence of suitable direct procedure, damage identification from response histories needs inverse mapping; like artificial neural network. But, the main diffculty in such mapping using whole response histories is its high dimensionality. Different general purpose dimension reduction procedures; like principle component analysis or indepen- dent component analysis are available in the literature. As these dimensionally reduced spaces may loose the output uniqueness, which is an essential requirement for neural network mapping, suitable algorithms for extraction of damage signature from these re- sponse histories are not available. Alternatively, fusion of trained networks for different partitioning of the damage space or different number of dimension reduction technique, can overcome this issue efficiently. In addition, coordination of different networks trained with different partitioning for training and testing samples, training algorithms, initial conditions, learning and momentum rates, architectures and sequence of training etc., are some of the factors that improves the mapping efficiency of the networks. The applications of smart materials have drawn much attention in aerospace, civil, mechanical and even bioengineering. The emerging field of smart composite structures offers the promise of truly integrated health and usage monitoring, where a structure can sense and adapt to their environment, loading conditions and operational requirements, and materials can self-repair when damaged. The concept of structural health monitoring using smart materials relies on a network of sensors and actuators integrated with the structure. This area shows great promise as it will be possible to monitor the structural condition of a structure, throughout its service lifetime. Integrating intelligence into the structures using such networks is an interesting field of research in recent years. Some materials that are being used for this purpose include piezoelectric, magnetostrictive and fiber-optic sensors. Structural health monitoring using, piezoelectric or fiber-optic sensors are available in the literature. However, very few works have been reported in the literature on the use of magnetostrictive materials, especially for composite structures. Non contact sensing and actuation with high coupling factor, along with other prop- erties such as large bandwidth and less voltage requirement, make magnetostrictive materials increasingly popular as potential candidates for sensors and actuators in structural health monitoring. Constitutive relationships of magnetostrictive material are represented through two equations, one for actuation and other for sensing, both of which are coupled through magneto-mechanical coefficient. In existing finite element formulation, both the equations are decoupled assuming magnetic field as proportional to the applied current. This assumption neglects the stiffness contribution coming from the coupling between mechanical and magnetic domains, which can cause the response to deviate from the time response. In addition, due to different fabrication and curing difficulties, the actual properties of this material such as magneto-mechanical coupling coefficient or elastic modulus, may differ from results measured at laboratory conditions. Hence, identification of the material properties of these embedded sensor and actuator are essential at their in-situ condition. Although, finite element method still remains most versatile, accurate and generally applicable technique for numerical analysis, the method is computationally expensive for wave propagation analysis of large structures. This is because for accurate prediction, the finite element size should be of the order of the wavelength, which is very small due to high frequency loading. Even in health monitoring studies, when the flaw sizes are very small (of the order of few hundred microns), only higher order modes will get affected. This essentially leads to wave propagation problem. The requirement of cost-effective computation of wave propagation brings us to the necessity of spectral finite element method, which is suitable for the study of wave propagation problems. By virtue of its domain transfer formulation, it bypasses the large system size of finite element method. Further, inverse problem such as force identification problem can be performed most conveniently and efficiently, compared to any other existing methods. In addition, spectral element approach helps us to perform force identification directly from the response histories measured in the sensor. The spectral finite element is used widely for both elementary and higher order one or two dimensional waveguides. Higher order waveguides, normally gives a behavior, where a damping mode (evanescent) will start propagating beyond a certain frequency called the cut-off frequency. Hence, when the loading frequencies are much beyond their corresponding cut-off frequencies, higher order mo des start propagating along the structure and should be considered in the analysis of wave propagations. Based on these considerations, three main goals are identified to be pursued in this thesis. The first is to develop the constitutive relationship for magnetostrictive sensor and actuator suitable for structural analysis. The second is the development of different numerical tools for the modelling the damages. The third is the application of these developed elements towards solving inverse problems such as, material property identification, impact force identification, detection and identification of delamination in composite structure. The thesis consists of four parts spread over six chapters. In the first part, linear, nonlinear, coupled and uncoupled constitutive relationships of magnetostrictive materials are studied and the elastic modulus and magnetostrictive constant are evaluated from the experimental results reported in the literature. In uncoupled model, magnetic field for actuator is considered as coil constant times coil current. The coupled model is studied without assuming any explicit direct relationship with magnetic field. In linear coupled model, the elastic modulus, the permeability and magnetostrictive coupling are assumed as constant. In nonlinear-coupled model, the nonlinearity is decoupled and solved separately for the magnetic domain and mechanical domain using two nonlinear curves,’ namely the stress vs. strain curve and magnetic flux density vs. magnetic field curve. This is done by two different methods. In the first, the magnetic flux density is computed iteratively, while in the second, artificial neural network is used, where a trained network gives the necessary strain and magnetic flux density for a given magnetic field and stress level. In the second part, different finite element formulations for composite structures with embedded magnetostrictive patches, which can act both as sensors and actuators, is studied. Both mechanical and magnetic degrees of freedoms are considered in the formulation. One, two and three-dimensional finite element formulations for both coupled and uncoupled analysis is developed. These developed elements are then used to identify the errors in the overall response of the structure due to uncoupled assumption of the magnetostrictive patches and shown that this error is comparable with the sensitivity of the response due to different damage scenarios. These studies clearly bring out the requirement of coupled analysis for structural health monitoring when magnetostrictive sensor and actuator are used. For the specific cases of beam elements, super convergent finite element formulation for composite beam with embedded magnetostrictive patches is introduced for their specific advantages in having superior convergence and in addition, these elements are free from shear locking. A refined 2-node beam element is derived based on classical and first order shear deformation theory for axial-flexural-shear coupled deformation in asymmetrically stacked laminated composite beams with magnetostrictive patches. The element has an exact shape function matrix, which is derived by exactly solving the static part of the governing equations of motion, where a general ply stacking is considered. This makes the element super convergent for static analysis. The formulated consistent mass matrix, however, is approximate. Since the stiffness is exactly represented, the formulated element predicts natural frequency to greater level of accuracy with smaller discretization compared to other conventional finite elements. Finally, these elements are used for material property identification in conjunction with artificial neural network. In the third part, frequency domain analysis is performed using spectrally formulated beam elements. The formulated elements consider deformation due to both shear and lateral contraction, and numerical experiments are performed to highlight the higher order effects, especially at high frequencies. Spectral element is developed for modelling wave propagation in composite laminate in the presence of magnetostrictive patches. The element, by virtue of its frequency domain formulation, can analyze very large domain with nominal cost of computation and is suitable for studying wave propagation through composite materials. Further more, identification of impact force is performed form the magnetostrictive sensor response histories using these spectral elements. In the last part, different numerical examples for structural health monitoring are directed towards studying the responses due to the presence of the delamination in the structure; and the identification of the delamination from these responses using artificial neural network. Neural network is applied to get structural damage status from the finite element response using its mapping feature, which requires output uniqueness. To overcome the loss of output uniqueness due to the dimension reduction, damage space is divided into different overlapped zones and then different networks are trained for these zones. Committee machine is used to co ordinate among these networks. Next, a five-stage hierarchy of networks is used to consider partitioning of damage space, where different dimension reduction algorithms and different partitioning between training and testing samples are used for better mapping fro the identification procedure. The results of delamination detection for composite laminate show that the method developed in this thesis can be applied to structural damage detection and health monitoring for various industrial structures. This thesis collectively addresses all aspects pertaining to the solution of inverse problem and specially the health monitoring of composite structures using magnetostric tive sensor and actuator. In addition, the thesis discusses the necessity of higher order theory in the high frequency analysis of wavw propagation. The thesis ends with brief summary of the tasks accomplished, significant contribution made to the literature and the future applications where the proposed methods addressed in this thesis can be applied.

博士
國立中正大學
機械工程學系暨研究所
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Based on the magnetoelastic effect, this study develops a non-contact strain sensor consisting of a magnetoelastic film by using low-priced and highly-sensitive Metglas 2826MB amorphous ribbons as the strain measure material. Furthermore, a planar spiral coil combined in a Colpitts oscillator circuit is used to excite the magnetoelastic film. Under a tensile load, a mechanical deformation of the amorphous ribbons occurs and alters its permeability and conductivity. This results in a variation of impedance on the film coupled with the planar spiral coil as well as in the corresponding voltage output to be measured. In addition, the study of the non-contact torque sensor in the giant magneto-impedance (GMI) effect base on amorphous micro wire has been conducted. The GMI strain sensor for torque measurement also can be applied to the rotation axis. The torque sensor materials used CoFeSiB amorphous micro wire, and used two circular hollow planar coil couplings for strain measurement and verification. The experimental results show that the measurement sensitivity can reach a sensitivity 7.24 mV/με of the non-contact strain sensor, a non-linearity of 4.4%, and a hysteresis of 3.6%. Moreover, measurement sensitivity can reach 11.7 mV/με of the torque sensor in GMI wire prototype. Instead of using a conventional coil wound around a bar in most of the other related works, the coil used for this designed sensor is of planar form which offers the advantages of a simplified manufacturing process, uniformity in coil characteristics, compactness, and low manufacturing cost. The circuit architecture for the proposed sensor is rather simple and low-priced compared with that of the widely-used frequency-domain system, requiring a function generator to generate a fixed-frequency steady state signal to excite the coil, and the received sensor response is sent to a lock-in amplifier to be amplified and measured. The advantages are a simplified manufacturing process, uniformity in coil characteristics, compactness, uncomplicated circuit architecture, and low manufacturing cost. Moreover, a promising potential for further improvement makes the designed sensor suitable for future practical applications.

Στο παρών κείμενο μεταπτυχιακής εργασίας περιγράφεται η κλινική εφαρμογή μαγνητοσυστολικού αισθητήρα για τη μέτρηση του χρόνου πήξης ολικού αίματος. Περιγράφεται η αρχή λειτουργίας της συσκευής και η κατασκευή του πρωτότυπου μοντέλου. Τα επιμέρους κομμάτια της διάταξης σχεδιάστηκαν, μελετήθηκαν και υλοποιήθηκαν ειδικά για τη συγκεκριμένη εφαρμογή. Με τη χρήση της συσκευής, το βιολογικό φαινόμενο της πήξης του αίματος μετατρέπεται σε εύκολα μετρούμενο σήμα ηλεκτρικής τάσης. Η μετατροπή αυτή γίνεται με τη βοήθεια διάταξης επαγωγικών πηνίων (διέγερσης-λήψης), στο εσωτερικό των οποίων τοποθετείται μαγνητοελαστικό υλικό. Στην επιφάνεια του υλικού τοποθετείται σταγόνα (2 μl) τριχοειδικού αίματος. Η μεταβολή των ιξωδοελαστικών χαρακτηριστικών του δείγματος καθώς αυτό περνάει από την υγρή στη στέρεα φάση (θρόμβος), ανιχνεύονται μέσω της αντίστοιχης μεταβολής της διαπερατότητας του υλικού. Το αποτέλεσμα της μέτρησης είναι γράφημα τάσης-χρόνου. Από το γράφημα του κάθε δείγματος που μετρήθηκε με τη συσκευή κατά τη διάρκεια της κλινικής εφαρμογής του στο Ιπποκράτειο Νοσοκομείο Αθηνών, προέκυψε ένας πειραματικός χρόνος, ο χρόνος πήξης tπηξ. Ο χρόνος αυτός αποδείχθηκε ότι έχει στατιστικά σημαντική σχέση με τον εργαστηριακό χρόνο ροής ΒΤ (Bleeding Time) (p<0.01). Η πήξη του αίματος αποτελεί το σημαντικότερο κομμάτι του αιμοστατικού μηχανισμού του ανθρώπινου οργανισμού. Διαταραχές που σχετίζονται με δυσλειτουργίες του μηχανισμού αυτού θεωρούνται ιδιαίτερα κρίσιμες και απαιτούν άμεση διάγνωση και βέλτιστη θεραπευτική προσέγγιση. Υπό το πρίσμα αυτών των απαιτήσεων, η υλοποίηση της συγκεκριμένης αισθητήριας εφαρμογής προσβλέπει στη διερεύνηση μιας νέας απλής και οικονομικής μεθόδου για την εξέταση δειγμάτων αίματος, όσον αφορά την πήξη τους.
The present master thesis describes the principle of operation, the construction, and the clinical evaluation of a whole blood coagulation magnetostrictive sensor. The major parts of the setup where specially designed and constructed for the needs of the present implementation. The function of the sensor relates to the transformation of the biological process of blood, into an easy-to-measure voltage signal. This transformation is feasible with the placement of a magnetoelastic material inside a double coil setup (primary-secondary). A drop of capillary blood (2 μl) is placed on the surface of the material. Viscosity variations of the sample, while it passes from the liquid to the solid phase, are detected through the detection of the corresponding permeability variations of the material. The result of the measurements which took place at the Hippokratio Hospital of Athens, is a V(t) graph. For each sample which was measured, the corresponding graph was used to export the experimental value tcoag. This value was proved to have a statistically significant relationship with Bleeding Time (BT) (p<0.01). Blood coagulation is the most important part of the human hemostatic mechanism. The disorders relating to the dysfunction of this mechanism are considered critical and demand immediate diagnosis and optimum therapeutic approach. Under this view, the realization of the specific sensor apparatus targets to the investigation of a new simple and cost-effective method for blood coagulation testing.

In this thesis the magnetic properties of novel amorphous magnetic materials grown on a flexible substrate of polyethylene naphthalate and a silicon wafer have been analyzed and characterized. The analyzed films are two films of amorphous Cobalt-Iron-Zirconium(Co36Fe53Zr11 & Co37Fe55Zr8) grown on the flexible substrate and two films of amorphous (Fe89Zr11) doped with boron (B). The B is implanted in a lattice of rings with inner diameter of 10 μm and outer diameter of 20 μm and with the distance between the center of the rings of either 50 μm or 25 μm. The composition in the doped region is Fe80Zr10B10. Various magneto-optical Kerr effect(MOKE) magnetometers are used to measure hysteresis loops of the samples and a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) is used to find the volume magnetization of the flexible samples. To measure the anisotropy in the flexible films a series of sample holders has been developed to measure various amount of stress using the same sample in magneto-optical magnetometers. The stress induced uniaxial anisotropy is found by measuring hysteresis loops of the flexible samples while bending them with different curvatures. The induced anisotropy is related to the magnetostriction and the magnetostriction constants is estimated for the two flexible samples by assuming values for Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio. The estimated values for the magnetostriction constant are found to vary with the amount of Zr and to be in the correct order of magnitude for magnetic films. The implanted B rings with the short distance of 25 μm between the center showed to have some interaction between the rings. This conclusion is drawn after analyzing first order reversal curves of the samples and looking at the domains under a MOKE-microscope. At very low temperatures the (unimplanted) FeZr matrix is ferromagnetic and seem to have an anti-ferromagnetic coupling with the B rings. At room temperature the rings are still ferromagnetic and they couple to each other.

Dehnungssensoren werden zur Überwachung von sicherheitsrelevanten Bauteilen, besonders in Bauteilen aus faserverstärkten Polymermatrixverbundwerkstoffen eingesetzt. Durch deren Integration in das Bauteilinnere werden sie vor schädigenden mechanischen sowie korrosiven Einwirkungen geschützt. Dies gewährleistet eine zuverlässige sowie dauerhafte Funktion. Verschiedene Ansätze zur Weiterentwicklung integrierbarer Dehnungssensoren werden international untersucht. Die Verringerung des Sensordurchmessers auf Abmaße im Bereich des Durchmessers von Verstärkungsfasern ist dabei ein bedeutendes Entwicklungsziel. Insbesondere bei der Integration in Bauteile aus faserverstärkten Kunststoffen sorgen zum Durchmesser von Fasern vergleichbare Sensordurchmesser für eine optimale Sensoranbindung. Die Bildung von Harznestern sowie schwächender Unstetigkeiten kann mittels dünner Sensoren verhindert werden. Dies gewährleistet eine artefaktefreie Dehnungsmessung. Drei verschiedene Ansätze für neuartige Dehnungssensoren mit kleinem Querschnitt wurden in dieser Arbeit untersucht.
Strain sensors are used for structural health monitoring issues, certainly in parts with high safety requirements made of fibre-reinforced plastic composites. The integration of these sensors inside the parts protects them against any mechanical and corrosive impact. The sensor functionality can be enhanced by integration. There is a lot of international research effort to further develop integratable strain sensors. Different approaches are currently pursued. This thesis presents the results of investigations on three different approaches for novel strain sensors. The main goal of these investigations was to minimise the sensor diameter down to the diameter of reinforcing fibres. The small diameter allows for an optimum and artefact free integration of the sensors. The formation of resin nests and notches to the material structure can be prevented by integrating sensor with a smaller diameter. The strain measurement and monitoring is enhanced and more reliable then.