Книги з теми "Semantics of word-forming base"

The monograph is devoted to a multidimensional analysis of metaphor in modern English as a parallel nomination that exists along with a neutral equivalent denoting a person. The problem of determining the essence of metaphorical names and their role in the language has attracted the attention of many foreign and domestic linguists on the material of various languages, but until now the fact of the parallel existence of metaphors and neutral nominations has not been emphasized. The research is in line with modern problems of linguistics related to the relationship of language, thinking and reflection of the surrounding reality. All these problems are integrated and resolved within the framework of linguistic semantics, in particular in the semantics of metaphor. Multilevel study of language material based on semantic, component, etymological analysis methods contributed to a systematic and comprehensive description of this most important part of the lexical system of the English language. Metaphorical parallels are considered as the result of the interaction of three complexes, which allows us to identify their associative-figurative base, as well as the types of metaphorical parallels, depending on the nature of the connection between direct and figurative meaning. Based on the analysis of various human character traits and behavior that evoke associations with animals, birds, objects, zoomorphic, artifact, somatic, floral and anthropomorphic metaphorical parallels of the neutral nomination "man" are distinguished. The social aspect of metaphorical parallels is also investigated as a reflection of gender, status and age characteristics of a person. It can be used in the training of philologists and translators when reading theoretical courses on lexicology, stylistics, word formation of the English language, as well as in practical classes, in lexicographic practice.

The monograph is devoted to the problem of recreating the linguistic-ethnic unity of the Old Russian anthroponymic and toponymic systems, the discovery of direct connections between the proper name and mental landmarks. The monograph provides a comprehensive description of the onomasticon of ancient Russian monuments of writing in line with comparative historical linguistics, taking into account the encyclopedic, ethnolinguistic and etymological characteristics of proper names. The system and structure of the onomastic space of monuments of ecclesiastical and secular content of the XI-XIII centuries are investigated, conceptual approaches to their description are proposed. The study of the functions of proper names, their morphemics and semantics allowed us to establish the national and cultural specifics of the Old Russian onomastic vocabulary, to determine the prospects for its evolution, as well as the formation of the modern Russian anthroponymic system. Modeling of the Old Russian onomastic space both in the field of anthroponymy and toponymy takes into account the connection of proper names with contextual usage. The participation of nominal signs in the formation of the space of written and artistic texts of the era of the Kievan state is based on the attachment of certain proper names to texts of a religious and secular nature. Nomination in the space of proper names is considered in the monograph not only as a process of activity of a creative nature, but also as a means of onymic word production in the older era. It is addressed to specialists in historical lexicology and onomastics, language history, teachers of literature, local historians.

Within a theory of morphopragmatics, we give an account of the relationship between morphology and pragmatics starting from two major theoretical premises: first, that pragmatics is not a secondary meaning derived from semantics—on the contrary we assume a priority of pragmatics over semantics—and second, that morphology is capable of a direct interface with pragmatics, not mediated through its semantics. Thus certain morphological patterns may generate autonomous pragmatic meanings, independently of their denotative power. Eligible patterns are primarily evaluative affixes (diminutives, augmentatives, pejoratives), familiarizers, like French -o, and hypocoristics, whose effects extend from the pertinent base word to the entire speech act. Other morphological elements, such as for example the Japanese honorific -masu and the Germanic and Hungarian excessive, limit their pragmatic scope to the word base. Some other morphological patterns are more marginal, for example feminine motional suffixes or pluralis maiestatis.

Chapter 2 establishes the semantic makeup of word meaning in general, dividing it into semantic structure and conceptual content. It familiarizes the reader with roots and patterns in Arabic morphology, investigating the semantic abstractions discernable in sets of words that share a root, in addition to the semantic structure shared by words formed in the same pattern. The chapter introduces the notion of shape-invariant morphology, arriving at an approach to Arabic morphology in which some derivation is rule-based, with operations being carried out directly on base words, whereas another type of derivation involves root extraction from a source word. Word patterns are created when a morphological operation is carried out on a base word with some regularity. Once the pattern exists, a variety of base words can be mapped to it by root extraction, creating a uniform output regardless of the shape of the input word.

This book is an investigation of Arabic derivational morphology that focuses on the relationship between verb meaning and linguistic form. Beginning with the ground form, the book offers a comprehensive analysis of the most common verb patterns of Arabic from a lexical semantic perspective. Peter Glanville explains why verbs with seemingly unrelated meanings share the same phonological shape, and analyses sets of words that contain the same consonantal root to arrive at a common abstraction. He uses both contemporary and historical data to explore the semantics of reflexivity, symmetry, causation, and repetition, and argues that the verb patterns of Arabic that express these phenomena have come about as the result of grammaticalization and analogical processes that are common crosslinguistically. The book adopts an approach to morphology in which rule-based derivation has created word patterns and consonantal roots, with the result that in some derivations roots may be extracted from a source word and plugged in to a pattern. It illustrates the semantic relationship between a source word and its derivative, while also offering evidence to support the view of the consonantal root as a morphological object.

The focus of the book is the semantics of reasons locutions, for example reasons for someone to do something or believe something or be a certain way. Given the leading role that talk of reasons plays in many different kinds of philosophy, the book addresses issues in the theory of reasons, metaethics, epistemology, the philosophies of language and perception, and linguistics. The primary aim of the book is to present and defend a contextualist semantics of reasons locutions. the book’s contextualism for reasons locutions is based on the idea that conversations have a particular question under discussion (QUD). The QUD in a conversation determines which meaning the word ‘reason’ has in that context. The book shows why reasons contextualism is preferable to four competing views on the topic: Simon Blackburn’s expressivism, Stephen Finlay’s conceptual analysis, Tim Henning’s alternative contextualism, and Niko Kolodny’s relativism. In addition, the work pursues secondary aims of consolidating insights about the nature of reasons from different philosophical subfields and establishing results about reasons in several debates ranging across philosophy. In particular, the book draws the implications of reasons contextualism for the ontology of reasons, indexical facts, whether there are reasons to be rational, the nature of moral reasons, and the idea that reasons have a special place in the realm of normative phenomena in general.

This is a sketch of polysynthesis in Central Alaskan Yupik (CAY) based on the Cup’ik dialect of Chevak, Alaska. CAY has well-defined words whose content is often holophrastic and whose parts are often word-like. Holophrasis is achieved by a combination of rich inflectional suffixation and by a derivational morphology in which several hundred productive suffixes bearing different lexical and grammatical meanings and functions may be added, recursively, to a lexical base. Each suffix selects the category of its base, over which it normally has scope, and determines the category of the resultant base. This simple but prolific suffixation-based system, termed ‘morphological orthodoxy’, yields long, polysynthetic words. Three cases are then discussed where suffixal elements govern constructions that in one way or another stretch CAY’s orthodox morphology, motivating them by showing parallel constructions governed by elements with similar grammatical and semantic content in languages with more heterodox morphology and syntax.

This volume presents research in theoretical syntax and its interfaces with semantics and prosody within the Polynesian language family, with chapters focusing on Hawaiian, Māori, Niuean, Samoan, and Tongan. It includes in-depth analyses of issues within particular languages, as well as chapters that take a comparative-Polynesian approach. Theoretical issues addressed include ergativity and case systems, word order variations, modality and superlatives, causativization, negation, resumption and linearization, raising, the Extended Projection Principle (EPP), and the left periphery of both the sentential and nominal domains. The volume showcases the theoretical typology of Polynesian languages with their varying case systems, word orders, and isolating particle-based morphology.

Latin is often described as a free word order language, but in general each word order encodes a particular information structure: in that sense, each word order has a different meaning. This book provides a descriptive analysis of Latin information structure based on detailed philological evidence and elaborates a syntax-pragmatics interface that formalizes the informational content of the various different word orders. The book covers a wide ranges of issues including broad scope focus, narrow scope focus, double focus, topicalization, tails, focus alternates, association with focus, scrambling, informational structure inside the noun phrase and hyperbaton (discontinuous constituency). Using a slightly adjusted version of the structured meanings theory, the book shows how the pragmatic meanings matching the different word orders arise naturally and spontaneously out of the compositional process as an integral part of a single semantic derivation covering denotational and informational meaning at one and the same time.

This chapter proposes an analysis that derives the word order variation in dependent clauses in OHG within a universal VO base order, plus additional cyclic leftward movement operations that target different information-structural projections in the complex left periphery of the clause. More precisely, it is argued that categories conveying contrastive information land in [Spec,FocP], with the finite verb targeting Foc° and marking the left edge of the new-information focus domain, while background information is placed further left, between ForceP and FocP. This positional realization of the verb and phrases expressing different semantic types of focus is considered a special strategy of disambiguating broad from narrow focus, as well as of avoiding the clash of two focus phrases in the middle field of clauses with multiple foci.

This article introduces the type of symbolic machine learning in which decision trees, rules, or case-based classifiers are induced from supervised training examples. It describes the representation of knowledge assumed by each of these approaches and reviews basic algorithms for inducing such representations from annotated training examples and using the acquired knowledge to classify future instances. Machine learning is the study of computational systems that improve performance on some task with experience. Most machine learning methods concern the task of categorizing examples described by a set of features. These techniques can be applied to learn knowledge required for a variety of problems in computational linguistics ranging from part-of-speech tagging and syntactic parsing to word-sense disambiguation and anaphora resolution. Finally, this article reviews the applications to a variety of these problems, such as morphology, part-of-speech tagging, word-sense disambiguation, syntactic parsing, semantic parsing, information extraction, and anaphora resolution.

This chapter sets out the theoretical and empirical bases of the work. It introduces transitivity as a linguistic concept, as well as the categories of ‘agent noun’ and ‘action noun’. Semantic and syntactic transitivity are distinguished. It introduces Lexical-Functional Grammar, the formal framework in which analysis is provided, as a tool for the full understanding of transitivity. It summarizes the evidence for transitive nouns and adjectives in previous linguistic literature, indicates the types of word that the book will be engaging with, and looks at formal analysis. It introduces the early Indo-Aryan languages, Sanskrit and Pali, and the texts which are used as the basis for this work.

This handbook reviews the current state of the art in the field of psycholinguistics. Part I deals with language comprehension at the sublexical, lexical, and sentence and discourse levels. It explores concepts of speech representation and the search for universal speech segmentation mechanisms against a background of linguistic diversity and compares first language with second language segmentation. It also discusses visual word recognition, lexico-semantics, the different forms of lexical ambiguity, sentence comprehension, text comprehension, and language in deaf populations. Part II focuses on language production, with chapters covering topics such as word production and related processes based on evidence from aphasia, the major debates surrounding grammatical encoding. Part III considers various aspects of interaction and communication, including the role of gesture in language processing, approaches to the study of perspective-taking, and the interrelationships between language comprehension, emotion, and sociality. Part IV is concerned with language development and evolution, focusing on topics ranging from the development of prosodic phonology, the neurobiology of artificial grammar learning, and developmental dyslexia. The book concludes with Part V, which looks at methodological advances in psycholinguistic research, such as the use of intracranial electrophysiology in the area of language processing.

Apposition in Malay addresses the lack of a detailed exploration and description of the construction in the language.The book provides a lengthy detail of Malay apposition, by providing, in the first chapter, a case for its necessity.Moving away from the prescriptive tradition, the description is based on constructions derived from three text types: journalistic texts, academic texts and fictional texts.Chosen for their different functions, appeal and communicative potential, the book details the findings based on the analysis of apposition in the 450,000 word corpora used as database.The uses of apposition are accounted for from a varied perspective. The linguistic characteristics of apposition are detailed based on their syntactic, semantic and pragmatic manifestations.These then provided a basis for six conditions that have to be satisfied for a construction to be regarded as apposition in Malay.The conditions also take into consideration borderline cases between appositive constructions and other similar-looking ones, therefore allowing for a distinction to be made between a full apposition and a partial one.The conditions explicitly recognize that apposition is not a clear-cut relation. However, it is this phenomenon that makes apposition unique and therefore, well-deserving of its own place in the description of Malay grammar.

This article introduces the concepts and techniques for natural language (NL) parsing, which signifies, using a grammar to assign a syntactic analysis to a string of words, a lattice of word hypotheses output by a speech recognizer or similar. The level of detail required depends on the language processing task being performed and the particular approach to the task that is being pursued. This article further describes approaches that produce ‘shallow’ analyses. It also outlines approaches to parsing that analyse the input in terms of labelled dependencies between words. Producing hierarchical phrase structure requires grammars that have at least context-free (CF) power. CF algorithms that are widely used in parsing of NL are described in this article. To support detailed semantic interpretation more powerful grammar formalisms are required, but these are usually parsed using extensions of CF parsing algorithms. Furthermore, this article describes unification-based parsing. Finally, it discusses three important issues that have to be tackled in real-world applications of parsing: evaluation of parser accuracy, parser efficiency, and measurement of grammar/parser coverage.

The monograph reflects the problems of Russian psycholinguistics from the moment of its inception in Russia to the present day and presents its main directions that are currently developing. In addition, theoretical developments and practical results obtained in the framework of different directions and research centers are described in a concise form. The task of the book is to reflect, as far as it is possible in one edition, firstly, the history of the formation of Russian psycholinguistics; secondly, its methodology and developed methods; thirdly, the results obtained in different research centers and directions in different regions of Russia; fourthly, to outline the main directions of the further development of Russian psycholinguistics. There is no doubt that in the theoretical, methodological and applied aspects, the main problems and the results of their development by Russian psycholinguistics have no analogues in world linguistics and psycholinguistics, or are represented by completely original concepts and methods. We have tried to show this uniqueness of the problematics and the methodological equipment of Russian psycholinguistics in this book. The main role in the formation of Russian psycholinguistics was played by the Moscow psycholinguistic school of A.A. Leontyev. It still defines the main directions of Russian psycholinguistics. Russian psycholinguistics (the theory of speech activity - TSA) is based on the achievements of Russian psychology: a cultural-historical approach to the analysis of mental phenomena L.S. Vygotsky and the system-activity approach of A.N. Leontyev. Moscow is the most "psycholinguistic region" of Russia - INL RAS, Moscow State University, Moscow State Linguistic University, RUDN, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Moscow State Pedagogical University, Sechenov University, Moscow State University and other Moscow universities. Saint Petersburg psycholinguists have significant achievements, especially in the study of neurolinguistic problems, ontolinguistics. The most important feature of Russian psycholinguistics is the widespread development of psycholinguistics in the regions, the emergence of recognized psycholinguistic research centers - St. Petersburg, Tver, Saratov, Perm, Ufa, Omsk, Novosibirsk, Voronezh, Yekaterinburg, Kursk, Chelyabinsk; psycholinguistics is represented in Cherepovets, Ivanovo, Volgograd, Vyatka, Kaluga, Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Vladivostok, Abakan, Maikop, Barnaul, Ulan-Ude, Yakutsk, Syktyvkar, Armavir and other cities; in Belarus - Minsk, in Ukraine - Lvov, Chernivtsi, Kharkov, in the DPR - Donetsk, in Kazakhstan - Alma-Ata, Chimkent. Our researchers work in Bulgaria, Hungary, Vietnam, China, France, Switzerland. There are Russian psycholinguists in Canada, USA, Israel, Austria and a number of other countries. All scientists from these regions and countries have contributed to the development of Russian psycholinguistics, to the development of psycholinguistic theory and methods of psycholinguistic research. Their participation has not been forgotten. We tried to present the main Russian psycholinguists in the Appendix - in the sections "Scientometrics", "Monographs and Manuals" and "Dissertations", even if there is no information about them in the Electronic Library and RSCI. The principles of including scientists in the scientometric list are presented in the Appendix. Our analysis of the content of the resulting monograph on psycholinguistic research in Russia allows us to draw preliminary conclusions about some of the distinctive features of Russian psycholinguistics: 1. cultural-historical approach to the analysis of mental phenomena of L.S.Vygotsky and the system-activity approach of A.N. Leontiev as methodological basis of Russian psycholinguistics; 2. theoretical nature of psycholinguistic research as a characteristic feature of Russian psycholinguistics. Our psycholinguistics has always built a general theory of the generation and perception of speech, mental vocabulary, linked specific research with the problems of ontogenesis, the relationship between language and thinking; 3. psycholinguistic studies of speech communication as an important subject of psycholinguistics; 4. attention to the psycholinguistic analysis of the text and the development of methods for such analysis; 5. active research into the ontogenesis of linguistic ability; 6. investigation of linguistic consciousness as one of the important subjects of psycholinguistics; 7. understanding the need to create associative dictionaries of different types as the most important practical task of psycholinguistics; 8. widespread use of psycholinguistic methods for applied purposes, active development of applied psycholinguistics. The review of the main directions of development of Russian psycholinguistics, carried out in this monograph, clearly shows that the direction associated with the study of linguistic consciousness is currently being most intensively developed in modern Russian psycholinguistics. As the practice of many years of psycholinguistic research in our country shows, the subject of study of psycholinguists is precisely linguistic consciousness - this is a part of human consciousness that is responsible for generating, understanding speech and keeping language in consciousness. Associative experiments are the core of most psycholinguistic techniques and are important both theoretically and practically. The following main areas of practical application of the results of associative experiments can be outlined. 1. Education. Associative experiments are the basis for constructing Mind Maps, one of the most promising tools for systematizing knowledge, assessing the quality, volume and nature of declarative knowledge (and using special techniques and skills). Methods based on smart maps are already widely used in teaching foreign languages, fast and deep immersion in various subject areas. 2. Information search, search optimization. The results of associative experiments can significantly improve the quality of information retrieval, its efficiency, as well as adaptability for a specific person (social group). When promoting sites (promoting them in search results), an associative experiment allows you to increase and improve the quality of the audience reached. 3. Translation studies, translation automation. An associative experiment can significantly improve the quality of translation, take into account intercultural and other social characteristics of native speakers. 4. Computational linguistics and automatic word processing. The results of associative experiments make it possible to reveal the features of a person's linguistic consciousness and contribute to the development of automatic text processing systems in a wide range of applications of natural language interfaces of computer programs and robotic solutions. 5. Advertising. The use of data on associations for specific words, slogans and texts allows you to predict and improve advertising texts. 6. Social relationships. The analysis of texts using the data of associative experiments makes it possible to assess the tonality of messages (negative / positive moods, aggression and other characteristics) based on user comments on the Internet and social networks, in the press in various projections (by individuals, events, organizations, etc.) from various social angles, to diagnose the formation of extremist ideas. 7. Content control and protection of personal data. Associative experiments improve the quality of content detection and filtering by identifying associative fields in areas subject to age restrictions, personal information, tobacco and alcohol advertising, incitement to ethnic hatred, etc. 8. Gender and individual differences. The data of associative experiments can be used to compare the reactions (and, in general, other features of thinking) between men and women, different social and age groups, representatives of different regions. The directions for the further development of Russian psycholinguistics from the standpoint of the current state of psycholinguistic science in the country are seen by us, first of all:  in the development of research in various areas of linguistic consciousness, which will contribute to the development of an important concept of speech as a verbal model of non-linguistic consciousness, in which knowledge revealed by social practice and assigned by each member of society during its inculturation is consolidated for society and on its behalf;  in the expansion of the problematics, which is formed under the influence of the growing intercultural communication in the world community, which inevitably involves the speech behavior of natural and artificial bilinguals in the new object area of psycholinguistics;  in using the capabilities of national linguistic corpora in the interests of researchers studying the functioning of non-linguistic and linguistic consciousness in speech processes;  in expanding research on the semantic perception of multimodal texts, the scope of which has greatly expanded in connection with the spread of the Internet as a means of communication in the life of modern society;  in the inclusion of the problems of professional communication and professional activity in the object area of psycholinguistics in connection with the introduction of information technologies into public practice, entailing the emergence of new professions and new features of the professional ethos;  in the further development of the theory of the mental lexicon (identifying the role of different types of knowledge in its formation and functioning, the role of the word as a unit of the mental lexicon in the formation of the image of the world, as well as the role of the natural / internal metalanguage and its specificity in speech activity);  in the broad development of associative lexicography, which will meet the most diverse needs of society and cognitive sciences. The development of associative lexicography may lead to the emergence of such disciplines as associative typology, associative variantology, associative axiology;  in expanding the spheres of applied use of psycholinguistics in social sciences, sociology, semasiology, lexicography, in the study of the brain, linguodidactics, medicine, etc. This book is a kind of summarizing result of the development of Russian psycholinguistics today. Each section provides a bibliography of studies on the relevant issue. The Appendix contains the scientometrics of leading Russian psycholinguists, basic monographs, psycholinguistic textbooks and dissertations defended in psycholinguistics. The content of the publications presented here is convincing evidence of the relevance of psycholinguistic topics and the effectiveness of the development of psycholinguistic problems in Russia.