Дисертації з теми "RNA pathogenesis"

The susceptibility of MNs to injury in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) may result from excitotoxicity and subsequent dysregulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis. Post-transcriptional editing of the AMPA and Kainate glutamate receptor (GLUR) subunit(s) may alter the calcium ion permeability of the receptor pore, leading to neurodegeneration. The aims of the study are (i) to investigate GLUR2, GLUR5 and GLUR6 RNA editing at Q/R site and its editing enzyme ADAR2 and ADAR3 in ALS/C9ORF72-positive and ALS/C9OR72-negative compared to non neurological controls, and (ii) to determine the aberrant expression of EAAT2 transcripts in the astrocytes of the spinal cord of ALS cases and controls. (iii) To characterise p-TDP43, p62, GLUR2, ADAR2, ADAR3 and GFAP and EAAT2 proteins in motor neurons of ALS/C9ORF72-postive and ALS/C9ORF72-negative cases and controls. (iv) To develop new methodology to look at different levels of the mRNA expression in GLUR2, GLUR5, GLUR6, ADAR2, ADAR3 and EAAT2 that might exist in ALS. RNA was extracted from MNs and cDNA was prepared followed by amplification of cDNA by PCR that was used to generate amplified GLUR2, GLUR5 and GLUR6. These products were digested to produce cuts in the internal site of GLUR mRNA and differentiate edited from non-edited GLUR by analysis using agarose gel electrophoresis and the Agilent Bioanalyser. Independently the mRNA expression of ADAR2, ADAR3 and EAAT2 alternative transcripts of normal and aberrant exon 4 and 9 were quantified by qPCR. p-TDP-43, p62, GLUR2, ADAR2, ADAR3 and GFAP and EAAT2 protein levels were assessed by immunohistochemistry. The mRNA expression of GLUR2, GLUR5, GLUR6, ADAR2, ADAR3 and EAAT2 was assessed by next generation sequencing It was demonstrated that GLUR2 was fully edited in the MNs of ALS/C9ORF72- positive, ALS/C9ORF72-negative cases and controls. GLUR5 was 39% edited in MNs of ALS/C9ORF72-positive, 57% edited in ALS/C9ORF72-negative cases and 30% edited in controls. GLUR6 editing in MNs was 86% editing in the ALS/C9ORF72- positive and 77% editing in ALS/C9ORF72-negative cases compared to 72% editing in controls. An elevated mRNA expression in EAAT2 aberrant and normal transcripts of exon 4 and exon 9 was shown, but did not reach tatistical significance. ADAR2 immunoreactivity was associated with the nuclei of MNs, in contrast to ADAR3 which was exclusively associated with the neuronal cytoplasm. No significant differences in the pattern or distribution of immunoreactivity was detected across all groups. Phosphorylated TDP-43+ and p62+ skein-like bodies and compact inclusions were significantly elevated in both ALS/C9ORF72-positive cases and ALS/C9ORF72- negative cases, compared to control subjects which exhibited neither p-TDP-43 nor p62 expression. No significant difference in the pattern of immunoreactivity of EAAT2 in ALS groups and controls. In conclusion, full editing of GLUR2 in dissected motor neurons isolated by LCM was confirmed in ALS/C9ORF72-positive and ALS/C9ORF72-negative and control individuals. Whereas partial editing has been identified in GLUR5 and GLUR6 receptors. The mRNA and protein expression of ADAR2 and ADAR3 on spinal cord have shown similar levels between tested groups. No significant difference in the mRNA and protein expression of EAAT2. MNs in ALS cases, both with and without C9ORF72 expansion expressed pathogenic inclusions of phosphorylated TDP-43 and p62, which are a hallmark for ALS. ADAR2 and ADAR3 have shown no differences in ALS groups compared to controls.

A raiva é uma doença aguda, progressiva e infecciosa do sistema nervoso central de mamíferos, causada pelo vírus da raiva (RABV). Embora possa ser prevenida por vacina, continua sendo um grave problema de saúde pública, além de ser responsável pela morte de seres humanos e muitos outros animais, incluindo os de interesse econômico. Este estudo teve como objetivo avaliar a relação entre polimorfismos dos genes que codificam as proteínas P e L de amostras de RABV pertencentes a variantes antigênicas 2 e 3 e períodos de incubação e títulos em camundongos. Para isso, foram selecionadas amostras isoladas de diferentes reservatórios de raiva de mamíferos das Ordens Carnivora e Chiroptera e amostras de bovinos, de áreas endêmicas para o vírus da raiva. As sequências obtidas foram utilizadas para a construção de árvores filogenéticas para procurar os padrões de segregação de linhagens. Os resultados mostraram que não houve marcadores ou polimorfismos que explicam as variações nos períodos de incubação e de letalidade entre cepas pertencentes a variantes antigênicas 2 e 3. Esta informação pode ser usada para discussões sobre a importância de reservatórios de raiva, a dinâmica do vírus da manutenção e evolução das diferentes formas desta zoonose entre os animais infectados, contribuindo para um estudo mais aprofundado sobre a busca de marcadores moleculares para patogênese.
Rabies is an acute, progressive and infectious disease of the central nervous system of mammals, caused by Rabies virus (RABV). Although preventable by vaccine, it remains a serious public health problem, and is responsible for the death of humans and many other animals, including those of economic interest. This study aimed to assess the relationship between polymorphisms in genes encoding the P and L proteins of RABV samples belonging to antigenic variants 2 and 3 and incubation periods and titers in mice. For this, samples isolated from different mammalian rabies reservoirs of the Orders Carnivora and Chiroptera and samples of cattle from endemic areas for rabies virus were selected. The sequences obtained were used to construct phylogenetic trees to search for the segregation patterns of strains. The results showed that there were no markers or polymorphisms that explain variations in incubation periods and lethality amongst strains belonging to antigenic variants 2 and 3. This information might be used for discussions about the importance of rabies reservoirs, the dynamics of the virus maintenance and evolution of the different forms of this zoonotic disease among infected animals, contributing to further study about the search for molecular markers for pathogenesis.

La glicoproteïna de l’envolta (Env) és una de les proteïnes claus del VIH-1 en patogènesi. La seqüència del gen env és important per a codificar l’Env però també per les estructures secundàries dels RREs que contenen els seus trànscrits. La rellevància dels dos elements s’ha comprovat extensament, tot i que assajos funcionals són requerits en ambdós casos per estudiar l’impacte de canvis específics. El tractament amb l’inhibidor de fusió T-20 selecciona virus resistents després d’adquirir canvis al gen env. Per estudiar variants funcionalment rellevants d’env que es trobessin in vivo vam decidir utilitzar mutacions associades a T-20. Les prediccions de les estructures secundàries dels RRE van resultar alterades en els canvis que codificaven per G36V/D, V38A, Q40H i L45M, però no per N43D o Q40H-L45M. Funcionalment vam demostrar que només els mutants que presenten el canvi L45M a la seva seqüència pateixen un impacte en la capacitat d’unir-se a la proteïna viral Rev quan aquesta es troba en baixes concentracions, suggerint que els canvis nucleotídics que afecten a la formació de l’aminoàcid 45 de gp41 juguen un paper en la unió a Rev. De totes maneres, ninguna variant d’RRE va ser afectada en la seva capacitat per a ser transportada al citoplasma. Per tant, alteracions en les prediccions d’estructures secundàries a partir de seqüències nucleotídiques no necessàriament impliquen impactes funcionals i la mutació L45M no s’incorpora com a mutació secundària degut a un restaurament de les funcions del RRE. Com que és important caracteritzar funcionalment Envs derivades de pacients per a estudiar la seva patogenicitat, vam establir una metodologia completa per a estudiar-les basant-nos en el paper principal que hi juga la subunitat gp41. Els resultats demostren que la selecció de la línia cel·lular efectora és essencial per optimitzar la sensibilitat dels assajos. La línia cel·lular 293T hauria de ser utilitzada per experiments fusogènics i la HeLa per analitzar paràmetres relacionats amb la mort. Estudis clínics havien suggerit que virus que contenien la mutació V38A i que havien aparegut sota un context que tinguessin el polimorfisme viral N140I eren menys patogènics degut a que estaven associats amb fallada virològica i beneficis immunològics. Per tal d’entendre aquestes dades discordants vam basar-nos en la nostra metodologia per a analitzar Envs derivades de pacients que tinguessin aquests canvis. Aquestes Envs V38A-N140I van resultar tenir menys capacitat per induir la mort per cèl·lula individual tot i no veure’s alterada la seva capacitat fusogènica, remarcant la importància del context de l’Env i el paper central de gp41 a la patogènesi del VIH-1.
La glicoproteína de la envuelta (Env) es una de les proteínas claves del VIH-1 en patogénesis. La secuencia del gen env es importante para codificar la Env pero también para las estructuras secundarias de los RREs presentes en sus tránscritos. La relevancia de estos dos elementos ha sido comprobada extensamente, pese a que ensayos funcionales aún son requeridos en ambos casos para estudiar el impacto de cambios específicos. El tratamiento con el inhibidor de fusión T-20 selecciona virus resistentes después de adquirir cambios en el gen env. Para estudiar variantes funcionalmente relevantes de env que se encontraran in vivo decidimos utilizar mutaciones asociadas a T-20. Las predicciones de las estructuras secundarias de los RRE resultaron alteradas en los cambios que codificaban para G36V/D, V38A, Q40H y L45M, pero no para N43D o Q40H-L45M. Funcionalmente demostramos que sólo los mutantes que presentan el cambio L45M en su secuencia sufren un impacto de unión a la proteína viral Rev cuando ésta se encuentra en bajas concentraciones, sugiriendo que los cambios nucleotídicos que afectan a la formación del aminoácido 45 de gp41 juegan un papel en la unión a Rev. No obstante, la capacidad de transporte al citoplasma de estos RRE no está afectada. Por lo tanto, alteraciones en las estructuras secundarias predictivas a partir de secuencias nucleotídicas no necesariamente implican impactos funcionales y la mutación L45M tampoco se incorpora como mutación secundaria debido a la restauración de las funciones del RRE. Como es importante caracterizar funcionalmente Envs derivadas de pacientes para estudiar su patogenicidad, establecimos una metodología completa basándonos en el papel principal de la subunidad gp41. Los resultados demostraron que la línea celular efectora es esencial para optimizar la sensibilidad de los ensayos. La línea celular 293T debería utilizarse para experimentos de fusión y la HeLa per analizar parámetros de citopaticidad. Estudios clínicos habían sugerido que virus que contenían la mutación V38A y el polimorfismo viral N140I estaban asociados a una fallo virológico y beneficios inmunológicos del paciente debido a que eran menos patogénicos. Para entender estos datos discordantes analizamos Envs derivadas de pacientes y vimos que cuando éstas tenían los cambios V38A-N140I tenían menos capacidad para matar células diana de forma individual pese a no tener alterada su capacidad fusogénica. Estos datos remarcan la importancia del contexto de la Env y el papel central de gp41 en la patogénesis del VIH-1.
The Env glycoprotein is one of the key proteins used by HIV-1 to mediate its pathogenicity. The sequence of the env gene is important to encode the Env glycoprotein but also for the secondary structure of the RRE that harbor its transcripts. The relevance of both elements has been extensively proved, although functional assays were needed in both cases to study the impact of specific changes. Treatment with the fusion inhibitor T-20 in patients infected with HIV-1 select resistant viruses to this drug after acquiring changes in their env gene. Therefore, we decided to use T-20-associated changes in order to functionally study relevant in vivo env variants. Predictions of the RRE secondary structures showed alterations when they were encoding for the changes G36V/D, V38A, Q40H and L45M, but not when harboring N43D and Q40H-L45M. Functional data showed that only the mutants harboring the L45M mutation had impairments in their binding capacity to Rev when this protein was at low concentrations, suggesting that the nucleotide changes affecting the encoding of the amino acid 45 in gp41 plays a role in Rev binding. However, none of the RRE variants were affected in their ability to being transported to the cytoplasm. Thus, it was found that alterations in RRE secondary structures predicted from nucleotide sequences might not necessary imply functional impairments and that the L45M change was not incorporated as a secondary mutation due to a restoration of the RRE functions. As it is important to functionally characterize patient-derived Envs to understand their in vivo pathogenesis, we established a complete methodology to study them by focusing on the main role of the subunit gp41. Based on our results, the correct selection of the effector cell line is essential to optimize the sensitivity of the assays. The 293T cell line might be used for fusogenic experiments and the HeLa for analyzing death parameters. Clinical trials had suggested that V38A viral mutants arising in an Env context containing the N140I polymorphism, were low pathogenic due to they were associated with virological failure and immunologic benefits. In order to understand these in vivo discordant data, we used our complete methodology to analyze patient-derived Envs that harbored these changes. We found that the V38A mutant Envs that were arisen in a N140I context were less able to induce single-cell death to target cells despite not having an altered fusogenic capacity. Thus, these data supports the importance of the Env context and the main role of gp41 in HIV-1 pathogenesis.

Serratia sp. ATCC 39006 (S39006) is a Gram-negative bacterium that is virulent in plant (potato) and animal (Caenorhabditis elegans) models. It produces two secondary metabolite antibiotics, prodigiosin and a carbapenem, and the plant cell wall degrading exoenzymes, pectate lyase and cellulase. A complex regulatory network controls production of prodigiosin, including a quorum sensing (QS) system, and the role of post-transcriptional regulation was investigated. It was hypothesized that Hfq-dependent small regulatory RNAs (sRNAs) might also play a role. Hfq is an RNA chaperone involved in post-transcriptional regulation that plays a key role in stress response and virulence in other bacterial species. An S39006 ∆hfq mutant was constructed and in the mutants production of prodigiosin and carbapenem was abolished, while production of the QS molecule, butanoyl homoserine lactone (BHL), was unaffected. Using transcriptional fusions, it was found that Hfq regulated the QS response regulators, SmaR and CarR. Additionally, exoenzyme production and swimming motility were decreased in the ∆hfq mutant, and virulence was attenuated in potato and C. elegans. It was also shown that the phenotype of an hfq mutant is independent of its role in regulating the stationary phase sigma factor, rpoS. In order to define the complete regulon of Hfq and identify relevant potential sRNAs, deep sequencing of strand-specific cDNAs (RNA-seq) was used to analyse the whole transcriptome of S39006 WT and the ∆hfq mutant. The regulon of another post-transcriptional regulator, RsmA, also involved in regulating prodigiosin production, was investigated by performing RNA-seq on an rsmA mutant. Moreover, global changes in the proteome of the hfq mutant was analysed using an LC-MS/MS approach with isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ). This study confirms a role for Hfq in pathogenesis and the regulation of antibiotic production in S39006, and begins to provide a systems-level understanding of Hfq and RsmA regulation using a combination of transcriptomics and proteomics.

The genus Benyvirus includes the most important and widespread sugar beet viruses transmitted through the soil by the plasmodiophorid Polymyxa betae. In particular Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV), the leading infectious agent that affects sugar beet, causes an abnormal rootlet proliferation known as rhizomania. Beet soil-borne mosaic virus (BSBMV) is widely distributed in the United States and, up to date has not been reported in others countries. My PhD project aims to investigate molecular interactions between BNYVV and BSBMV and the mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of these viruses.BNYVV full-length infectious cDNA clones were available as well as full-length cDNA clones of BSBMV RNA-1, -2, -3 and -4. Handling of these cDNA clones in order to produce in vitro infectious transcripts need sensitive and expensive steps, so Ideveloped agroclones of BNYVV and BSBMV RNAs, as well as viral replicons allowing the expression of different proteins.Chenopodium quinoa and Nicotiana benthamiana plants have been infected with in vitro transcripts and agroclones to investigate the interaction between BNYVV and BSBMV RNA-1 and -2 and the behavior of artificial viral chimeras. Simultaneously I characterized BSBMV p14 and demonstrated that it is a suppressor of posttranscriptional gene silencing sharing common features with BNYVV p14.

Nous avons généré et caractérisé des lignées transgéniques d'Arabidopsis exprimant des petits ARN artificiels dirigés contre des gènes de virulence de Pto DC3000. Nous avons constaté que ces petits ARN exprimés par les plantes d’Arabidopsis étaient capables de réprimer l'expression des gènes bactériens cibles au cours de l'infection. Ce phénomène d’extinction de gène antibactérienne (AGS) était associé à une diminution de la pathogénèse bactérienne, également observée lors de l'application externe de petits ARN dérivés des plantes correspondantes sur des feuilles sauvages d'Arabidopsis et de tomate. De plus, nous avons découvert que ces espèces de petits ARN de plantes étaient responsables à la fois de l'AGS et de la suppression de la pathogenèse. Cela implique que la bactérie Gram-négative Pto DC3000 est capable d’internaliser, de manière passive et/ou active, des petits ARN malgré la présence d'une paroi cellulaire comprenant une structure complexe à double membrane, à savoir les membranes interne et externe de la bactérie. De plus, nous avons découvert que les petits ARN apoplastiques fonctionnels étaient soit intégrés dans des vésicules extracellulaires (EV), soit présent dans l’espace extracellulaire sous une forme libre. Ce travail de thèse révèle donc un tout un nouveau phénomène de régulation trans-règne entre un hôte eucaryote et un agent pathogène procaryote et a permis de faire avancer de manière significative nos connaissances dans les domaines de la biologie de l’ARN, de la microbiologie et des interactions hôte-bactérie
We first generated and characterized Arabidopsis-based transgenic systems expressing artificial small RNAs directed against key virulence-associated genes from Pto DC3000. Interestingly, we found that these Arabidopsis-encoded small RNAs were competent in repressing the expression of the targeted virulence factors during infection. This Antibacterial Gene Silencing (AGS) phenomenon was associated with a reduced bacterial pathogenesis, which was also observed upon external application of corresponding plant-derived small RNAs onto wild-type Arabidopsis and tomato leaves prior to infection. Furthermore, we demonstrated that these plant small RNA species were causal for both AGS and pathogenesis suppression. This implies that the Gram-negative bacterium Pto DC3000 is capable of taking-up –passively and/or actively– small RNAs despite the presence of a cell wall comprising an intricate double membrane structure, namely the bacterial inner and outer membranes. In addition, we discovered that apoplastic small RNAs, which are competent for AGS, were either embedded into Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) or presumably in a free form. The latter small RNA species have not yet been reported and were referred to as Extracellular Free Small RNAs (efsRNAs). Overall, this thesis work unveils a novel phenomenon of trans-kingdom regulation between a eukaryotic host and a prokaryotic pathogen

The human Ureaplasma species are the most frequently isolated bacteria from the upper genital tract of pregnant women and can cause clinically asymptomatic, intra-uterine infections, which are difficult to treat with antimicrobials. Ureaplasma infection of the upper genital tract during pregnancy has been associated with numerous adverse outcomes including preterm birth, chorioamnionitis and neonatal respiratory diseases. The mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to chronically colonise the amniotic fluid and avoid eradication by (i) the host immune response and (ii) maternally-administered antimicrobials, remain virtually unexplored. To address this gap within the literature, this study investigated potential mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections in an established ovine model. In this PhD program of research the effectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin for the treatment of chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections was evaluated. At 55 days of gestation pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of either: a clinical Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 isolate that was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics (n = 16); or 10B medium (n = 16). At 100 days of gestation, ewes were then randomised to receive either maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days) or no treatment. Ureaplasmas were isolated from amniotic fluid, chorioamnion, umbilical cord and fetal lung specimens, which were collected at the time of preterm delivery of the fetus (125 days of gestation). Surprisingly, the numbers of ureaplasmas colonising the amniotic fluid and fetal tissues were not different between experimentally-infected animals that received erythromycin treatment or infected animals that did not receive treatment (p > 0.05), nor were there any differences in fetal inflammation and histological chorioamnionitis between these groups (p > 0.05). These data demonstrate the inability of maternal erythromycin to eradicate intra-uterine ureaplasma infections. Erythromycin was detected in the amniotic fluid of animals that received antimicrobial treatment (but not in those that did not receive treatment) by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; however, the concentrations were below therapeutic levels (<10 – 76 ng/mL). These findings indicate that the ineffectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin treatment of intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections may be due to the poor placental transfer of this drug. Subsequently, the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion of pregnant sheep after chronic, intra-amniotic infection and low-level exposure to erythromycin were investigated. At 55 days of gestation twelve pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of a clinical U. parvum serovar 3 isolate, which was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics. At 100 days of gestation, ewes received standard maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days, n = 6) or saline (n = 6). Preterm fetuses were surgically delivered at 125 days of gestation and ureaplasmas were cultured from the amniotic fluid and the chorioamnion. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of erythromycin, azithromycin and roxithromycin were determined for cultured ureaplasma isolates, and antimicrobial susceptibilities were different between ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid (MIC range = 0.08 – 1.0 mg/L) and chorioamnion (MIC range = 0.06 – 5.33 mg/L). However, the increased resistance to macrolide antibiotics observed in chorioamnion ureaplasma isolates occurred independently of exposure to erythromycin in vivo. Remarkably, domain V of the 23S ribosomal RNA gene (which is the target site of macrolide antimicrobials) of chorioamnion ureaplasmas demonstrated significant variability (125 polymorphisms out of 422 sequenced nucleotides, 29.6%) when compared to the amniotic fluid ureaplasma isolates and the inoculum strain. This sequence variability did not occur as a consequence of exposure to erythromycin, as the nucleotide substitutions were identical between chorioamnion ureaplasmas isolated from different animals, including those that did not receive erythromycin treatment. We propose that these mosaic-like 23S ribosomal RNA gene sequences may represent gene fragments transferred via horizontal gene transfer. The significant differences observed in (i) susceptibility to macrolide antimicrobials and (ii) 23S ribosomal RNA sequences of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion suggests that the anatomical site from which they were isolated may exert selective pressures that alter the socio-microbiological structure of the bacterial population, by selecting for genetic changes and altered antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. The final experiment for this PhD examined antigenic size variation of the multiple banded antigen (MBA, a surface-exposed lipoprotein and predicted ureaplasmal virulence factor) in chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections. Previously defined ‘virulent-derived’ and ‘avirulent-derived’ clonal U. parvum serovar 6 isolates (each expressing a single MBA protein) were injected into the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes (n = 20) at 55 days of gestation, and amniotic fluid was collected by amniocentesis every two weeks until the time of near-term delivery of the fetus (at 140 days of gestation). Both the avirulent and virulent clonal ureaplasma strains generated MBA size variants (ranging in size from 32 – 170 kDa) within the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes. The mean number of MBA size variants produced within the amniotic fluid was not different between the virulent (mean = 4.2 MBA variants) and avirulent (mean = 4.6 MBA variants) ureaplasma strains (p = 0.87). Intra-amniotic infection with the virulent strain was significantly associated with the presence of meconium-stained amniotic fluid (p = 0.01), which is an indicator of fetal distress in utero. However, the severity of histological chorioamnionitis was not different between the avirulent and virulent groups. We demonstrated that ureaplasmas were able to persist within the amniotic fluid of pregnant sheep for 85 days, despite the host mounting an innate and adaptive immune response. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1â, IL-6 and IL-8) were elevated within the chorioamnion tissue of pregnant sheep from both the avirulent and virulent treatment groups, and this was significantly associated with the production of anti-ureaplasma IgG antibodies within maternal sera (p < 0.05). These findings suggested that the inability of the host immune response to eradicate ureaplasmas from the amniotic cavity may be due to continual size variation of MBA surface-exposed epitopes. Taken together, these data confirm that ureaplasmas are able to cause long-term in utero infections in a sheep model, despite standard antimicrobial treatment and the development of a host immune response. The overall findings of this PhD project suggest that ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections due to (i) the limited placental transfer of erythromycin, which prevents the accumulation of therapeutic concentrations within the amniotic fluid; (ii) the ability of ureaplasmas to undergo rapid selection and genetic variation in vivo, resulting in ureaplasma isolates with variable MICs to macrolide antimicrobials colonising the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion; and (iii) antigenic size variation of the MBA, which may prevent eradication of ureaplasmas by the host immune response and account for differences in neonatal outcomes. The outcomes of this program of study have improved our understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of this highly adapted microorganism.

Mestrado em Biotecnologia
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) comprise a class of essential micronutrients, which are essential for normal development, cardiovascular health, and immunity. The role of lipids, including long-chain fatty acids, in the immune response is increasingly being recognized as beneficial regulators of the immune systems. However, the mechanisms by which PUFAs modulate innate immunity are yet to be fully clarified. C. elegans has been used in several recent studies as a simple animal model for the study of host-pathogen interactions, generating important insights into both bacterial pathogenesis and host innate immunity. Many of the virulence mechanisms used by bacterial pathogens to cause disease in mammalian hosts have also been shown to be important for pathogenesis in C. elegans and, similarly, important features of the host innate immunity have been evolutionarily conserved between C. elegans and mammals. This project is focused on addressing the role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in bacterial pathogenesis using C. elegans as model system. We find that knockdown of some elongase genes increase the worms’ susceptibility towards infection with the adherent-invasive Escherichia Coli LF82, isolated from a patient suffering from Crohn’s disease. Moreover, dietary supplementation with the fatty acid γ-linolenic acid rescued the enhanced pathogen susceptibility of C. elegans lacking a Δ6 desaturase. The fatty acid profile of the nematode is altered upon infection with pathogenic LF82. qRT-PCR analysis allowed to determine that stress and autophagy genes are induced in C. elegans infected with this particular type of E. coli. Autophagy was found to be increased on C. elegans challenged with LF82, as determined by fluorescence microscopy. Collectively these results suggest an important role for PUFAS in the innate immune response and indicate that autophagy may have a contribution for C. elegans response towards the pathogen E. coli LF82.

The expansion of tandem repeat sequences beyond a pathogenic threshold is responsible for a series of neurodegenerative diseases known as dominantly inherited expanded repeat diseases. A number of these diseases are caused by the expansion of a CAG repeat tract in the coding region of various genes and are termed polyglutamine diseases. In these cases the polyglutamine tract is thought to contribute to pathogenesis. Several other clinically indistinguishable diseases however, are caused by the expansion of various repeat sequences in untranslated regions of genes. As expanded repeat RNAs are present in each of these cases, these RNAs have been proposed as a common pathogenic agent. Increasing evidence now exists for bi-directional transcription across the expanded repeat sequence of disease genes, leading to toxicity. The products of bi-directional transcription are predicted to form complementary double-stranded RNA. This study uses a Drosophila model of bi-directional transcription to determine the physical properties of the RNA and the downstream pathways that could contribute to pathogenesis in these diseases. Expression of complementary repeat sequences predicted to form double-stranded RNA was toxic in this model and caused age-dependent neurodegeneration. This toxicity was dependent on several components of the RNA biogenesis pathway, including Dicer-2. The abundance of rCAG 21mer RNA and an altered miRNA profile were identified as biomarkers of this pathway. Microarray analysis identified genes involved in redox regulation, immune activation, cellular signalling and neurotransmission as novel candidates of pathogenesis. Furthermore, activation and signalling via the Toll pathway was required for pathogenesis indicating that an elevated immune response contributes to toxicity. Glial expression of double-stranded RNA caused severe neurodegeneration suggestive of non-autonomous toxicity as the cause of neuronal dysfunction. The identification of pathogenic pathways and molecular biomarkers are a critical step in developing therapeutic interventions for these diseases.
Thesis (Ph.D.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Molecular and Biomedical Science, 2013

Three closely related isolates belonging to the A��� serotype of infectious pancreatic necrosis virus (IPNV) were selected for comparison, to provide insight into the nature of variation in the virulence of IPN viruses. Brook trout fry (Salvelinus fontinalis) were experimentally infected with the three isolates by immersion. Cumulative mortalities over a 62 day period for the three isolates were 67%, 78%, and 93%. The negative control was 3%. Virus titers from whole fish homogenates sampled at peak mortality for each isolate were statistically similar, indicating that quantity of virus does not account for virulence differences. For the two least virulent isolates, the virus titer was inversely correlated with fish weight, whereas for the most virulent isolate, no correlation was observed. Amino acid sequences of the viral capsid protein VP2 were determined using the reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). There were two amino acid changes at residue 217 and 288 between the two least virulent isolates and the most virulent isolate. These changes might provide a specific molecular basis for the variations in virulence among isolates. The progression of IPN virus infection in the experimentally infected fry was followed using histopathology, in situ cDNA hybridization, and alkaline phosphatase immunohistochemistry (APIH). While microscopic lesions were limited almost exclusively to necrosis of the pyloric caeca and pancreas, positive reactions with in situ hybridization and APIH were observed in tissues throughout infected fish. An IPNV infection appeared to be established in the fish by two routes: by entering the skin/lateral line and diffusing through the muscle, and from the oral region into the gastrointestinal tract by ingestion. In a second experiment, within a group of experimentally infected brook trout fry, external and behavioral signs of IPN disease in moribund fish disappeared, with the fish becoming healthy in appearance. Several of these fish were sampled, along with dead, moribund, and asymptomatic fish (never showed signs of IPN disease). Very few differences were observed among the fish sampled, using histopathology and in situ hybridization. Fish that appeared to recover after displaying signs of IPN disease died within a 2 week period.
Graduation date: 1997

Abnormal aggregation of microtubule associated protein tau is the defining pathological hallmark of tauopathies, which include Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and related frontotemporal dementias (FTLD-tau). However, the cellular events precipitating tau pathogenesis in disease are unknown. Here, we demonstrate a novel mechanism regulating tau aggregation in tauopathies. We have previously shown that RNA binding proteins (RBPs) associated with stress granules (SGs) progressively accumulate with tau in multiple mouse models of tauopathy, as well as in human AD and FTLD-tau brain tissue. We now present a novel functional role for tau in regulating the biology of SGs in neurons. Tau facilitates the rapid formation of SGs in the soma and dendrites in response to exogenous stress, which functions to transiently reprogram protein synthesis to promote cell survival (also known as the ‘translational stress response’). However, the chronic interaction of tau with SG proteins in disease, such as with the SG nucleating protein T cell intracellular antigen 1 (TIA1), promotes tau misfolding and neurotoxicity, which can be modulated in primary neurons by pharmacological or genetic manipulations that increase (i.e. puromycin, TIA1 overexpression) or decrease (i.e. cycloheximide, TIA1 knockdown or knockout) SG formation, respectively. In order to test whether SGs also mediate the progression of tauopathy in vivo, we crossed PS19 transgenic (P301S) tau mice with Tia1-/- or C57BL/6J (background strain) mice. PS19 mice with heterozygous reduction in TIA1 (P301S TIA1+/-) developed less SGs compared to P301S TIA1+/+ mice, which was associated with marked neuronal protection, improved cognitive function, and prolonged lifespan. The behavioral neuroprotection in P301S TIA1+/- mice was associated with decreased accumulation of soluble tau oligomers, and occurred despite the increased presence of neurofibrillary tangles. Our findings suggest that TIA1 stabilizes tau in its oligomeric state, preventing its further assembly into insoluble fibrils, which are less toxic. More importantly, the studies described in this dissertation identify modulation of RBP aggregation in SGs as a promising therapeutic strategy for the treatment of AD and FTLD-tau.

Hemorrhagic fever viruses cause severe infections characterized by a hyperactive immune response that often leads to multiorgan failure and death. Current diagnostic tests are based on detecting viral proteins and nucleic acids in the blood. These are late-stage events during infection, which makes it impossible to perform a diagnosis before they are present in the collected sample. In this thesis, I explore an alternative approach using the transcriptional changes of circulating immune cells during the early stages of infection to identify unique markers of viral infection. The main advantage of this method is that it can be used to identify highly pathogenic viruses before standard detection methods become effective. I initially used RNA sequencing data to compare the host patterns of expression of macaques infected with either Lassa virus or Marburg virus, two related hemorrhagic fever viruses. I identified a set of genes that quickly become upregulated after a viral infection and remain highly expressed throughout the entire disease course, irrespective of the specific virus that caused the infection. I was also able to identify a set of biomarker genes that follow unique patterns of expression depending on the type of infection. I used an independent dataset to validate the potential of these genes to be used as biomarkers of infection. Additionally, I compared these results to the patterns of expression of macaques infected with Ebola virus, looking at multiple experimental conditions, tissues and routes of infection. Finally, I validated the host patterns of expression using two independently generated datasets corresponding to infection by different strains of arenaviruses and filoviruses. Studying the host immune response has the potential to improve the diagnosis of viral hemorrhagic fevers and other diseases. It can also accelerate our efforts to understand the underlying molecular mechanisms that lead to pathogenesis and severe disease.

Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)
Schizophrenia is a severe psychiatric disorder attributed to neurodevelopmental changes in connectivity and neurotransmission. While the acute psychotic symptoms usually respond to antipsychotic treatment, the chronic negative and cognitive symptoms are less responsive and represent a major unmet need in psychiatry. With a greater understanding of the molecular basis of the disorder, especially the debilitating cognitive symptoms it should be possible to refine the treatment options and improve the outcome for millions of people. With heritability around 80%, genetics has the potential to achieve important new insights into the biology of the disorder. One of the most interesting candidates to emerge from genome wide association studies is MIR137, a gene encoding the microRNA miR-137 whose expression seems essential for neural processes and brain development. As this gene encodes a small non-coding RNA, most of the functionally significant variation is likely to modify transcription and this is supported by postmortem analysis with reduced expression from the risk allele. One of these in close proximity to the miR-137 encoding segment is a 15-bp Variable Number Tandem Repeat (VNTR) (rs58335419). To investigate possible regulatory role of this variant in disease associated changes in cognitive and neuroanatomical features, DNA sequencing was performed on a cohort of schizophrenia and non-psychiatric controls with respect to their neurocognitive and neuroimaging phenotypes established by a battery of cognitive testing and magnetic resonance imaging. The results revealed VNTR was associated with cognitive performance, with the 4-repeat variant enriched in the cognitive deficit subtype of schizophrenia. Surface-based morphometry of imaging data also revealed that the VNTR carriers have significantly thinner grey matter in the left inferior temporal gyrus, deeper right mid-cingulate, and deeper right postcentral sulci relative to non-carrier individuals. These findings suggest that MIR137 VNTR has biological function in the brain development and etiology of schizophrenia, particularly in relation to cognitive symptoms. There is recent evidence to suggest that miRNA expression, more broadly, is important for brain function and synaptic plasticity, and is implicated in schizophrenia. The expression of these molecules is dynamically regulated by environmental exposures, including those associated with psychiatric disorders. Their function can also be modulated by another class of noncoding RNAs, known as circular RNA (circRNA). These transcripts, which are highly enriched in the brain, contain binding sites for miRNA, enabling them to act as endogenous competitors. To establish a more comprehensive model of gene regulatory networks in the neuronal biology, we profiled the expression of circRNA and analyzed their differential expression in neuronal development and aging, neuronal excitation, and in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia using RNA sequencing. Interestingly, the brain showed the highest level of enrichment and expression change during aging with an increased trend detected throughout the life span of the rats. Bioinformatic analysis of the circRNA-miRNA interaction indicated that the age-associated circRNAs might be involved in ageing processes by regulating mRNAs expression through sponging miRNAs. The analysis of circRNA regulation in neuronal depolarization revealed a significant alteration in circRNA abundance which coincided with a change in miRNA and mRNA abundance, suggesting a circRNA-mediated gene regulation mechanism in the cellular response to neural activity. This was supported by both in silico and functional analysis suggesting that circular transcripts have the capacity to impact mRNA expression through interaction with common miRNAs. Finally, exploration of circRNA in neuropsychiatric disorder of schizophrenia revealed a substantial depletion of these transcripts in the disorder. A significant enrichment of neural functions and neurological disorders was observed for the differentially expressed circRNAs host genes in gene set analysis. Many of the depleted circRNAs have the potential to sequester miRNAs that were previously implicated in the neuropathology of schizophrenia, potentially exacerbating the functional impact of their dysregulation via posttranscriptional gene silencing. In summary, the data presented in this thesis provide evidence of miRNA and circRNA association with neuronal development and neuronal activity, and their alteration in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia.

碩士
中山醫學大學
醫學研究所
95
Klebsiella pneumoniae is a common pathogen of hospital- and community-acquired infections, causing urinary tract infections, nosocomial pneumonia, meningitis and pyogenic liver abscess. K. pneumoniae infections tend to occur in immunocompromised individuals, especially diabetic patients with high morbidity and mortality rates. In Taiwan, K. pneumoniae is the primary pathogen for pyogenic liver abscesses; however, its pathogenesis mechanism still remains unclear. Since outer membrane proteins are important for the pathogenesis and physiology of Gram-negative bacteria, in this study, we determined the role of outer membrane proteins in the pathogenesis of K. pneumoniae as well as the possible regulatory mechanism controlling the expression of these proteins. Inoculation with BALB/c mice with outer membrane fractions of K. pneumoniae was found to provide mice immunity against the wild type infection after six weeks, indicating that outer membrane proteins played a crucial role during K. pneumoniae infections. Given Guillier, et. al in 2006 reported that expression of outer membrane proteins is controlled by small regulatory RNAs via mediation with the RNA chaperone Hfq, in order to examine the possible role of Hfq in the outer membrane expression, a hfq deletion mutant was initially constructed with allelic exchange technique. In our BALB/c infectious model via the GI route, the deletion of hfq gene slightly increased bacterial virulence of K. pneumoniae. Besides, the deletion of hfq gene also affected the physiology of K. pneumoniae in many aspects including bacterial growth curves upon different conditions, production of capsular polysaccharides mucoviscosity of colony, and the expression profiles of outer membrane proteins. Moreover, this deletion slightly increased the protein level of outer membrane protein OmpA. Based on a proteomics analysis, several outer membrane proteins were found to express differentially in the hfq deletion mutant when compared with the wild type strain. Characterization of these Hfq-dependent outer membrane proteins and determination of the underlying regulatory circuits require further studies.

Yip, Wing Kit.
Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2009.
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 100-119).
Abstract also in Chinese.
Abstract (English version) --- p.i
Abstract (Chinese version) --- p.iii
Acknowledgments --- p.v
Table of Contents --- p.vii
List of Tables --- p.x
List of Figures --- p.xi
List of Abbreviations --- p.xiii
Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1
Chapter 1.1 --- Hepatocellular Carcinoma --- p.1
Chapter 1.1.1 --- Epidermiology --- p.1
Chapter 1.1.2 --- Etiology --- p.1
Chapter 1.2 --- Hepatitis B Virus --- p.3
Chapter 1.2.1 --- The Epidermiology of Hepatitis B Virus Infection --- p.3
Chapter 1.2.2 --- The Morphology and Genome of Hepatitis B Virus --- p.4
Chapter 1.2.3 --- HBV Genotypes and Their Significance --- p.8
Chapter 1.3 --- Hepatitis B Virus X Protein --- p.9
Chapter 1.3.1 --- HBx Alters Various Signal Transduction Pathways --- p.10
Chapter 1.3.2 --- HBx Interacts with Various Transcription Factors and Co-activators --- p.12
Chapter 1.3.3 --- HBx Induces Epigenetic Alterations --- p.14
Chapter 1.3.4 --- Identification of COOH-terminal Truncated HBx in Liver Tumors --- p.15
Chapter 1.4 --- MicroRNAs --- p.17
Chapter 1.4.1 --- Transcriptional Regulation and Biogenesis of MicroRNAs --- p.18
Chapter 1.4.2 --- MicroRNAs and Cancer --- p.21
Chapter 1.4.3 --- MicroRNAs and HCC --- p.25
Chapter 1.5 --- Hypothesis and Aims of the Study --- p.29
Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- MATERIALS and METHODS --- p.30
Chapter 2.1 --- Patients --- p.30
Chapter 2.2 --- Cell Lines --- p.30
Chapter 2.3 --- Cloning of Various HBx Constructs --- p.32
Chapter 2.3.1 --- PCR Amplification of HBx Fragments --- p.32
Chapter 2.3.2 --- Cloning of HBx Fragments into TA-vectos --- p.33
Chapter 2.3.3 --- Heat Shock Transformation --- p.33
Chapter 2.3.4 --- Sub-cloning of HBx Fragments into Lentiviral Vectors --- p.34
Chapter 2.4 --- Generation of Lentivirus --- p.37
Chapter 2.4.1 --- Lentivirus Infection --- p.37
Chapter 2.5 --- RNA Extraction --- p.38
Chapter 2.6 --- Western Blot Analysis --- p.39
Chapter 2.7 --- MiRNA Microarray --- p.40
Chapter 2.7.1 --- Cyanine3-pCp Labeling of RNA Samples --- p.40
Chapter 2.7.2 --- Sample Hybridization --- p.41
Chapter 2.7.3 --- Microarray Wash --- p.41
Chapter 2.7.4 --- Array Slide Scanning and Processing --- p.41
Chapter 2.8 --- Detection of HBx Gene Deletion by PCR --- p.43
Chapter 2.9 --- Immunohistochemistry --- p.44
Chapter 2.10 --- Quantitative Real-time PCR --- p.45
Chapter 2.11 --- Proliferation Assay --- p.47
Chapter 2.12 --- Cell Cycle Analysis --- p.48
Chapter 2.13 --- Annexin V Apoptosis Assay --- p.49
Chapter 2.14 --- Colony Formation Assay --- p.50
Chapter 2.15 --- Statistical Analysis --- p.51
Chapter CHAPTER 3 --- RESULTS --- p.52
Chapter 3.1 --- Detection of Full-length and COOH-terminal Truncated HBx in HCC Tissues --- p.52
Chapter 3.2 --- Confirmation of HBx Expression in HCC Tissues --- p.55
Chapter 3.3 --- Comparison of HBx from Different HBV Genotypes for Study --- p.61
Chapter 3.4 --- Functional Characterization of COOH-tterminal Truncated HBx --- p.64
Chapter 3.4.1 --- Selection of COOH-terminal Truncated HBx --- p.64
Chapter 3.4.2 --- Generation of Various HBx-expressing Hepatocyte Cell Lines --- p.66
Chapter 3.4.3 --- Effect of Full-length and COOH-terminal Truncated HBx on Cell Proliferation --- p.69
Chapter 3.4.4 --- Effect of Full-length and COOH-terminal Truncated HBx Cell Cycle --- p.34
Chapter 3.4.5 --- Effect of Full-length and COOH-terminal Truncated HBx on Apoptosis --- p.45
Chapter 3.5 --- MicroRNA Profiling of Various HBx-expressing Hepatocyte Cell Lines --- p.76
Chapter 3.5.1 --- Identification of Deregulated MicroRNAs by Microarray --- p.76
Chapter 3.5.2 --- Validation of Deregulated MicroRNAs by Real-time PCR Analysis --- p.80
Chapter 3.5.3 --- Confirmation of Deregulated MiRNAs in HCC and Adjacent Non-tumor Tissues --- p.84
Chapter 3.5.4 --- Potential Downstream Targets of the HBx-deregulated MiRNAs --- p.87
Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- DISCUSSION --- p.91
Chapter 4.1 --- The Impact of COOH-terminal Truncated HBx in HCC --- p.91
Chapter 4.2 --- The Biological Significance of COOH-terminal Truncated HBx Induced MiRNAs --- p.94
Chapter 4.3 --- Limitations of the Present Study --- p.97
Chapter 4.4 --- Future Studies --- p.98
Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- CONCLUSION --- p.99
REFERENCES --- p.100

Host-pathogen interactions in Hepatitis C Virus infection: Deciphering the role of host proteins and microRNAs Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a positive sense single stranded RNA virus belonging to the Hepacivirus genus of the Flaviviridae family. HCV genome consists of a single open reading frame flanked by highly structured 5‟ and 3‟ untranslated regions (UTRs) at both ends. Unlike cellular mRNAs, HCV RNA translation is independent of the cap structure and is mediated by an internal ribosomal entry site (IRES) present in the 5‟UTR. HCV replication begins with the synthesis of a complementary negative-strand RNA using the positive strand RNA genome as a template catalyzed by the NS5B RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp). The de novo priming of HCV RNA synthesis by NS5B occurs at the very end of the 3‟UTR. The 3‟UTR is organized into highly structured regions namely the variable region, poly U/UC region and the 3‟X region. These regions contain cis-acting elements that determine the efficiency of viral replication. In addition, the interaction of trans-acting factors with the 3‟ UTR is also important for regulation of HCV replication. HCV 3‟UTR interacts with several cellular proteins such as the human La protein, polypyrimdine tract binding protein (PTB), poly (rC)-binding protein 2 (PCBP2) and Human antigen R (HuR). However, the molecular basis of regulation of viral replication by these proteins is not well understood. Many proteins that are hijacked by HCV as well as other cytoplasmic RNA viruses, such as La, PCBP2, HuR and PTB are RNA binding proteins (RBPs). They are involved in post transcriptional regulation of cellular gene expression. Thus the subversion of these proteins by the virus can affect their normal physiological functions. In addition to proteins, recent reports also describe the involvement of non-coding RNAs including microRNAs (miRNA) and long non coding RNAs (lncRNA) in HCV infection. miRNAs can either directly bind to the HCV genome and regulate its life cycle or indirectly modulate the expression of host proteins required by the virus. miRNAs that are differentially regulated in virus infected tissues or body fluids of infected patients can also serve as biomarkers for diagnosis of various stages of the disease. Hence, it was planned to study the role of host proteins and miRNAs in the HCV life cycle and pathogenesis to have novel insights into the biology of HCV infection. Riboproteomic studies have identified several host proteins that directly interact with the 5‟ and/or 3‟UTRs of the HCV RNA. One of the RNA binding proteins that predominantly interact with the 3‟UTR of HCV RNA was found to be HuR. In the present study, we have extensively characterized the interaction between HuR and HCV 3‟UTR and studied its functional implications in HCV life cycle along with other host factors. Characterizing the HCV 3’UTR–HuR interaction and its role in HCV replication HuR is a ubiquitously expressed member of the Hu family which shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm in response to stress. Whole genome siRNA knockdown and other studies have suggested that HuR is essential for HCV replication. However, the molecular mechanism of its involvement in this process was not clear. We observed that siRNA mediated knockdown of HuR reduces the HCV RNA and protein levels. Immunofluorescence studies indicated that HuR relocalizes from the nucleus to the cytoplasm in HCV infected cells. Through confocal microscopy and GST pulldown assays, we have demonstrated that HuR co localizes with the viral polymerase, NS5B and directly interacts with the NS5B protein. Membrane flotation assays showed that HuR is present in the detergent resistant membrane fractions which are the active sites of HCV replication. In addition to the interaction of HuR with the viral protein NS5B, we also characterized its interaction with the viral RNA. Direct UV cross linking assays and UV cross linking immunoprecipitation assays were performed to demonstrate the interaction of HuR with the HCV 3‟UTR. The RRM3, hinge region and RRM1 of HuR were found to be important for binding. Further, we observed that HuR competes with PTB for binding to the 3‟UTR when cytoplasmic S10 extracts or recombinant proteins were used in UV cross linking assays. In contrast, the addition of HuR facilitated the binding of La protein to the HCV 3‟UTR in the above assays. Competition UV cross linking assays indicated that both HuR and PTB bind to the poly U/UC region of the 3‟UTR while La binds to the variable region. HuR and La showed higher affinities for binding to the 3‟UTR as compared to PTB in filter binding assays. Since HuR and PTB interact with the same region on the 3‟UTR and HuR showed ~4 fold higher affinity for binding, it could displace PTB from the 3‟UTR. Next, we investigated the roles of HuR, PTB and La in HCV translation and replication in cell culture using three different assay systems, HCV sub genomic replicon, HCV bicistronic SGR-JFH1/Luc replicon as well as the infectious HCV full length RNA (JFH1). Results clearly indicated that HuR and La are positive modulators of HCV replication. Interestingly, PTB facilitated HCV IRES mediated translation but appeared to have a negative effect on HCV replication. The positive effectors, HuR and La showed significant co localization with one another in the cytoplasm in immunofluorescence studies. GST pulldown and coimmunoprecipitation experiments indicated protein-protein interactions between HuR and La but not between HuR and PTB. Through quantitative IP-RT assays, we demonstrated that the overexpression of HuR in HCV RNA transfected cells increases the association of La with the HCV RNA while HuR knockdown reduces the association of La with the HCV RNA. Previous studies in our laboratory have shown that La helps in HCV genome circularization. The addition of HuR significantly increased La mediated interactions between the 5‟UTR and the 3‟UTR of HCV RNA as monitored by 5‟-3‟ co precipitation assays, suggesting a possible mechanism by which cooperative binding of HuR and La could positively regulate HCV replication. Taken together, our results suggest a possible interplay between HuR, PTB and La in the regulation of HCV replication. Studying the role of HuR- associated cellular RNAs in HCV infection HuR belongs to the category of mRNA turnover and translation regulatory proteins (TTR-RBPs), which are capable of triggering rapid and robust changes in cellular gene expression. HuR plays a role in several post transcriptional events such as mRNA splicing, export, stability and translation. In the present study, we have investigated the possible consequences of relocalization of HuR on cellular processes in the context of HCV infection. We observed that 72h post transfection of infectious HCV-JFH1 RNA, there is an increase in the mRNA levels of some of the validated targets of HuR including the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), dual specificity phosphatise 1 (MKP1) and metastasis - associated lung adenocarcinoma transcript (MALAT1). IP-RT assays demonstrated that the association of HuR with VEGFA and MKP1 was higher in HCV-JFH1 RNA transfected cells as compared to the mock transfected cells indicating that increase in HuR association could probably help in stabilization of these mRNAs. Interestingly, we observed that the association of HuR with the lncRNA MALAT1 decreases in the presence of HCV RNA, while its RNA levels increased. Earlier it has been reported that MALAT1 interacts with HuR and was predicted to interact with La. We confirmed the interaction of both HuR and La proteins with MALAT1 RNA in vitro and in the cell culture system. Results from our time course experiments suggest that relocalization of HuR and La upon HCV infection might decrease their association with the nuclear retained MALAT1 RNA leading to significant reduction in MALAT1 RNA levels at the initial time points. However at later time points, MALAT1 was found to be unregulated through activation of the Wnt/beta-catenin pathway as demonstrated using a chemical inhibitor against β-catenin. Since MALAT1 is a known regulator of epithelial mesenchymal transition (EMT) and metastasis, we further studied the physiological consequence of the observed increase in MALAT1 levels upon HCV infection. Cell migration and cell invasion studies suggested that the knockdown of MALAT1 led to the inhibition of HCV- triggered wound healing and matrigel invasion and also rescued the down regulation of E-Cadherin protein levels, an EMT marker. Our study highlights the importance of the lncRNA, MALAT1 in HCV infection and suggests its possible involvement in HCV induced HCC. Investigating the role of miRNAs in HCV pathogenesis and replication miRNAs can also regulate HCV infection and pathogenesis in multiple ways. It is known that under disease conditions, there is aberrant expression of intracellular as well as circulating miRNAs. We have investigated the expression profile of 940 human miRNAs in HCV infected patient serum samples to identify the differentially regulated miRNAs. miR-320c, miR-483-5p and the previously reported miR-125b were found to be upregulated in the serum of cirrhotic and non-cirrhotic HCV infected patient serum samples. All three miRNAs were also unregulated in the cell culture supernatant of HCV infected cells as well as within the HCV infected cells. miR-483-5p was specifically enriched in the exosomes isolated from patient serum samples. Knockdown of miR-320c and miR-483-5p did not have significant effect on HCV replication while knockdown of miR-125b affected HCV replication through regulation of one of its target genes, HuR. We observed that with time, miR-125b levels in HCV-JFH1 RNA transfected cells increase while the HuR protein levels decrease. Using luciferase reporter constructs, we demonstrated that the decrease in HuR protein levels is indeed mediated by miR-125b. Mutations in the target site of miR-125b in the HuR 3‟UTR prevented the down regulation of luciferase activity. Next we tested the effect of silencing miR-125b on HCV replication. Knockdown of miR-125b prevented the reduction in HuR protein levels but with no significant effect on HCV replication. It appeared that the HuR protein already present in the cytoplasm could be sufficient to support HCV replication. Hence similar experiments were carried out in cells depleted of HuR using either siRNA against HuR or a chemical inhibitor of nucleocytoplasmic transport of HuR, Leptomycin B. We observed that when the intracellular levels of HuR are reduced using either of the two approaches, there is a decrease in HCV replication. This is in accordance with the results obtained in the first part of the thesis. However when miR-125b was silenced in HuR depleted cells, we noticed an upregulation in the HuR protein levels by western blot analysis and a consequent increase in HCV RNA levels as quantified by qRT-PCR. From our findings, we can conclude that miR-125b mediated regulation of HuR plays an important role in HCV replication. We hypothesize that this could be a cellular response to HCV infection to which the virus responds by inducing protein relocalization. Altogether, these studies outline the importance of host factors including cellular proteins and non-coding RNAs in the regulation of HCV life cycle and pathogenesis. Results reveal the mechanistic insights into how HCV infection triggers host defense pathways, which are evaded by the virus by counter strategies.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)
Haemophilus ducreyi causes chancroid, a sexually transmitted genital ulcerative disease that facilitates the transmission of HIV-1. H. ducreyi also causes non-sexually transmitted cutaneous ulcers in children in tropical regions. During human infection, H. ducreyi is subject to a variety of stresses. The stringent response is a bacterial stress response system induced by nutrient limiting conditions and mediated by guanosine tetra- and pentaphosphate [(p)ppGpp] and the transcriptional regulator DksA. (p)ppGpp and DksA jointly interact with RNA polymerase to regulate genes critical for bacterial survival. We hypothesized that the stringent response is required for H. ducreyi virulence in humans. A ΔrelAΔspoT mutant, which is unable to synthesize (p)ppGpp, was partially attenuated for abscess formation in human volunteers. Loss of (p)ppGpp increased bacterial resistance to phagocytosis and stationary phase survival; however, the mutant was more sensitive to oxidative stress. A ΔdksA mutant was also partially attenuated in humans. The ΔdksA mutant behaved like the (p)ppGpp mutant in stationary phase survival and sensitivity to oxidative stress, but exhibited decreased resistance to phagocytosis. Both mutants had decreased adherence to fibroblasts, but the mechanisms underlying the adherence defect were distinct. To better understand the roles of (p)ppGpp and DksA in regulating gene expression, we performed transcriptome analysis of the parent and mutant strains. (p)ppGpp and DksA deficiency resulted in dysregulation of multiple genes including several known virulence determinants. At stationary phase, (p)ppGpp and DksA targets were not identical but significantly overlapped; as the mutants were phenotypically distinct, this finding underscores both the unique and joint roles DksA and (p)ppGpp play in regulation of H. ducreyi virulence. We conclude that (p)ppGpp and DksA play significant roles in H. ducreyi pathogenesis. This is the first study to show that the stringent response has a direct role in the ability of a bacterial pathogen to cause disease in humans.

Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV) provides a good model system to investigate molecular virus-host interactions in plants. P22 and P19 proteins encoded by TBSV contribute to multiple invasion-associated functions. Green fluorescence-mediated visualization of TBSV invasion in this study suggests that virus exit from inoculated epidermal cells is a crucial event. Close examination of one P22 mutant showed that it had lost the capacity to move between epidermis and mesophyll which was possibly due to an altered subcellular localization. P19 is a potent suppressor of RNA interference (RNAi) in various systems by forming dimers that bind 21-nucleotide (nt) duplex siRNAs (short interfering RNAs), to affect the programming of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC). P19 is attractive for biotechnological and research purposes to prevent RNAi of certain value-added genes in plants. To obtain a good plant-based expression platform, a suppression-active mutant P19 was expressed in transgenic N. benthamiana lines. This is the first example of P19 accumulating to detectable levels in a transgenic plant and initial results suggest it is actively suppressing RNAi. Furthermore, to investigate the correlation between siRNA binding of P19 and its various biological roles, predicted siRNA-interacting sites of TBSV P19 were modified, and the corresponding TBSV mutants were used to inoculate plants. Substitutions on siRNA-contact sites on the central domain of P19 resulted in more severe symptoms in N. benthamiana compared to those affecting peripheral regions. All tested combinations of siRNA-binding mutations were associated with reduced accumulation of total TBSV-derived siRNAs, and loss of siRNA sequestration by P19. Additionally, some modifications were found to cause RNAi-mediated disappearance of viral and host materials in N. benthamiana but not in spinach. In conclusion, exit out of epidermal cells is a key host range determinant for TBSV and particular amino acids on P22 may influence this by regulating the proper subcellular localization. Mutant P19 transgenic plants were successfully established with minor physiological effects to be applied as a platform to study RNAi and to over-express proteins. Finally, a compromised P19-siRNA binding impacts symptom development, systemic invasion, integrity of virus plus host RNA and proteins, and that all in a hostdependent manner.

African horse sickness virus (AHSV), a member of the Orbivirus genus within the Reoviridae family, causes an acute disease in horses with a high mortality rate. AHSV encodes four nonstructural proteins (NS1, NS2, NS3/NS3A), whose functions in the viral life cycle are not fully understood. The NS1 protein is the most abundantly expressed viral protein during AHSV infection and forms tubular structures within the cell cytoplasm. No function has been ascribed to these tubules to date, although it has been suggested that they may play a role in cellular pathogenesis. Studies aimed at understanding the function of NS1 have been hampered by the lack of a suitable reverse genetics system for AHSV. However, the phenomenon of RNA interference (RNAi) has emerged as a powerful tool whereby the function of individual genes can be studied. In mammalian cells, RNAi can be triggered by exposing cells to double-stranded RNA either via exogenous delivery of chemically synthesized small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) or endogenous expression of short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs). Consequently, the aim of this investigation was to develop a plasmid DNA vector-based RNAi assay whereby expression of the AHSV-6 NS1 gene could be suppressed in BHK-21 cell culture with shRNAs directed to the NS1 gene. To investigate, complementary oligonucleotides corresponding to selected AHSV-6 NS1 gene sequences were chemically synthesized, annealed and cloned into the pSUPER shRNA delivery vector under control of the RNA polymerase III H1 promoter. The plasmid DNA vector-expressed shRNAs targeted sequences within the NS1 gene corresponding to nucleotides 710 to 728 (shNS1-710) and 1464 to 1482 (shNS1-1464), respectively. A NS1- eGFP chimeric gene was constructed and used towards establishing a simple assay whereby the gene silencing efficiency of different RNAi effector molecules could be evaluated by analysis of the protein level visually and quantitatively by fluorometry. The effect of the NS1- directed shRNAs on AHSV-6 NS1 protein expression was subsequently evaluated by cotransfection of BHK-21 cells with the respective recombinant pSUPER shRNA delivery vectors and the NS1 reporter plasmid pCMV-NS1-eGFP. The results indicated that shNS1- 710 and shNS1-1464 suppressed NS1-eGFP expression by 19% and 9%, respectively. The potential of the NS1-directed shRNAs to suppress NS1 mRNA expression was investigated by transfection of BHK-21 cells with the respective recombinant pSUPER shRNA delivery vectors, followed by transfection with the recombinant mammalian expression vector pCMVNS1 or infection with AHSV-6. Results obtained by semi-quantitative real-time PCR assays indicated that both NS1-directed shRNAs interfered with NS1 mRNA expression, albeit to different extents in the respective assays. Taken together, these results demonstrated that AHSV-6 NS1 gene expression can be suppressed in BHK-21 cells by plasmid DNA vectorderived shRNAs and suggests that this approach may, with further optimization, be useful in determining the function of the NS1 protein in virus-infected cells.
Dissertation (MSc)--University of Pretoria, 2011.
Microbiology and Plant Pathology
unrestricted

Die neurodegenerative Krankheit Spinale Muskelatrophie (SMA) wird durch den Mangel an funktionellem Survival Motor Neuron Protein (SMN) verursacht. Eine Funktion von SMN liegt in der Biogenese spleißosomaler UsnRNPs (U-rich small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles). Diese Arbeit zeigt in einem SMA-Modell in Hela-Zellkultur, dass der SMN-Mangel zu einer reduzierten de novo-Produktion der spleißosomalen UsnRNPs führt. In einem Zebrafisch-Modell für SMA wurde nachgewiesen, dass die reduzierte UsnRNP-Produktion die Degenerationen von Axonen der Motoneuronen verursacht, einen Phänotyp wie er bei SMA auftritt. Damit konnte erstmals eine direkte Verbindung zwischen einer zellulären Funktion von SMN und der Entstehung von SMA hergestellt werden
The neurodegenerative disease spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) is caused by unsufficient production of the survival motor neuron protein (SMN). This study shows in a SMA-model in Hela cells that SMN deficiency results in reduced de novo synthesis of spliceosomal UsnRNPs (U-rich small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles). A zebrafish model for SMA revealed that the impaired synthesis of UsnRNPs is a direct cause for the degeneration of axons in motor neurons. This is the first link between a cellular function of SMN and the pathogenesis of SMA

Tese de mestrado, Microbiologia Aplicada, Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências, 2017
The development of high-throughput sequencing techniques and continued decrease of associated costs, together with advances in bioinformatics and increasing availability of powerful software for nucleotide and amino acid sequence analyses contributed to the exponential increase of available microbial genomes. These developments have unveiled several novel sequences presenting a size within the range of 50-500 nucleotides (nt) and encoding the now called small non-coding regulatory RNAs (sRNAs). These sRNAs are frequently encoded in intergenic regions, often partially overlapping with the 5’ or 3’ untranslated regions of the vicinal genes or annotated-opening reading frames (ORFs). The current known function for some sRNAs comprises the gene expression regulation through interference RNA mechanisms, mainly at the posttranscriptional level. Bacterial sRNAs may regulate their targets (messenger RNAs) through positive or negative regulation mechanisms. To carry out a negative regulation, the sRNA base pairs with its target in the region containing the initiation codon and/or the ribosome-binding site (RBS), precluding the ribosome binding and consequently preventing the mRNA translation. The Burkholderia cepacia (Bcc) complex comprises nowadays 20 validated and phylogenetically-related species of Gram-negative bacteria. These bacteria are phenotypically similar and genotypically distinct, being widely distributed in different ecological niches such as soil, water, plants, animals and in humans. Some Bcc bacteria have potential application as bioremediation and biocontrol/biopesticides agents due to their unusual metabolic abilities, which include xenobiotics metabolism, production of antifungal compounds and promotion of plant growth. However, Burkholderia species have emerged in 1980s as important opportunistic pathogens, especially to cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. Bcc bacteria have gained the attention of medical and scientific community because they can cause in CF patients a rapid evolving clinical state known as the cepacia syndrome, which can cause a fast and necrotizing pneumonia, septicemia and ultimately results in the patient early death. Bcc bacteria produce a wide variety of virulence factors, possessing intrinsic resistance mechanisms to different antibiotics which lead to a difficult eradication. Over the last years, some Bcc species have also been recognized as emerging nosocomial pathogenic agents in hospitalized non-CF patients, particularly in cancer patients. To identify potential genes involved in the Bcc bacteria virulence, researchers from iBB (Instituto de Bioengenharia e Biociências) prepared mutant libraries derived from B. contaminans IST408 and B. cenocepacia J2315 by random plasposon mutagenesis. This work aims to characterize a mutant derived from B. cenocepacia J2315, identified in an attenuated virulence screening using as model of infection the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. This mutant, B. cenocepacia SJ2, contains the plasposon inserted in the intergenic region of B. cenocepacia J2315 chromosome 1, located between the coding gene of DNA gyrase subunit A (GyrA) enzyme and the coding gene of an outer membrane protein of the OmpA family. Bioinformatic and Southern blot analyses allowed the identification of the plasposon insertion in the mutant B. cenocepacia SJ2. The plasposon is located 8 nucleotides (nt) after the predicted 5’ UTR beginning of the B. cenocepacia J2315 OmpA-like protein. Therefore, the presence and functionality of the transcript ompA were evaluated by RT-PCR and Western blot, respectively. The results obtained indicated that the plasposon insertion did not affect ompA mRNA transcription or functionality. Bioinformatic analyses also led to the identification of a possible opening reading frame (ORF) in the complementary strand (named ORF3) and encoding a 93 amino acids protein. The presence of this ORF was supported by Northern blot assays previously performed. These assays allowed the identification of a transcript from the complementary strand. However, the amplification of complementary DNA ends (5’ and 3’ RACE) using specific primers for ORF3 region demonstrated that the transcript in study has a 5’ end with a lower size than the expected transcript of the potential protein (ORF3). A transcript containing approximately 179 base pairs and non-interrupted by the plasposon was identified. In the presence of these results, primers for the potential DNA sequence of ORF3 were designed and the results showed that this is the region interrupted by the plasposon. Due to the absence of initiation and termination codons in the region closer to the 179 base pairs transcript, it was hypothesized that the transcript corresponds to a sRNA (MavA). In this work, the presence of two genetic elements, a sRNA and a protein, in the intergenic region of B. cenocepacia J2315 chromosome 1 is described. The coding sequences of both the sRNA and protein are overlapped in, at least, 100 nucleotides. Bioinformatic analysis of the genetic elements showed that they are conserved among the Burkholderia genus. Moreover, the sequence of ORF3 protein also showed to be identical to the sequence of one protein encoded by an annotated ORF in the B. multivorans genome and to five proteins of B. pseudomallei. The assays performed with the strain containing the ORF3 interrupted by the plasposon revealed the involvement of this protein in the resistance of B. cenocepacia J2315 strain to heat-shock stress (50 ºC), susceptibility to the detergent sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS), biofilms formation, cellular hydrophobicity and antibiotics resistance (imipenem, ceftazidime and tetracycline). In general, these results suggest that this protein is likely involved in the maintenance of the outer membrane integrity and virulence of B. cenocepacia J2315 towards the nematode C. elegans. MavA sRNA identified in the work herein presented was predicted to be a functional homologue of IstR-2 sRNA of Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655. Preliminary results of the MavA sRNA overexpression characterization indicate a possible direct or indirect role in the overexpression of ribosomal protein S12. Phenotypic analysis also showed the involvement in the swimming motility of B. cenocepacia J2315 strain and in resistance to thermal (50 ºC) stress. In addition, this sRNA is not involved in the virulence of B. cenocepacia J2315 towards the C. elegans nematode. Overall, the results presented in this study contribute to a better knowledge of the intergenic region under study and to the identification of a putative ORF and a sRNA, contributing to a better understanding of the biology of Bcc bacteria and the role of sRNAs in the regulation of the expression of putative virulence factors. The identification of MavA sRNA and ORF3 protein highlight the importance of these studies in identifying genetic elements that might be exploited as targets for the development of effective treatments to the B. cenocepacia J2315 strain infections.
O recente desenvolvimento de técnicas de elevado rendimento para sequenciar genomas e a diminuição contínua do custo associado, conjuntamente com os avanços na bioinformática e a disponibilidade de número crescente de ferramentas bioinformáticas para análise de sequências nucleotídicas e aminoacídicas, tornou possível o aumento exponencial dos genomas microbianos disponíveis. Consequentemente, têm vindo a ser descobertos diversos pequenos transcritos com ação regulatória denominados de pequenos RNAs reguladores não codificantes (sRNAs), com tamanhos compreendidos entre 50-500 nucleótidos. Estes sRNAs têm sido identificados essencialmente em regiões intergénicas, junto a genes ou grelhas de leitura (ORFs) anotadas. A função conhecida de um grupo importante desses sRNAs consiste na regulação da expressão génica, principalmente ao nível pós-transcricional, por mecanismos de interferência de RNA. Os sRNAs bacterianos podem exercer nos seus alvos (RNAs mensageiros) uma regulação positiva ou negativa. No caso de ser exercida uma regulação negativa o sRNA estabelece com o seu alvo um emparelhamento na região que contém o codão de iniciação e/ou a região de ligação do ribossoma (RBS), tornando este local inacessível para a ligação do ribossoma e impedindo, assim, a tradução do mRNA. O complexo Burkholderia cepacia (Bcc) é atualmente constituído por 20 espécies de bactérias Gram-negativas validadas e filogeneticamente próximas. As bactérias que compõem este grupo são fenotipicamente semelhantes e genotipicamente distintas, podendo ser isoladas de várias fontes. São exemplo de fontes o solo, a água, a rizosfera de plantas, animais e Humanos. Devido às suas capacidades metabólicas invulgares, algumas estirpes do Bcc apresentam um elevado potencial de aplicação ao nível do biocontrolo, biorremediação e agricultura, pois são capazes de metabolizar xenobióticos, produzir compostos com atividade antifúngica e promover o crescimento de plantas. Contudo, na década de 80 as bactérias incluídas no género Burkholderia, incluindo as englobadas no complexo Bcc, emergiram como agentes patogénicos oportunistas em indivíduos com fibrose quística (FQ). O facto de as bactérias deste complexo produzirem vários fatores de virulência, apresentarem mecanismos de resistência a um largo espetro de antibióticos sendo difíceis de erradicar e de causarem em doentes com FQ infeções por vezes acompanhadas por um estado clínico de evolução rápida que inclui pneumonia necrotizante e septicémia, levando à morte do doente – síndrome cepacia -, faz com que tenham merecido uma elevada atenção da comunidade médica e científica. Acresce que algumas espécies do Bcc têm vindo a ser reconhecidas nos últimos anos como sendo agentes patogénicos nosocomiais emergentes em doentes hospitalizados, principalmente em doentes oncológicos. Com o objetivo de identificar possíveis genes envolvidos na virulência de bactérias do Bcc, investigadores do iBB (Instituto de Bioengenharia e Biociências) construíram bibliotecas de mutantes de B. contaminans IST408 e B. cenocepacia J2315 utilizando plasposões. As bibliotecas de mutantes foram rastreadas tendo como objetivo a identificação de mutantes que exibiam virulência atenuada, utilizando como modelo de infeção o nemátodo Caenorhabditis elegans. O trabalho aqui apresentado teve como objetivo a caracterização de um mutante identificado no rastreio acima mencionado, contendo um plasposão inserido na região intergénica do cromossoma 1 de B. cenocepacia J2315, localizada entre o gene codificante da subunidade A da enzima ADN girase (GyrA) e o gene codificante de uma proteína da membrana externa do tipo A (OmpA). Através de análises bioinformáticas e experimentais, foi possível localizar no mutante B. cenocepacia SJ2 a inserção do plasposão 8 nucleótidos (nt) após o início da região 5’ não traduzida (5’ UTR) do gene que codifica a proteína do tipo OmpA. Neste sentido, foram avaliados a presença e a funcionalidade do transcrito ompA por ensaios de RT-PCR e Western blot, respetivamente. Os resultados obtidos confirmaram que a inserção do plasposão não afetou a transcrição nem a funcionalidade do transcrito correspondente ao gene ompA. As análises bioinformáticas realizadas permitiram ainda a identificação de uma possível grelha de leitura aberta (ORF) na cadeia complementar da região intergénica (designada de ORF3), codificando para uma proteína de aproximadamente 93 aminoácidos. A confirmação da presença desta ORF foi suportada por ensaios de Northern blot realizados anteriormente e que permitiram a identificação de um transcrito a partir da cadeia complementar. No entanto, análises de amplificação em cadeia pela polimerase (PCR) das extremidades do ADN complementar (5’ e 3’ RACE) com sequências oligonucleotídicas iniciadoras específicas para a região da ORF3 demonstraram que o transcrito em causa possui uma extremidade 5’ menor que o esperado para o transcrito da possível proteína (ORF3), permitindo assim a identificação de um transcrito com cerca de 179 pares de bases que se verificou não ser interrompido pelo plasposão. Deste modo, tendo em conta os resultados aqui apresentados foram desenhadas sequências oligonucleotídicas iniciadoras específicas para a sequência de ADN da possível ORF3, tendo-se verificado que esta era a região interrompida pelo plasposão. Devido à ausência de codões de iniciação e de terminação na região próxima do transcrito de 179 pares de base, colocou-se a hipótese deste transcrito corresponder a outro elemento genético, nomeadamente um sRNA, que se denominou de MavA. Neste trabalho é descrita a existência de dois elementos genéticos na região intergénica do cromossoma 1 de B. cenocepacia J2315, um sRNA e um gene que codifica uma proteína, sendo que as sequências codificantes de ambos encontram-se parcialmente sobrepostas em, pelo menos, 100 nucleótidos. As análises bioinformáticas realizadas dos elementos genéticos permitiram a sua identificação como sendo ambos conservados no género Burkholderia. Além disso, demonstraram também que a proteína ORF3 é idêntica à sequência de uma proteína codificada por uma ORF anotada no genoma de B. multivorans e à de cinco proteínas de B. pseudomallei. Ensaios realizados com a estirpe contendo o plasposão a interromper a ORF3 demonstraram que esta proteína está envolvida na resistência da estirpe B. cenocepacia J2315 a choque térmico (50 ºC), suscetibilidade à presença do detergente dodecil sulfato de sódio (SDS), capacidade para formação de biofilmes e hidrofobicidade das células, bem como na resistência a antibióticos (imipeneme, ceftazidima e tetraciclina). De um modo geral, estes resultados apontam para que esta proteína esteja envolvida na manutenção da integridade da membrana externa e virulência da estirpe B. cenocepacia J2315 para o nemátodo C. elegans. O sRNA MavA identificado neste trabalho foi bioinformaticamente previsto como tendo como seu homólogo funcional o sRNA IstR-2 de Escherichia coli K-12 MG1655. Os resultados preliminares da caracterização do sRNA MavA através da sua sobrexpressão demonstram um possível envolvimento direto ou indireto na sobrexpressão da proteína ribossomal S12. As análises fenotípicas mostraram ainda o seu envolvimento na mobilidade da estirpe B. cenocepacia J2315 por swimming e na resistência ao choque térmico (50 ºC). Os resultados obtidos, baseados em ensaios de morte lenta do nemátodo C. elegans sugerem que este sRNA não está envolvido na virulência de B. cenocepacia J2315 neste modelo animal de infeção. Os resultados obtidos no presente trabalho contribuem para um conhecimento mais aprofundado da região intergénica estudada, tendo permitido identificar 2 elementos genéticos parcialmente sobrepostos que codificam uma proteína e um sRNA. Este trabalho constitui assim um contributo para o melhor conhecimento da biologia das bactérias do complexo Bcc e do papel dos sRNAs na regulação da expressão de fatores de virulência. A identificação do sRNA MavA e da proteína ORF3 realça a importância deste tipo de estudos na identificação de elementos genéticos que possam ser explorados como alvos para o desenvolvimento de estratégias terapêuticas mais eficazes com vista ao tratamento das infeções causadas pela estirpe B. cenocepacia J2315.

The genus Mycobacterium represents more than 120 species of bacteria including the pathogenic M. tuberculosis, the etiological agent of tuberculosis. The host mounts a robust inflammatory and cell-mediated response to contain the spread of pathogenic mycobacteria. While macrophages, dendritic cells (DCs) and neutrophils are known to facilitate early responses, the effector functions of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells are critical for containment of the mycobacteria. The type I T helper (Th1) subset of CD4+ T cell population orchestrates the protective immunity through cytokines like interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-12, IL-23 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α However, it is known that despite such responses, host can only contain but not eradicate the infection. Additionally, infection of over one-third of the world’s population with pathogenic mycobacteria is a testimony of its success as a pathogen. Much of its success is attributed to the multiple evasion strategies employed such as inhibition of phagosome-lysosome fusion, secretion of reactive oxygen intermediates antagonistic proteins like superoxide dismutase and catalase, downregulation of antigen presentation to T cells, downregulation of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, skewing the immune balance toward the less effective Th2 responses, inhibition of autophagy, induction of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and immunosuppressive cytokines etc. Thus, an effective check on the infection would be possible if we understand the mechanisms underlying such evasion and survival strategies. In this perspective, evaluation of the host-pathogen interactions in terms of integration of key signaling centers, particularly that during mycobacteria-macrophage or mycobacteria-DC interactions, would underscore as a critical requisite to detail the immune responses and its regulation. This study addresses three such immune evasion and survival strategies employed by the mycobacteria; downregulation of IFN-γ-induced autophagy in macrophages, expansion of Tregs by modulating DC phenotype and finally epigenetic regulation of genes involved in foamy macrophage generation. Autophagy is one of the major immune mechanisms engaged to clear intracellular infectious agents. It contributes to both innate and adaptive immune responses to infections and plays an essential role in restricting intracellular pathogens and delivering pathogen-derived antigens for major histocompatibility complex class II presentation. Nonetheless, several pathogens, especially viruses such as herpes simplex virus, human immunodeficiency virus, influenza; and bacteria like Mycobacteria, Shigella and Listeria exhibit multiple mechanisms to evade autophagy. However, the identities and contributions of host signaling molecules and mechanisms by which pathogens modulate autophagy have not been explored in depth. Here, we demonstrate that M. bovis BCG, Shigella flexneri and Listeria monocytogenes but not Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli inhibit IFN-γ-induced autophagy in macrophages by evoking selective and robust activation of WNT and sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathways via mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR). Utilization of macrophages derived from mir155-null mice or by conventional siRNA or miRNA mimics emphasized the role for mTOR-responsive epigenetic modifications in the induction of microRNAs, miR-155 and miR-31 to fine-tune autophagy. Importantly, cellular levels of PP2A, a phosphatase, were regulated by miR-155 and miR-31. Diminished expression of PP2A led to inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase (GSK)-3β, a negative regulator and a nodal link that regulate WNT and SHH pathways. This facilitated the prolonged activation of WNT and SHH signaling pathways. Further, sustained WNT and SHH signaling effectuated the expression of anti-inflammatory lipoxygenases (ALOX5 and ALOX15), which in tandem inhibited IFN-γ-induced janus kinase (JAK)- signal transducer of activated (STAT) signaling and contributed to evasion of autophagy. Together, we have identified novel molecular mechanisms and host factors that are crucial to control autophagy and help the bacterial pathogens like mycobacteria to evade the host immune responses. Much of the protective immunity against mycobacterial infection is mediated by Th1 CD4+ T cells. However, suppressive T cell populations such as CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ Tregs or a less effective Th2 cells are exploited by mycobacteria to subvert the protective host immune response. In this perspective, the molecular mechanisms underlying mycobacteria-induced Treg expansion are unclear. Utilizing cues from the previous reports from others’ and our laboratory, we explored the role for host signaling pathways such as SHH, WNT and NOTCH1 signaling during mycobacteria-mediated DC maturation and Treg generation/expansion. We demonstrate that while inhibition of SHH signaling markedly reduced the ability of the infected DCs to expand Tregs, NOTCH1 signaling functioned to suppress M. bovis BCG-induced Treg expansion. Though SHH and NOTCH1 signaling did not regulate the DC maturation during infection in terms of the maturation markers CD1a, HLA-DR, CD40, CD83, CD80 and CD86, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-2, IL-1β and IL-6 were moderately NOTCH1-responsive and suppressed by SHH signaling. Further, M. bovis BCG-induced SHH signaling and Treg expansion was mediated by the classical phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-mTOR-nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) cascade. Recent studies have attributed the role for programmed death ligand (PD-L)1 and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2-catalyzed prostaglandin (PG)E2 during expansion of Tregs. Experiments utilizing pharmacological inhibitors and conventional siRNAs indicated that both PD-L1 and COX-2/PGE2 were induced upon M. bovis BCG and M. tuberculosis infection in DCs and were regulated by SHH signaling. While SHH-responsive transcription factor, GLI1 arbitrated COX-2 expression, mycobacteria-stimulated SHH signaling was found to suppress miR-324 and miR-338, bonafide miRNAs that target PD-L1, to aid increased expression of PD-L1 and Treg expansion. This highlights the bi-functional role of SHH signaling during mycobacterial infection of DCs. Further, we found interesting cross-regulation of NOTCH and SHH pathway functions during M. bovis BCG infection of DCs. Inhibition of NOTCH1 signaling resulted in elevated expression of infection-induced PD-L1 whereas inhibition of SHH signaling showed increased transcripts of JAGGED2 (JAG2), a NOTCH1 ligand, and NOTCH intracellular domain (NICD), a marker for NOTCH activation. Thus, our results demonstrate that Mycobacterium directs a fine-balance of host signaling pathways and molecular regulators in DCs to determine the functional outcome of the immune responses including Tregs expansion that favours its survival. Foamy macrophages (FMs) are integral components of granulomas during mycobacterial pathogenesis. FMs are one of the morphotypes differentiated from macrophages characterized by the presence of lipid bodies (LBs)/droplets. The lipids provide nutrients to mycobacteria, leading to an enhanced ability to survive and replicate in host FMs. LBs are also known to regulate lipid metabolism, membrane trafficking, intracellular signaling and inflammatory mediator production. Interestingly, LBs are stores for various immune mediators including arachidonic acid, COX-2, ALOX5, ALOX15 and leukotrienes, underscoring the significance of FMs in the current study. However, molecular mechanisms that regulate intracellular lipid accumulation in FMs in the course of mycobacterial infection are not clear. Here, we analyzed the role for one of the histone modifications widely implicated in shaping the immune responses, Histone H3 lysine 27 trimethylation (H3K27me3), a known marker for gene silencing. While the trimethylation of H3K27 is catalyzed by EZH2, a component of Polycomb-repressive complex (PRC)2, Jumonji C (JmjC) domain protein (JMJD3) is a well-established H3K27me3 demethylase. Unlike M. smegmatis, infection of macrophages with M. tuberculosis or M. bovis BCG displayed JMJD3-dependent LB formation. Supporting this observation, the genes involved in lipid biosynthesis (Ascl1, Adrp, Psap) and uptake (Fat (CD36) and Msr1) were significantly upregulated with M. tuberculosis or M. bovis BCG infection of macrophages in a JMJD3- and TLR2-dependent manner. Abca1 and Abcg1, genes assisting in lipid export were downregulated or remained unchanged with M. tuberculosis or M. bovis BCG infection. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis revealed a reduced H3K27me3 mark on the promoters of the selected genes that were upregulated on mycobacterial infections. Corresponding, elevated recruitment of JMJD3 to these promoters was observed. Interestingly, NOTCH1 signaling-responsive MUSASHI (MSI), an evolutionarily conserved RNA-binding protein that inhibits translation of the mRNA, was found to positively regulate infection-induced JMJD3 expression. MSI targeted a transcriptional repressor of JMJD3, Msx2-interacting nuclear target protein (MINT/ SPEN), in the infected macrophages to aid in FM formation. Immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence experiments utilizing in vivo murine granuloma model using M. bovis BCG substantiated these observations. Thus, our study has unveiled novel roles for JMJD3 and its regulators in epigenetic regulation of LB generation in FMs. Altogether, we have established significant roles for several new host factors and inhibitory, survival mechanisms employed by pathogenic mycobacteria. Emphasis on functions of miRNAs and epigenetic regulation in the study has underscored the importance of fine-tuning immune responses during mycobacterial pathogenesis to determine the cell-fate and shape the course of infection. Further understanding and evaluation of these molecular regulators bears potential importance in disease control by aiding the search for effective drugs and therapeutics.

When tomato Craigella is infected with Verticillium dahliae Dvd-E6 (Dvd-E6), a tolerant state is induced with substantial pathogen load, but few symptoms. Unexpectedly, these plants are more robust and taller with Dvd-E6 behaving as an endophyte. Some endophytes can protect plants from virulent pathogens. This research was undertaken to improve understanding of the cellular and molecular nature of Verticillium tolerance in tomato, especially whether infection by Dvd-E6 can protect Craigella from virulent V. dahliae, race 1 (Vd1). To permit mixed infection experiments a restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP)-based assay was developed and used for differentiating Dvd-E6 from Vd1, when present in mixed infections. The results suggested that protection involves molecular interplay between Dvd-E6 and Vd1 in susceptible Craigella (CS) tomatoes, resulting in restricted Vd1 colonization. Further studies showed a dramatic reduction of Vd1 spores and mycelia. To examine genetic changes that account for these biological changes, a customized DNA chip (TVR) was used to analyze defense gene mRNA levels. The defense gene response was categorized into four groups. Group 1 was characterized by strong induction of defense genes followed by suppression. However, Vd1-induced gene suppression was blocked by Dvd-E6 in mixed infections. These genes included some transcription factors and PR proteins such as class IV chitinases and beta glucanases which are known to target fungal spores and mycelia. Experiments also were repeated with a Craigella resistant (CR) isoline containing a fully active Ve locus (Ve1+ and Ve2+). The biological results showed that the presence of the Ve1+ allele resulted in restricted Vd1 colonization and, in a mixed infection with Dvd-E6, Vd1 was completely eliminated from the plant stem. Surprisingly, there was no significant increase in defense gene mRNAs. Rather, elevated basal levels of defense gene products appeared sufficient to combat pathogen attack. To investigate functional effects of the genetic changes observed, an inducible RNAi knockdown vector for a defense gene (TUS15G8) with unknown function (pMW4-TUS15G8) as well as the Ve2 resistance gene (pMW-Ve2) was prepared as a initial step for future transformation analyses. Taken together the results reveal intriguing but complex biological and molecular changes in mixed infections, which remain a basis for future experiments and potential agricultural benefits.
Canadian Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan