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1
Gimpel, James G., and Kimberly A. Karnes. "The Rural Side of the Urban-Rural Gap." PS: Political Science & Politics 39, no. 03 (July 2006): 467–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1049096506060859.
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Bermúdez, Jhael N., Daniel Ayala, and Oscar F. Herrán. "Nutrition gap in children, urban-rural." Revista de Saúde Pública 54 (December 14, 2020): 111. http://dx.doi.org/10.11606/s1518-8787.2020054001925.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
OBJECTIVE: To analyze the nutritional situation of children under five years old from both urban and rural areas of Colombia. METHOD: Analytical study, based on cross-sectional data, collected from ENSIN-2015. The sample consisted of 12,256 children aged between 0 and 4 years old. We calculated the prevalence ratios (PR) with their respective 95% confidence interval (95%CI). PR were assessed by binomial regression models with malnutrition or overweight as the dependent variable and geographic area as the explanatory variable. We used context variables to adjust the estimated PR and control the confounder within. RESULTS: Acute malnutrition (weight-for-height) had a prevalence of 1.6%, while overweight had a 5.6% rate. No differences per geographic zone in the weight-for-height indicator were found. Stunted growth – chronic malnutrition – was higher in the rural area (PR = 1.2; 95%CI 1–1.53; p = 0.050). Prevalences adjusted by variables related to structural, social and economic developement showed that both the household chief’s educational level and the food insecurity of the area account for malnutrition. CONCLUSION: The height-for-age indicator works better to establish development level. Measures against coverage, relevance and quality of education and access to food can harm the nutritional status of the children.
3
Liu, Yong, and Cuihong Long. "Urban and Rural Income Gap: Does Urban Spatial Form Matter in China?" SAGE Open 11, no. 1 (January 2021): 215824402110022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/21582440211002215.
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This research uses satellite remote sensing data to measure the urban spatial form and analyzes the impact of changes to urban spatial structure on the income gap between urban and rural residents. The results indicate that the compactness of the urban spatial form is positively correlated with the income gap between urban and rural residents. However, there is no statistically significant relationship between the urban spatial extension rate and the urban–rural income gap. A subsequent analysis of the control variables shows that fiscal policy is positively correlated while urbanization is negatively correlated with the income gap between urban and rural residents. These conclusions provide the basis for formulating policies to narrow the urban–rural income gap. Appropriately reducing the spatial compactness of cities can narrow the income gap. In addition, changing excessive preferences for urban fiscal policy and increasing the level of urbanization can also promote a reduction in the income gap between urban and rural residents.
4
Ju, Fangyu, Shuqing Wang, and Wei Lin. "Nonlinear Effect of Urbanization on the Gap between Urban and Rural Elementary Education in China." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2022 (October 11, 2022): 1–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/7025433.
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The urban-rural gap of elementary education seriously affects social fairness, so the study on the urban-rural gap of elementary education can help promote social fairness in China. China’s urbanization is an important variable affecting the social process, and its impact on the urban-rural gap of elementary education is worthy of further study. Based on China’s provincial panel data from 2006 to 2017, this paper uses the Theil index to measure the urban-rural gap in different aspects of elementary education and uses principal component analysis (PCA) to construct a comprehensive index to objectively measure the urban-rural gap of overall elementary education in China. Our results show that the gap between urban and rural areas in China’s elementary education showed an upward trend from 2006 to 2010, and the gap decreased year by year from 2010 to 2017. Then we used the panel smooth transition regression (PSTR) model to study the impact of urbanization on the urban-rural gap of elementary education in China and find evidence that urbanization has a nonlinear effect on the urban-rural gap of elementary education. That is, in economically underdeveloped areas, urbanization exacerbates the gap between urban and rural areas in elementary education, while in economically developed areas, urbanization narrows the gap between urban and rural areas in elementary education. Therefore, developing economy and continuing to promote urbanization are effective measures to narrow the gap between urban and rural areas in elementary education.
5
Piyaman, Patnaree, Philip Hallinger, and Pongsin Viseshsiri. "Addressing the achievement gap." Journal of Educational Administration 55, no. 6 (September 4, 2017): 717–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/jea-12-2016-0142.
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Purpose Developing countries in many parts of the world have experienced a disturbing trend in the differential pace of economic development among urban and rural communities. These inequities have been observed in education systems in Asia, Africa, and Latin America where researchers have documented differences not only in resource allocation but also in the academic performance among students in urban and rural schools. Recently researchers have shifted their focus from examining financial and physical resources to investigating the nature and impact of differences in human resources. The purpose of this paper is to examine differences in school organization processes associated with learning-centered leadership and teacher learning among urban and rural primary schools in Thailand. Teacher trust and teacher agency were proposed as possible mediators of leadership effects on teacher learning. Design/methodology/approach This study employed a cross-sectional survey design. The authors collected survey data from 1,011 teachers and 60 principals in 30 urban and 30 rural primary schools in Thailand. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modeling, and bootstrapping were used to analyze the proposed model of leadership and teacher professional learning. More specifically, data analysis was aimed at determining the nature of relationships among the constructs in the conceptual model and whether patterns of leadership and teacher learning differed in urban and rural primary schools. Findings The results affirmed a model whereby school leadership exerted significant indirect effects on teacher learning in both urban and rural primary schools. Data analyses determined that the path of leadership effects moved through trust to agency and then to teacher professional learning. Thus, while the authors found a strong direct effect of leadership on teacher trust, there were only small direct effects of leadership on teacher agency and no meaningful direct effects of leadership on teacher professional learning. Thus, the research affirmed a full mediation model of leadership effects on teacher learning. Finally, the study also affirmed that the measured variables were perceived as significantly stronger in the urban schools than in the rural schools. Social implications The research expands on prior research on the “achievement gap” in Thailand by demonstrating the existence of a similar “human resource gap” when comparing urban and rural school leaders and teachers. This study implies that addressing the gap in student achievement will require action aimed at building the capacity of the principals and teachers who work with the rural pupils. Originality/value These results suggest differences in the quality of human resources between urban and rural primary schools in Thailand. There may be potential benefit to be gained from providing training focused on “learning-centered leadership” for principals and middle level leaders, as well as expanding access to quality professional development opportunities for rural teachers.
6
Li, Bing, and Yinfeng Liu. "Research on the relationship between urbanization, industrial structure and urban-rural income gap-Taking Sichuan province as an example." ITM Web of Conferences 45 (2022): 01078. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/itmconf/20224501078.
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This paper selects three indicators of urbanization, industrial structure and urban-rural income gap to construct a three-dimensional VAR model. Through Granger causality test, impulse response function and variance decomposition methods, a dynamic analysis of urbanization and industrial structure on urban-rural income gap in Sichuan Province has been carried out. The research shows that: urbanization and industrial structure have an important impact on the urban-rural income gap in Sichuan Province. Urbanization and the urban-rural income gap present a “U-shaped” relationship, that is, in the initial stage when the level of urbanization increases, the urban-rural income gap will be narrowed, and when urbanization develops to a certain degree, the gap will gradually be widened. The relationship between the industrial structure and the urban-rural income gap is an “inverted U-shaped” relationship, that is, the urban-rural income gap will be widened when the industrial structure is at a lower level. As the industrial structure is optimized and upgraded, the gap will gradually be narrowed.
7
Young, Alwyn. "Inequality, the Urban-Rural Gap, and Migration*." Quarterly Journal of Economics 128, no. 4 (September 26, 2013): 1727–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjt025.
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Abstract Using population and product consumption data from the Demographic and Health Surveys, I construct comparable measures of inequality and migration for 65 countries, including some of the poorest countries in the world. I find that the urban-rural gap accounts for 40% of mean country inequality and much of its cross-country variation. One out of every four or five individuals raised in rural areas moves to urban areas as a young adult, where they earn much higher incomes than nonmigrant rural permanent residents. Equally, one out of every four or five individuals raised in urban areas moves to rural areas as a young adult, where they earn much lower incomes than their nonmigrant urban cousins. These flows and relative incomes are suggestive of a world where the population sorts itself geographically on the basis of its human capital and skill. I show that a simple model of this sort explains the urban-rural gap in living standards.
8
Chen, Yiguo, Peng Luo, and Tsangyao Chang. "Urbanization and the Urban–Rural Income Gap in China: A Continuous Wavelet Coherency Analysis." Sustainability 12, no. 19 (October 8, 2020): 8261. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12198261.
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This study applies wavelet analysis to examine the relationship between the urbanization and the urban–rural income gap in 31 provinces in China over the period 1978–2019. We find three patterns of causality between urbanization and the urban–rural income gap. Empirical results show that urbanization does Granger-cause an urban–rural income gap, the urban–rural income gap does Granger-cause urbanization, and there exists a two-way causality between the urban–rural income gap and urbanization. Furthermore, these relationships mainly exist at high frequencies (short term). The results obtained by considering the resident population are more significant than those by the registered population. These results could help local governments develop fair policies for urban and rural income distribution in the process of urbanization of different provinces, promoting the coordinated development between urban and rural areas.
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Peng, Chenyang. "Digital Inclusive Finance Data Mining and Model-Driven Analysis of the Impact of Urban-Rural Income Gap." Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing 2022 (July 2, 2022): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/5820145.
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Digital inclusive finance, rural human capital, and agricultural green total factor productivity are simultaneously incorporated into the framework of urban-rural income gap analysis. Based on digital inclusive finance indices from several provincial panel data in China, a systematic generalized moment estimation method is used to the moderating effect of rural human capital and the mediating role of agricultural green total factor productivity. Annual time series data of foreign trade indicators and urban-rural income gap indicators are estimated by building a state-space model and applying Kalman filter to investigate the effects of these factors on the urban-rural income gap. The results show that the impact of urban-rural fixed asset investment ratio and foreign trade indicator on the urban-rural income gap in China tends to increase gradually, while the impact of rural financial development indicator is decreasing but still positive. The study finds that the development of digital inclusive finance significantly contributes to the reduction of the income gap between urban and rural residents; the breadth of coverage of digital inclusive finance and the degree of digitalization help to suppress the widening of the income gap between urban and rural residents; and rural health-based human capital, education and training-based human capital, and migration-based human capital not only have a convergence effect on the income gap between urban and rural residents themselves.
10
Ming, Juan, Jiachun Liu, and Zicheng Wang. "Does the Homeownership Gap Between Rural–Urban Migrants and Urban–Urban Migrants in China Vary by Income?" SAGE Open 10, no. 4 (October 2020): 215824402097542. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2158244020975421.
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Rural–urban migrants in China often experience poor living conditions and are less likely to be homeowners than urban–urban migrants. This study aims to investigate whether the homeownership gap between rural–urban migrants and urban–urban migrants in China vary by income. We explore the homeownership gap between the two migrant groups using the National Migrants Population Dynamic Monitoring Survey in 2014. Our findings show that the homeownership gap between rural–urban migrants and urban–urban migrants vary by income, and this gap is larger for high-income groups than for low-income groups. The estimations also demonstrate that social security insurance may act as the transmission channel, indicating a stratification process.
11
Zhang, Zhe. "Research on the Impact of Digital Finance on China's Urban-Rural Income Gap." Review of Economic Assessment 1, no. 1 (December 30, 2022): 63–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.58567/rea01010005.
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The integration of digital technology and traditional finance has further achieved the goal of low-cost and sustainable financial services and contributed to high-quality economic development. Based on the data from 31 provinces in China from 2011 to 2021, this paper empirically analyzes the impact of digital finance on the urban-rural income gap. The results show that digital finance can significantly narrow the income gap between urban and rural residents. The quantile test shows that the greater the urban-rural income gap, the stronger the role of digital finance in narrowing the urban-rural income gap. The threshold effect test shows that the narrowing effect of digital finance on the urban-rural income gap will first increase and then weaken with the continuous improvement of the development level. Heterogeneity analysis shows that the secondary indicators of digital finance can significantly narrow the urban-rural income gap, and the effect of depth of usage is the most obvious. Moreover, digital finance has a significantly stronger effect on narrowing the urban-rural income gap in the eastern region than in other regions. Therefore, we should vigorously promote the development of digital finance and give full play to its effectiveness in narrowing the urban-rural income gap.
12
Shi, Xiaohong, and Zeyuan Jiang. "Opening to the Outside World and Income Gap between Urban and Rural Areas Based on Panel Data of 30 Provinces and Cities." Frontiers in Business, Economics and Management 5, no. 3 (October 14, 2022): 161–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.54097/fbem.v5i3.2000.
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Opening to the outside world has an impact on Income gap between urban and rural areas. From the perspective of internal transmission mechanism, opening to the outside world has promoted the redistribution of labor force between urban and rural areas and the increase of rural residents' wages while adjusting the industrial structure. From the perspective of external transmission mechanism, trade openness has a significant impact on Income gap between urban and rural areas through the regulation of transportation infrastructure. Based on the above analysis, this paper explores the specific impact mechanism of opening to the outside world on income gap between urban and rural areas. Using Theil index to construct an index to measure the income gap between urban and rural areas, this paper empirically explores the impact of opening to the outside world on Income gap between urban and rural areas through adjustment effect test and mediation effect test, and further explores the impact of various influencing factors on income gap between urban and rural areas and the specific transmission mechanism.
13
Gao, Yanyan, Jianghuai Zheng, and Maoliang Bu. "Rural-urban income gap and agricultural growth in China." China Agricultural Economic Review 6, no. 1 (January 28, 2014): 92–107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/caer-02-2012-0016.
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Purpose – This paper aims to investigate the effect of rural-urban income gap on agricultural growth in China and its dynamics over time and across regions since reform and opening up. Design/methodology/approach – Two types of indices are constructed to measure the rural-urban income gap: the intra-provincial index and the inter-provincial index. A provincial panel data from 1978 to 2010 and growth accounting method are used to estimate the size of the adverse effect of rural-urban income gap on agricultural growth in China. Findings – The empirical results show that both indices of rural-urban income gaps are negatively associated with agriculture output, but the inter-provincial rural-urban income gap produces a larger adverse effect than the intra-provincial rural-urban income gap. Growth accounting analysis further shows that such adverse effects are decreasing over time and are larger in the central provinces. The results represent resource diversion effects of rural-urban income gap on agriculture. Originality/value – This paper bridges the gap in existing literature on the relationship between sectoral income gaps and agricultural growth, which confirms Schultz's argument that agricultural activities are efficient even in developing countries and the rural resources diverted out by income gap are not surplus. The results imply that equalized rural-urban and regional policies are required to maintain sustainable agricultural growth in China.
14
Băncescu, Irina. "Rural - urban income gap and labour market in Romania." SHS Web of Conferences 95 (2021): 01003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/shsconf/20219501003.
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Rural – urban income gap is an important social-economic development indicator for a society. A large rural - urban income gap within a society reveals a split of it into two distinct societies, one extremely poor compared to the other. In Romania, almost half of the resident population lives in rural areas (46.02% in 2019), while the urban-rural migration flow is higher than the traditional reverse flow since 1997. However, the country is characterized by regional economic disparities, Bucharest-Ilfov region being the most economically developed. Labour market in rural areas is underdeveloped, rural population being highly depended on subsistence agriculture. Furthermore, rural areas have a low level of income and living standards. In this paper, we analysis the rural-urban labour market dynamics and rural-urban income gap using a LMDI (logarithmic mean Divisia index) decomposition for 2005-2019 period. Factors such as income gap effect and structural rural income effect are considered. Results show that the total urban–rural income gap has decreased with 8.91%, while structural rural income effect contributed with an increase of only 0.63%, the income gap effect (of different employed population groups) being of -9.49%.
15
Cai, Yuncheng. "A Study on Rural Labour Mobility, Population Urbanisation and the Urban-rural Income Gap." Modern Economics & Management Forum 3, no. 3 (July 2, 2022): 230. http://dx.doi.org/10.32629/memf.v3i3.869.
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This paper takes Guangdong Province, China as the research object, and selects the time series data of three periods, 1978-2019, 1978-2004 and 2005-2019 to construct VAR model, Johansen test and impulse response function and other empirical analysis, to examine the causal relationship between the three and study the impact of rural labor mobility, population urbanization on the urban-rural income gap. The study finds that: firstly, rural labour mobility significantly widens the urban-rural income gap, while the accelerated urbanisation of the population effectively reduces the urban-rural income gap; secondly, the impact of rural labour mobility and population urbanisation on the urban-rural income gap has time differences.
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Villapiano, Nicole, Theodore J. Iwashyna, and Matthew M. Davis. "Worsening Rural-Urban Gap in Hospital Mortality." Journal of the American Board of Family Medicine 30, no. 6 (November 2017): 816–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.3122/jabfm.2017.06.170137.
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Eff, E. Anthon, and Steven G. Livingston. "IS THERE A RURAL/URBAN EXPORT GAP?" Journal of Regional Science 47, no. 2 (April 18, 2007): 339–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9787.2007.00512.x.
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Bang, Felix, Steven McFaull, James Cheesman, and Minh T. Do. "The rural–urban gap: differences in injury characteristics." Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada 39, no. 12 (December 2019): 317–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.24095/hpcdp.39.12.01.
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Background Injuries are among the top 10 leading causes of death in Canada. However, the types and rates of injuries vary between rural versus urban settings. Injury rates increase with rurality, particularly those related to motor vehicle collisions. Factors such as type of work, hazardous environments and longer driving distances contribute to the difference in rural and urban injury rates. Further examination of injuries comparing rural and urban settings with increased granularity in the nature of injuries and severity is needed. Methods The study population consisted of records from the electronic Canadian Hospitals Injury Reporting and Prevention Program (eCHIRPP) from between 2011 and July 2017. Rural and urban status was determined based on postal codes as defined by Canada Post. Proportionate injury ratios (PIRs) were calculated to compare rural and urban injury rates by nature and severity of injury and sex, among other factors. Results Rural injuries were more likely to involve multiple injuries (PIR = 1.66 for 3 injuries) and crush injuries (PIR = 1.72). More modestly elevated PIRs for rural settings were found for animal bites (1.14), burns (1.22), eye injuries (1.32), fractures (1.20) and muscle or soft tissue injuries (1.11). Injuries in rural areas were more severe, with a higher likelihood of cases being admitted to hospital (1.97), and they were more likely to be due to a motor vehicle collision (2.12). Conclusion The nature of injuries in rural settings differ from those in urban settings. This suggests a need to evaluate current injury prevention efforts in rural settings with the aim to close the gap between rural and urban injury rates.
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Li, Chenyang, Yifei Li, and Jingyan Wu. "Endowment Structure, Industrial Structure, and the Fluctuation of Urban-rural Income Gap——An Analysis of New Structural Economics." Accounting and Finance Research 12, no. 1 (January 17, 2023): 13. http://dx.doi.org/10.5430/afr.v12n1p13.
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Taking endowment structure as the starting point, this paper examines the determinants of urban-rural income gap fluctuation in China. Firstly, this paper proposes the core hypothesis through theoretical analysis and then proves it with the mathematical model. It shows that economic factors and policy factors jointly determine the fluctuation of endowment structure difference in urban and rural areas, and ultimately determines the fluctuation of the urban-rural income gap by determining the fluctuation of output growth rate. Secondly, this paper uses China's provincial panel data from 2006 to 2019 to empirically test the theoretical model, taking the relative index of urban and rural capital stock as the measure of the difference in endowment structure. The conclusion of this paper shows that the income gap between urban and rural areas is not an overnight result, but a fluctuating process. Policy measures can effectively narrow the urban-rural income gap by narrowing the urban and rural endowment structure gap.
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Jiang, Qi, Yihan Li, and Hongyun Si. "Digital Economy Development and the Urban–Rural Income Gap: Intensifying or Reducing." Land 11, no. 11 (November 4, 2022): 1980. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/land11111980.
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Based on theoretical analysis, this study examines the relationship between the development of China’s digital economy and the urban–rural income gap by using an empirical model to test panel data for 30 provinces in China from 2009 to 2019. The results of the study reveal that (1) there is a “U-shaped” relationship between the digital economy and the urban–rural income gap, with the gap narrowing in the early stages of development and widening in the medium-to-long term. (2) The development of the digital economy in peripheral regions will have an impact on the urban–rural income gap in the region through spatial spillover. (3) The heterogeneity tests reveal that the digital economy has a stronger impact on the urban–rural income gap in western China and a weaker impact in the east. (4) A double difference test using “Broadband Rural” construction as a policy shock variable reveals that the pilot project helped reduce the urban–rural income gap. This study deepens our understanding of the digital economy for integrated urban–rural development. It provides a theoretical basis and practical experience for enhancing the living standard of rural residents and promoting the integrated development of urban and rural areas.
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Ning, Geng, Wang Jie, and Mei Lin. "RESEARCH ON THE DYNAMIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN IMPORT AND EXPORT TRADE ON URBAN-RURAL INCOME GAP, CHINA." International Journal of Applied Science and Engineering Review 03, no. 03 (2022): 24–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.52267/ijaser.2022.3305.
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Since the reform and opening up, China has adopted the policy of "multilateral trade", which has led to rapid economic development and increasingly close international cooperation, but also created the problem of unbalanced development between urban and rural areas. This paper analyzes the dynamic relationship between import and export trade and urban-rural income gap by constructing indicators related to import and export trade and urban-rural income gap and using VAR model, the results show that: there is a long-term equilibrium relationship between import and export trade and urban-rural income gap, and this relationship is volatile, which shows that import and export trade can narrow the urban-rural income gap in lags 1, 3 and 4, and increase the urban-rural income gap in lags 2 and 5. The volatility of the relationship is increasing and then decreasing, and the effect is gradually decreasing.
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Ji, Xuanming, Kun Wang, He Xu, and Muchen Li. "Has Digital Financial Inclusion Narrowed the Urban-Rural Income Gap: The Role of Entrepreneurship in China." Sustainability 13, no. 15 (July 24, 2021): 8292. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13158292.
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The combination of digital technology and finance has brought about a new development model for financial inclusion. What impact will it have on the current imbalance in the distribution of financial resources and the urban-rural income gap in China? To answer this question, this paper uses relevant data from 2014–2018 to study the impact of digital inclusive finance on the urban-rural income gap from the theory of financial exclusion, and analyzes the transmission of digital inclusive finance through alleviating financial exclusion, widening financing channels and helping residents with entrepreneurial spirit to start their own businesses, thus increasing jobs, raising the income of rural residents and reducing the urban-rural income gap. The conclusions are as follows: (1) digital inclusive finance can significantly converge the urban-rural income gap; (2) among the dimensions of digital inclusive finance, only the breadth of coverage can significantly reduce the urban-rural income gap, while the effects of depth of use and digitalization are not significant; (3) digital inclusive finance can alleviate the urban-rural income gap through the transmission mechanism of promoting residents’ entrepreneurship; (4) the worse the regional economic development and education, the better the effect of digital inclusive finance on the urban-rural income gap. This paper combines the above results to propose corresponding policy recommendations.
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Li, Weidong, Xuefang Wang, and Olli-Pekka Hilmola. "Does High-Speed Railway Influence Convergence of Urban-Rural Income Gap in China?" Sustainability 12, no. 10 (May 21, 2020): 4236. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12104236.
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Transportation is an important factor affecting the balance of regional economic pattern. The construction of high-speed railway enhances the mobility of population, capital, technology and information resources between urban and rural areas. Will it further affect the income gap between urban and rural areas? Based on the nonlinear time-varying factor model, this paper analyzes the convergence of urban-rural income gap with the angle of high-speed railway. After rejecting the assumption of overall convergence in the traditional four economic regions, three convergence clubs of urban-rural income gap were found. For these ordered logit regression model is used to explore the initial factors that may affect the formation of “convergence club”. Empirical results show that the construction of High-speed railway has effectively narrows the urban-rural income gap in China, but it is not the cause of the formation of the three convergence clubs. The convergence effect of High-speed railway on the urban-rural income gap in China is still relatively weak.
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Wang, Lujing, and Ming Zhang. "Exploring the impact of narrowing urban-rural income gap on carbon emission reduction and pollution control." PLOS ONE 16, no. 11 (November 2, 2021): e0259390. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259390.
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Over the past four decades, China have experienced rapid economic growth but also a widening urban-rural income gap and deteriorating air quality. Based on the panel data of 30 provinces in China from 2006 to 2017, this paper investigates the effect of narrowing the urban-rural income gap on carbon emission reduction and pollution control by using OLS method. The empirical results indicate that: the narrowing of the urban-rural income gap has a positive impact on pollution control, while there are regional differences in the impact on carbon emission reduction. In the perspective of the whole country and central and western regions, the narrowing of the urban-rural income gap is conducive to carbon emission reduction. However, the narrowing of the urban-rural income gap increases carbon emissions in the eastern regions where economic development is at high level. This paper provides a theoretical basis and policy reference for promoting urban-rural integration and construction of ecological civilization.
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Li, Ting, and Jing-Ya Li. "Is farmland financial innovation narrowing the urban-rural income gap? A cross-regional study of China." PLOS ONE 17, no. 6 (June 3, 2022): e0269503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0269503.
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Over the past four decades, China’s economy has experienced tremendous economic growth but also a widening urban-rural income gap. Given the dilemma of the urban-rural income gap in China explained by neoclassical equilibrium theory, this paper attempts to provide a new theoretical explanation for the large-income gap between urban and rural areas in China. We select data from 30 provinces(cities) in China over the period from 2006 to 2017 as a sample to investigate whether and how the degree of farmland financial innovation narrows the urban-rural income gap. The results show that the coefficient for farmland financial innovation is significantly negative at the 1% level, signifying that financial innovation can narrow the urban-rural income gap in China. The mediation effect test provides evidence that farmland financial innovation narrows the urban-rural income gap by promoting the permanent migration of the labor force and upgrading the industrial structure. Our results indicate that the government should promote various forms of farmland financial innovation, establish rural property rights transaction system and free farmers from deep farmer-land attachment to realize permanent labor migration.
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Zaki, Khalida P., and Nan E. Johnson. "Does women's literacy affect desired fertility and contraceptive use in rural–urban Pakistan?" Journal of Biosocial Science 25, no. 4 (October 1993): 445–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0021932000021829.
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SummaryThe 1984–85 Pakistan Contraceptive Prevalence Survey showed that urban wives had more than twice the literacy rate of rural wives. The present study explored the relationship of the rural–urban gap in female literacy to differences in contraceptive use. In rural areas, literacy did not increase women's perceptions of having reached a ‘sufficient’ number of living children, although the opposite was true for urban areas. Yet rural women with an ‘insufficient’ number of living children were more likely to use contraception if they were literate, as did their urban counterparts. Thus, raising the literacy rate in rural Pakistan would not narrow the rural–urban gap in contraception to cease childbearing but would narrow the rural–urban gap in contraception used to space wanted births further apart. Recommendations for government policy are made.
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Ma, Chao, Ze Song, and Qingqing Zong. "Urban-Rural Inequality of Opportunity in Health Care: Evidence from China." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 15 (July 22, 2021): 7792. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157792.
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(1) Background: We aim to measure the urban-rural inequality of opportunity in healthcare in China based on the theory of Equality of Opportunity (EOp). (2) Methods: Following the compensation principle, we establish a decomposition strategy for the fairness gap, which we use for the measurement of the inequality of opportunity in urban-rural healthcare utilization. We then use China Health and Nutrition Survey (CHNS) data from 1997 to 2006 to calculate the fairness gap. (3) Results: Empirical analysis using CHNS data shows that the ratio of the fairness gap to the directly observed average urban-rural difference in healthcare was 1.167 for 1997–2000 and 1.744 for 2004–2006. The average urban-rural difference observed directly from original statistical data may have underestimated the degree of this essential inequity. (4) Conclusions: Our findings suggest that upgrading urban-rural reimbursement ratios may not be sufficient in eliminating the inequality of opportunity in healthcare utilization between urban and rural residents. Within the context of an urban-rural dualistic social structure and widening of the urban-rural income gap, a shift to a pro-disadvantaged policy will be a more effective approach in promoting equality of opportunity in healthcare.
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Sun, Ran, and Ping Du. "Does Teacher Training Narrow the Educational Gap between Urban and Rural Students? Empirical Evidence from CEPS Baseline Data." Best Evidence in Chinese Education 9, no. 2 (November 30, 2021): 1243–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.15354/bece.21.ar036.
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Based on the baseline data of the China Education Panel Survey, this paper explored the relationship between teacher training and academic performance in urban and rural samples respectively and the impact of teacher training on the urban-rural gap of students' academic performance. The results showed that: firstly, there was a significant urban-rural gap in academic performance, and the gap in high quantiles and language subjects were even larger. Secondly, the results of unconditional quantile regression showed that teacher training could improve the performance of urban students with different academic levels and rural students with intermediate or above academic levels, but it cannot improve the performance of rural students with lower academic levels. In addition, the overall effect of teacher training in urban areas is significantly higher than that in rural areas. Thirdly, different quantiles of Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition found that the endowment effect and the coefficient effect of teacher training were the important causes of the urban-rural performance gap, but the relative sizes of the two were different according to the different grades and different quantiles of performance distribution. Therefore, to increase the training opportunities and improve the training quality of rural teachers as well as enhance the resource conversion rate of rural students are of great practical significance for narrowing the urban-rural performance gap.
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Zhao, Zixin, Ai Han, and Shouyang Wang. "Intra-Household Gender Wage Gap in China: Evidence from the China Health & Nutrition Survey." Asian Economic and Financial Review 12, no. 4 (April 19, 2022): 258–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.55493/5002.v12i4.4469.
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This paper analyzes the intra-household wage gap and wage determination of husbands and wives under the urban-rural dual economic structure in China. A two-step estimation procedure was used to determine the factors that are related to living in urban or rural areas by employing the probit model. Additionally, the effects of different factors affecting gender wage across regimes and between husbands and wives was examined using the seemingly unrelated regression estimation (SURE) model. It was found that the intra-household gender wage gap is larger in rural areas than in urban areas. At different percentiles, the gender wage gap is also different. There is a larger gender wage gap between low income earners than higher income earners. The largest gender wage gap is in the 10th percentile in rural areas with a wife–husband wage ratio of 67%. The wage determination pattern between spouses is different in urban and rural areas. Except for human capital impact, urban-rural dual economic structure and family factors, spousal factors also effect the intra-household wage gap.
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Chen, Lingling, and Wei Shen. "Spatiotemporal differentiation of urban-rural income disparity and its driving force in the Yangtze River Economic Belt during 2000-2017." PLOS ONE 16, no. 2 (February 4, 2021): e0245961. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0245961.
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The income imbalance between urban and rural areas has seriously affected social fairness and justice and has become a key factor restricting the sustainable development of the economy and society. The analysis of the spatiotemporal laws and causes of urban-rural income disparity is of great significance to realizing the coordinated and integrated development of regional urban and rural areas. In this study, the coefficient of variation, Theil decomposition index, spatial autocorrelation method and GeoDetector model were used to analyze the spatiotemporal characteristics of the urban-rural income gap and its driving force in the Yangtze River Economic Belt from 2000 to 2017. The results show that the per capita disposable income of urban and rural residents in the study area shows a trend of rapid growth from 2000 to 2017. The urban-rural income gap in the study area showed an inverted "U"-shaped development process as a whole, and the relative difference showed an increasing trend. Regarding the spatial pattern, the study area showed a significant east-west differentiation pattern. The spatial distribution of the urban-rural income gap in the study area has an obvious positive spatial correlation, that is, the phenomena of high-value agglomeration and low-value agglomeration were significant. The economic development level, the industrial structure, the regional development policy, transportation, topographical conditions and resource endowments can strongly explain the spatial differentiation pattern of the urban-rural income gap in the study area. The spatial differentiation pattern of the urban-rural income gap is affected by both natural factors and socioeconomic factors. Among them, socioeconomic factors are the dominant factors, followed by natural factors. There is a significant interaction between natural factors and socio-economic factors, and the combination of socio-economic factors and adverse natural factors can significantly affect the regional urban-rural income gap.
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Liu, Jianxu, Xiaoqing Li, Shutong Liu, Sanzidur Rahman, and Songsak Sriboonchitta. "Addressing Rural–Urban Income Gap in China through Farmers’ Education and Agricultural Productivity Growth via Mediation and Interaction Effects." Agriculture 12, no. 11 (November 15, 2022): 1920. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12111920.
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Narrowing the rural–urban income gap is an important challenge in achieving sustained and stable economic and social development in China. The present study investigates the role of farmers’ education and agricultural productivity growth in influencing the rural–urban income gap by applying mediation, interaction, and quantile regression models to provincial panel data of China from 2003 to 2017. Results show that, first of all, China’s agricultural productivity (TFP) continues to improve, and it is mainly driven by technical change (TC), with no significant role of technical efficiency change (TEC) or stable scale change (SC). Improving farmers’ education not only directly narrows the rural–urban income gap but also indirectly improves agricultural productivity to further narrow the rural–urban income gap. Due to differences in income sources of farmers, the corresponding impacts of farmers’ education and agricultural productivity growth on the rural–urban income gap also differ. Policy recommendations include continued investments in farmers’ education and training as well as modernization of agricultural for higher productivity growth.
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Xu, Xiaoke. "The Impact of Two-Way FDI on the urban-rural Income Gap Based on Broad Least-Squares Analysis." BCP Business & Management 26 (September 19, 2022): 1058–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.54691/bcpbm.v26i.2070.
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With the continuous promotion of China's opening up to the outside world, the gap between the urban and rural residents in China has been greatly affected. To study the influence mechanism of two-way FDI on the income gap between the urban and rural residents and to study the influence mechanism of two-way FDI on the income gap between the urban and rural residents, this paper selects panel data on the income gap between the urban and rural residents in 31 provinces of China from 2009-2018 from the International Bureau of Statistics, the People's Bank of China and the Ministry of Commerce, construct a generalized least squares model, uses STATA software, and conducts an empirical study. The research results show that the development of two-way FDI has a significant effect on reducing the income gap between the urban and rural residents. Based on the above findings, this paper puts forward the following suggestions. (1) Promote stable domestic economic growth to lay the foundation for narrowing the gap between urban and rural residents. (2) Develop high-quality foreign trade and promote labor mobility outside the secondary and tertiary industries. (3) Improve China's financial market and enhance financial efficiency. (4) Promote technological innovation and upgrade industrial structure.
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Chen, Xiaohua, Xinyi Zhang, Yuhua Song, Xueping Liang, Liangjun Wang, and Yina Geng. "Fiscal Decentralization, Urban-Rural Income Gap, and Tourism." Sustainability 12, no. 24 (December 12, 2020): 10398. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su122410398.
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The reform of China’s tax-sharing system in 1994 has not only had a profound heterogeneous impact on the control level of fiscal resources by local government but also might exert a negative effect on the sustainable development of tourism. Based on this hypothesis, this paper uses 1993–2018 data from 31 Chinese provinces to examine the dynamic relationship between China’s fiscal decentralization, income gap, urbanization, and tourism growth using a panel co-integration model. Our results show that there is a stable co-integration relationship between fiscal decentralization, income gap, and tourism growth. In general, the impact of fiscal decentralization and income gap on tourism development varies across regions. However, in most provinces, urbanization helps the development of tourism. Urbanization and fiscal decentralization also help reduce the income gap. This shows that the inter-regional government competition promotes not only the growth of tourism but also income equality. To achieve the sustainable development of tourism, China should not only take the advantage of local governments’ incentives for economic growth but also handle the income gap problem considering local conditions.
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Oishi, Yutaka. "Japan’s Informationization Policy and the Urban–Rural Gap." Media Asia 16, no. 3 (January 1989): 154–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01296612.1989.11726313.
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Wang, Xin, and Zhibo Zheng. "Narrowing The Rural-Urban Care Gap In China." Health Affairs 30, no. 3 (March 2011): 537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0203.
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Jian, Weiyan, Kit Yee Chan, and Daniel Reidpath. "Chinese Rural-Urban Care Gap: The Authors Respond." Health Affairs 30, no. 3 (March 2011): 537. http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2011.0208.
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Sui, Yubing, and Geng Niu. "The Urban–Rural Gap of Chinese Household Finance." Emerging Markets Finance and Trade 54, no. 2 (January 9, 2018): 377–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1540496x.2017.1367660.
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Jamal, Vali. "Chasing the Elusive Rural-Urban Gap in Tanzania." Journal of Contemporary African Studies 19, no. 1 (January 2001): 25–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02589000120028148.
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Zhang, Chao, and Ruifa Hu. "Does Fertilizer Use Intensity Respond to the Urban-Rural Income Gap? Evidence from a Dynamic Panel-Data Analysis in China." Sustainability 12, no. 1 (January 6, 2020): 430. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12010430.
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This study aims to investigate the impact of the urban-rural income gap on fertilizer use intensity in China. A theoretical analysis of the relationship among per capita rural income, the urban-rural income gap, and fertilizer use intensity is developed, which is similar to the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis. Both the Theil index and urban-rural income ratio are employed to measure the urban-rural income gap using a provincial-level panel dataset covering 25 provincial-level administrative regions over the period 1995–2017. The estimation results of the system Generalized Method of Moments show that the expansion of the urban-rural income gap significantly increases fertilizer use intensity. While an inverted U-shaped relationship exists between fertilizer use intensity and per capita rural income, the peak turning point is much higher than the actual per capita rural income of all provinces in China. This demonstrates that fertilizer use intensity would further increase with the growth of rural income over a period of time. In addition, a lower growth rate of the agricultural product price, larger total sown size, and technological progress are likely to reduce fertilizer use intensity. This study has several important policy implications for promoting the sustainable development of agriculture and rural areas in China. Specifically, efforts must be made to narrow the urban-rural income gap, encourage agricultural research and extension, and promote land conversion and appropriately scaled-up agricultural business.
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Helmy, Heba Ezzeldin. "Egypt's rural–urban income disparity: is the gap diverging?" Contemporary Arab Affairs 4, no. 2 (April 1, 2011): 148–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17550912.2011.546166.
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Although some studies have attempted to assess the rural–urban income gap in the 1960s and 1970s, no study has focused on the evolution of the gap over the past 25 years, let alone the evolution in the real differences in per capita income between the rural sector and the urban one. The objective of this study is to fill the gap in the literature on this topic and to appraise the development in the gap – in nominal and real terms – both on the aggregate per capita rural and urban income levels and in different expenditure size classes from 1981 till 2005, a period which witnessed a revolution in the agricultural policies from intensive government intervention to complete liberalization. The results of the study prove that the gap diverged again from 1994 to 2005 after converging from 1981 to 1994. The study also proves that the gap is more apparent in the middle classes rather than the lower ones. Finally, with respect to food consumption the study concluded that a slight gap may exist in favour of rural – and not urban – Egypt.
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Lesego Masenya. "Development in South Africa: Bridging The Rural-Urban Gap." Thinker 88, no. 3 (September 6, 2021): 10–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.36615/thethinker.v88i3.598.
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South Africa is a highly unequal society with high levels of inequality, poverty, unemployment and other injustices that continue to affect the majority of the population. Although great strides have been made in addressing these challenges, there continues to exist a significant gap between the urban areas (usually over-developed) and the rural areas (usually under-developed), making it harder to bridge these parallel worlds. Worth noting is the report from the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) which suggests that Covid-19 has further widened the gap between urban areas and rural areas. These disparities have always existed, but the Covid-19 pandemic has brought to light a lot of challenges that have been ongoing, especially in the case of South Africa. To mitigate the urban-rural divide, agriculture in rural areas should be considered as a viable solution, with the support of technological platforms. The results of investing in rural economies will have spill-over effects, positively impacting on urban areas, while creating employment in the peripheries of the country. Now more than ever, it is crucial that we look into other alternatives which will not only benefit the country, but also bridge the gap between rural and urban areas.
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Karpestam, Peter, and Peter Gladoić Håkansson. "Rural boys, urban girls? The mystery of the diminishing urban-rural gender gap in Sweden." Journal of Rural Studies 86 (August 2021): 282–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2021.05.011.
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Zhao, Hongbo, Xiao Zheng, and Lin Yang. "Does Digital Inclusive Finance Narrow the Urban-Rural Income Gap through Primary Distribution and Redistribution?" Sustainability 14, no. 4 (February 12, 2022): 2120. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su14042120.
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Excessive income gap (IG) between urban and rural areas harms the quality of economic development, and imbalanced primary distribution (PD) as well as redistribution (RD) are considered to be the main factors contributing to the urban–rural IG. Does digital Inclusive Finance (DIF) affect the urban–rural IG through PD and RD? This paper empirically studies the impact of digital inclusive finance on Chinese urban–rural IG from the perspectives of PD and RD respectively, through updated and comprehensive provincial data, using the method of mediating effect. The results show that DIF narrowed China’s urban–rural IG with regional differences. Meanwhile, DIF also narrowed the urban-rural IGs in PD and RD, both with regional heterogeneity. Moreover, narrowing the urban–rural IG of PD exerted a mediating effect on the general urban–rural IG, while narrowing the urban–rural IG of RD did not. The results are helpful for DIF to better narrow urban–rural IG. Therefore, countermeasures are put forward for DIF to apply from the perspectives of PD and RD.
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Barua, Somdutta. "Spatial inequality and explaining the urban-rural gap in obesity in India: Evidence from 2015–16 population-based survey." PLOS ONE 18, no. 1 (January 4, 2023): e0279840. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0279840.
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Objective This study assessed the spatial dimension of urban-rural disparity in obesity prevalence and identified the determinants explaining the urban-rural gap in obesity prevalence in India. Methods Using cross-sectional survey data from the 2015–16 National Family Health Survey, the prevalence rates of obesity were calculated for aged 15–49 years. Two multiscale geographically weighted regressions were performed separately from rural and urban spaces for Indian districts to examine the spatial relationship of the outcome variable and covariates at different geographical scales. Fairlie decomposition analysis was carried out to explore the contribution of each variable in the urban-rural gap. Results The rural-urban obesity prevalence difference has increased in a decade time for India from 13.0 to 14.6. Urban counterparts tended to have more people with excess weight. 15 states had an urban-rural prevalence ratio of 2 or higher. The MGWR model showed that varying covariates operated at different scales, i.e. global, regional and local scales, and determined the spatial heterogeneity of obesity prevalence. The only variable, i.e. age (9.49 per cent), had contributed in reducing the gap. Conversely, the socioeconomic variables, i.e. income (96.39 per cent), education (4.95 per cent), caste (4.78 per cent) and occupation (3.11 per cent), had widened the gap. Conclusions Even though this study evidenced the rural-urban gap in obesity prevalence, it indicated the gap’s closing shortly, as it was witnessed in a few states. It is urgent to address the obesity epidemic, especially in urban India, due to its higher prevalence and prevent the further increase of prevalence in rural India, mainly because it shelters nearly 70 per cent of the Indian population.
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Xue, Yufei, and Xuhua Pan. "The Impact of Agricultural Mechanization on Urban-Rural Income Gap in China: An Empirical Analysis based on Comprehensive FGLS Estimation." Scientific and Social Research 3, no. 5 (November 2, 2021): 7–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.36922/ssr.v3i5.1201.
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Based on the analysis of mathematical economic models and using panel data from Chinese 31 provinces (excluding Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan) from1978 to 2019, empirically analyzing the influence of agricultural mechanization on Chinese urban-rural income gap by using the comprehensive FGLS (Feasible Generalized Least Square) estimation. Finally found that, in China, agricultural mechanization can significantly narrow urban-rural income gap, and Suggestions are put forward to improve the level of Chinese agricultural mechanization and narrow Chinese urban-rural income gap.
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Yu, Naishu, and Yanzhe Wang. "Can Digital Inclusive Finance Narrow the Chinese Urban–Rural Income Gap? The Perspective of the Regional Urban–Rural Income Structure." Sustainability 13, no. 11 (June 4, 2021): 6427. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13116427.
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This paper empirically studies the impact of digital inclusive finance on the income structure of urban and rural residents in eastern, central, and western China. The results show that, first, digital inclusive finance is beneficial to narrowing the urban–rural per capita disposable income gap that has a disequilibrium effect among regions. Second, narrowing the wage income, property income, and transfer income gaps is beneficial but has little effect on the net operating income gap between urban and rural residents. Third, narrowing the wage income, property income, and transfer income gaps reduces the total income gap, and the wage income gap has the strongest intermediary force. In the end, the paper puts forward corresponding countermeasures for the development of digital inclusive finance to narrow each of these income gaps in different regions of China.
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Xu, Hao. "How Digital Inclusive Finance influence Income Gap in Shaanxi Province——Based on Regression Analysis." BCP Business & Management 20 (June 28, 2022): 1055–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.54691/bcpbm.v20i.1099.
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Digital inclusive finance has a significant effect on reducing urban-rural income inequality. According to the relevant data of Shaanxi Province from 2011 to 2018, this article constructs a regression model for empirical analysis. The results show that increasing digital inclusive finance in Shaanxi can significantly reduce the income gap, which will guide the direction for reducing the income gap between urban and rural in Shaanxi Province in the future. In addition, the fiscal expenditure of Shaanxi Province will increase the income gap.Therefore, Shaanxi Province should increase the inclination of fiscal payment to rural areas, promote rural construction, and drive the income of residents to increase, thereby reducing the income gap between urban and rural area.
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Sumida, Sugata, and Keisuke Kawata. "An analysis of the learning performance gap between urban and rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa." South African Journal of Education 41, no. 2 (May 31, 2021): 1–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.15700/saje.v41n2a1779.
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The learning gap between urban and rural areas is a persistent problem in many sub-Saharan African countries. Previous studies have found that the urban-rural learning gap is attributed to the fact that student characteristics and school resources are different in urban and rural areas. Our study updates this finding by using the latest dataset and further examines the changes in the attributed sources over time. Using 15 educational systems in sub-Saharan Africa, we examined 4 potential sources of the gap: student, family, teacher, and school characteristics. Our results reveal that the urban-rural learning gap in recent years is attributed mostly to differences in school and family characteristics. We also found that the attribution remains the same over time from 2004 to 2011 and that the attribution to family characteristics’ differences became slightly greater than the one to school characteristics’ differences.
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Cheng, Hong, Dezhuang Hu, and Hongbin Li. "Wage Differential between Rural Migrant and Urban Workers in the People's Republic of China." Asian Development Review 37, no. 1 (March 2020): 43–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/adev_a_00140.
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Using a recently constructed dataset that draws on the China Employer–Employee Survey, this paper provides new evidence on the earnings gap between rural migrant and urban manufacturing workers in the People's Republic of China. When we only control for province fixed effects, we find that rural migrant workers are paid 22.3% less per month and 32.2% less per hour than urban workers. We find that the gap in hourly earnings is larger than the gap in monthly earnings because rural migrant workers tend to work an average of 5.6% more hours per month than urban workers. Using these data, we also find that 87.4% of the monthly earnings gap and 73.9% of the hourly earnings gap can be attributed to differences in the individual characteristics and human capital levels of rural migrant and urban workers. Furthermore, we find that this unexplained earnings gap varies among different groups of workers. The earnings gap is much larger (i) for workers in state-owned enterprises than in nonstate-owned enterprises, (ii) for college-educated workers than workers with lower levels of educational attainment, and (iii) in Guangdong province than in Hubei province.
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Avdokushin, E. F., and Wang Zhui. "Rural digitalization in China." World of new economy 15, no. 4 (January 28, 2022): 6–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.26794/2220-6469-2021-15-4-6-15.
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The article shows how the process of the Chinese economy’s digitalization, which began in urban areas, manufacturing, and rich provinces of China, now starts to engulf the rural areas. The digital gap between certain provinces and between urban and rural areas must be liquidated as part of the Chinese government’s strategy to make the country a thriving innovation society by the mid‑21st century. The article lays out basic directions and means of bridging the digital gap between urban and rural areas and several aspects of digital modernization in China’s agriculture. A particular focus is on developing green, environmentally friendly agriculture and the birth of a green way of life in rural areas and smart villages.