Добірка наукової літератури з теми "RESPONSABILITÀ, PROVIDER"

Abstract: Should states be liable towards individuals for failure to provide justice, good roads, or timely administrative decisions? In this article, we show that state liability can serve three different purposes, none of which implies that the state should be liable in tort, unless other specific conditions are met. One purpose is to provide incentives for state agencies and private individuals to act efficiently. Here, the effectiveness of liability depends on the channelling of incentives down the chain of command to the acting state employee. The second purpose of state liability is to remove incentives for private parties, when these incentives are distorted, as when compensating for wrongful conviction. The third aim of state liability is to allow a higher level of the administration to monitor the behaviour of a lower level. In this case, the judicial system and private parties are means towards the end of generating information about wrongful behaviour by public bodies and agencies. Within this framework, we discuss substantive and procedural aspects of state liability in torts. We provide an economic argument for court specialization in administrative law and explain why the different solutions around the world could be appropriate under local determinants. Résumé: Les Etats devraient-ils être tenus responsables envers les individus pour leurs manquements à assurer une bonne justice, des voiries en bon état, ou à rendre des décisions administratives dans des délais raisonnables? Dans cet article il est démontré que la responsabilité de l’Etat peut servir trois objectifs différents, aucun d’entre eux n’impliquant la responsabilité civile de l’Etat, excepté dans les cas où certaines conditions spécifiques sont réunies. L’un des objectifs est d’inciter les institutions de l’Etat et les individus à agir efficacement. Ici, une responsabilité effective dépend de la canalisation des motivations le long de la chaîne de prise de décisions jusqu’au fonctionnaire chargé d’agir. Le deuxième objectif de la responsabilité de l’Etat est d’éliminer toute incitation pour les personnes privées, lorsque leurs motivations sont perverties, comme dans le cas de compensation pour erreur judiciaire. Le troisième objectif de la responsabilité de l’Etat est de permettre à l’échelon supérieur de l’administration de superviser la conduite des échelons inférieurs. Dans ce cas, le système judiciaire et les parties personnes privées constituent des outils d’information sur le comportement fautif des institutions et services publics. Dans ce contexte, il est discuté les aspects matériels et procéduraux de la responsabilité civile de l’Etat. Cet article fournit un argument économique en faveur de cours et tribunaux spécialisés en droit administratif et envisage la possibilité d’adapter les différentes solutions appliquées dans le monde à des facteurs locaux.

Law students are the future of the legal profession. How well prepared are they when they leave law school to assume the professional and ethical obligations that they owe themselves, the profession and the public? This question has led to a growing interest in Canada in the teaching of legal ethics. It is also led to a greater emphasis on the development of clinical and experiential learning as exemplified in the scholarship and teaching of Professor Rose Voyvodic. Less attention, however, has been placed on identifying the general ethical responsibilities of law students when not working in a clinic or other legal context. This can be seen in the presence of very few Canadian articles exploring the issue, and more significantly, in the paucity of law school discipline policies or codes of conduct that set out the professional obligations owed by law students. This article develops an idea that Professor Voyvodic and I talked about on a number of occasions. It argues that all law schools should have a code of conduct which is separate and distinct from their general University code and which resembles, with appropriate modifications, the relevant set of rules of professional responsibility law students will be bound by when called to the Bar. A student code of conduct which educates law students about their professional obligations is an important step in deterring such conduct while in law school and preparing students for ethical practice. The idea of a law school code of professional responsibility raises a number of questions. Why is it necessary for law schools to have their own student code of conduct? The article provides a threefold response. First, law students are members of the legal profession and a code of conduct should reflect this. Second, it must be relevant and comprehensive in order to ensure that it can inspire students to be ethical lawyers. And, third, as a practical matter, the last few years have witnessed a number of incidents at law schools that raise serious issues about the professionalism of law students. They include, for example, the UofT marks scandal, the Windsor first year blog and the proliferation of blogs like www.lawstudents.ca and www.lawbuzz.ca with gratuitous, defamatory and offensive entries. It is not clear that all of this conduct would be caught by University codes of conduct which often limit their reach to on campus behaviour or University sanctioned events. What should a law school code of professional responsibility look like and what ethical responsibilities should it identify? For example, should there be a mandatory pro bono obligation on students or a duty to report misconduct. The last part of the article addresses this question by setting out a model code of professional responsibility for law students.Les étudiants et étudiantes en droit constituent l’avenir de la profession juridique. Comment bien préparés sont-ils lorsqu’ils quittent la faculté de droit pour assumer leurs obligations professionnelles et éthiques envers eux-mêmes, envers la profession et envers le public? Cette question a mené à un intérêt grandissant au Canada à l’enseignement de l’éthique juridique. Elle a aussi mené à plus d’emphase sur le développement de formation clinique et expérientielle tel que l’exemplifie le savoir et l’enseignement de la professeure Rose Voyvodic. Toutefois, moins d’attention a été consacrée à identifier les responsabilités éthiques générales d’étudiants et étudiantes en droit lorsqu’ils n’oeuvrent pas dans une clinique ou dans un autre contexte légal. Cela se voit dans les faits qu’il y a très peu d’articles canadiens qui portent sur la question, et, de plus grande importance, qu’il y a pénurie, au sein de facultés de droit, de politiques disciplinaires ou de codes déontologiques qui présentent les obligations professionnelles d’étudiants et étudiantes en droit. Cet article développe une idée que j’ai discuté avec la professeure Voyvodic à un nombre d’occasions. Il soutient que toutes les facultés de droit devraient avoir un code déontologique séparé et distinct du code général de leur université et qui ressemble, avec les modifications appropriées, à l’ensemble pertinent de règlements de responsabilité professionnelle que devront respecter les étudiants et étudiantes en droit lorsqu’ils seront reçus au barreau. Un code déontologique étudiant qui renseigne les étudiants et étudiantes au sujet de leurs obligations professionnelles est une étape importante pour dissuader une telle conduite pendant qu’ils sont à la faculté et pour les préparer en vue d’une pratique fondée sur l’éthique. Le concept d’un code de responsabilité professionnelle pour une faculté de droit soulève un nombre de questions. Pourquoi est-ce nécessaire que les facultés de droit aient leur propre code déontologique? L’article répond en trois temps. D’abord, les étudiants et étudiantes en droit font partie de la profession juridique et un code déontologique devrait refléter cela. Deuxièmement, il doit être pertinent et compréhensif afin d’assurer qu’il puisse inspirer les étudiants et étudiantes à être des avocats qui suivent les normes d’éthique. Et troisièmement, d’ordre pratique, au cours des quelques dernières années, on a été témoins d’un nombre d’incidents à des facultés de droit qui soulèvent des questions importantes en rapport avec le professionnalisme d’étudiants et d’étudiantes en droit. Ils incluent, par exemple, le scandale au sujet de notes à l’université de Toronto, les blogues de la première année à Windsor et la prolifération de blogues tels que www.lawstudents.ca et www. lawbuzz.ca contenant des commentaires injustifiés, diffamatoires et offensifs. Il n’est pas clair si tous ces comportements seraient captés par des codes déontologiques universitaires dont la portée se limite souvent au comportement sur campus ou aux événements sanctionnés par l’université. Quel aspect devrait présenter un code de responsabilité professionnelle pour une faculté de droit et quelles responsabilités éthiques devrait-il identifier? Par exemple, devrait-il y avoir une obligation pro bono impérative pour les étudiants et étudiantes ou le devoir de rapporter une mauvaise conduite. La dernière partie de l’article porte sur cette question en présentant un modèle de code de responsabilité professionnelle pour les étudiants et étudiantes en droit.

Both Portuguese Commercial Companies Code and the Italian Civil Code provide default rules for the transfer of shares in the Portuguese sociedade por quotas and the Italian società a responsabilità limitata, respectively. The Portuguese rule Article 228(2) establishes as a restriction on transfers the requirement of consent of the company to those transfers, whilst the Italian rule Article 2469 makes shares freely transferable. An analysis of articles of association of both Italian and Portuguese companies suggests that shareholders often introduce restrictions on transfers of shares. However, a sample of disputes over un-consented transfers in Portuguese and Italian courts shows that shareholders frequently do not abide by these rules they themselves have created and that they frequently ignore the default rules they have not opted out from.

Personal freedom is an inalienable property of a person embedded in his very essence, it is the embodiment of individuality and self-sufficiency of everyone, a normal condition for the development of an individual and society as a whole. We suggest that socially dangerous acts, which are provided by art. 146, 1461, 147, 149, 151, 349, 3491, 371, 444 of Criminal Code of Ukraine.Every time, researching the issue of the existence of criminal responsability and the forms of its implementation, scientists do not bypass the question of the social conditioning of these legal phenomena. In modern conditions of globalization, all civilized countries are trying to build their legislation, including criminal legislation, and, accordingly, to develop a system of countermeasures against socially dangerous acts, based on international normative acts. The international legal need to establish criminal law prohibitions in Ukrainian legislation depends on the international obligations that Ukraine has assumed before the international community. In accordance with such obligations, national legislation must be brought into line with the requirements and recommendations established in international legal documents to which Ukraine is a party. All these conventions establish the right of a person to personal freedom. In addition, some of them contain provisions on the need to establish criminal responsability and punishment for crimes related to illegal deprivation of liberty.Characterizing the criminally illegal acts connected with illegal deprivation of liberty to date, and analyzing in detail their crime-forming features, one should talk about their social danger. And the nature and degree of public danger of such criminally illegal acts is determined by the value of the entire system of criminal law protection objects, which are negatively affected.

In recent years, corporate governance and corporate social responsibility have come closer in academic research, and especially on sustainability indexes. In fact, the most significant indexes handle the matter of corporate governance along with other environmental and social criteria. The purpose of this study is to find out if all the variables included in the corporate governance dimension on the above mentioned indicators are equally relevant and material for both corporate social responsability and corporate governance. To carry out the study, a sample of academics and professionals from Spanish universities and businesses sector was taken. We defend the plausible hypothesis that not all items included within corporate governance dimension on sustainability indexes are homogeneous and interchangeable and, therefore, equally relevant. As a result, the measurements provided by these indexes may not be truly representative.

Agri-food enterprises are rethinking their traditional economic, productive and organizational schemes based on the new sustainability models. In the light of the new value creation patterns these enterprises are also reshaping their relationships with the other agri-food stakeholders by adopting socially responsible behaviour. In this widely changed but still evolving context, agri-food enterprises have therefore been demonstrating socially responsible attitudes towards the common good and social welfare leading to a new business ethical dimension, known as social responsibility. A new vision of agri-food enterprises is therefore established. In fact, they are reconsidered as a set of tangible and intangible value chains and their related governance structures, the composition and extent there of being determined by specific groups of variables which create an "optimal value portfolio". In the light of this analytical perspectives, the aim of this paper is to contribute to the theoretical agricultural economic debate and analyse social responsibility as a sustainability strategy and value creation means for agri-food enterprises and as a competitive factor within developed economies. Hence the theoretical-methodological approach of this paper has defined new interpretation models of sustainable agri-food enterprises and their related strategic behaviour which is ethically driven and adopted for value creation purposes in the light of the current social, economic, environmental and territorial issues. The theoretical and methodological results thus provide a further development in the analysis of value creation models in agri-food systems by opening new research avenues. Moreover, they also offer new insights for policy makers and practitioners as they contribute to the debate on the role of policies to support enterprises' socially responsible actions and the definition of new guidelines for agri-food system actors.

RESUMOO presente artigo analisa as violações aos direitos humanos provocados pelas mineradoras proprietárias das barragens de Mariana e Brumadinho e demonstra a necessidade de responsabilização das empresas inclusive no âmbito internacional. Para tanto se faz necessário, primeiramente, abordar qual foi a dimensão da tragédia em Mariana, esclarecendo quais foram as medidas recomendadas e tomadas que se mostrarem insuficientes para evitar que uma nova tragédia ocorresse em Brumadinho de dimensões ainda maiores quando olhamos a morbidade. Será demonstrado que em ambas as tragédias fora afastado por parte da empresa exploradora de minérios, no que tange a indenização, o principio da centralidade do sofrimento da vítima. Depois, será defendido a necessidade de superação do paradigma estatocêntrico, responsabilizando as empresas transnacionais e o Estado, solidariamente, para que haja uma efetiva proteção aos direitos humanos. A metodologia utilizada foi pesquisa bibliográfica, com utilização de artigos e livros publicados.PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Direitos Humanos; Empresas mineradoras; Responsabilidade Internacional; Mariana; Brumadinho.ABSTRACTThis article analyses the human rights violations caused by mining companies of Mariana´s and Brumadinho´s dam and shows the need of companies´ liability including internacional scope. At first, it is necessary to approach the dimension of the tragedy in Mariana, clarifying the recommended and taken actions that were inadequate to avoid that a new disaster happened in Brumadinho, a bigger disaster in terms of morbidity. It will be demonstrated that in both tragedies were removed the centrality principle of victims´suffering by the mining companies, in relation to the indemnity. Afterwards, it will be defended the need for overcoming the state-centred paradigma taking full responsability of transnational companies and the State, severally liable, to provide an efective protection to the human rights. The methodology used was bibliographic research, using published articles and books. KEY-WORDS: Human rights; mining companies; International responsability; Mariana; Brumadinho.

A l’heure de la crise économique mondiale, des femmes assument encore plus chaque jour, différemment selon les régions, et en particulier en Afrique du Sud, la responsabilité du rôle de re-production et de production. Elles assurent les soins de la famille au quotidien, en matière de santé, éducation, nutrition, assainissement… Cette responsabilité, invisible, si elle était mise en lumière, notamment via les TIC, défierait un universalisme dominant, notamment en faisant émerger des savoirs ordinaires, non savants. Pourtant, cette option ne semble pas encore à l’ordre du jour, bien au contraire. Les organisations de femmes nouent avec la société portée et accélérée par la communication et l’information, une relation de subordination, par fatalisme ou ignorance. Aussi, développer des formes de citoyenneté directe, en adéquation avec une définition corrigée de la démocratie, engage à interroger l’hypothèse d’une triangulaire politique, économique et informationnelle, ancrée dans l’articulation des sphères privée et publique. With the global economic crisis, women still assume the brunt of the responsibility for re-production and production,differently in different regions, and in particular in South Africa. They daily provide care for the family, including health,education, nutrition, and sanitation. This invisible responsibility, if it were brought to light, thanks, in particular, to ICT, wouldchallenge a dominant universalism, by highlighting common, every day and not scientific, knowledge. However, this optionis not yet on the horizon; quite the contrary: women's organizations, whether out of fatalism or ignorance, establish relations of subordination with the society supported by and accelerated through communication and information. Developing forms of direct citizenship, in line with a revised definition of democracy, questions the hypothesis of a political, economic andinformational triangular, which is rooted in the intersection of private and public spheres.

A l’heure de la crise économique mondiale, des femmes assument encore plus chaque jour, différemment selon les régions, et en particulier en Afrique du Sud, la responsabilité du rôle de re-production et de production. Elles assurent les soins de la famille au quotidien, en matière de santé, éducation, nutrition, assainissement… Cette responsabilité, invisible, si elle était mise en lumière, notamment via les TIC, défierait un universalisme dominant, notamment en faisant émerger des savoirs ordinaires, non savants. Pourtant, cette option ne semble pas encore à l’ordre du jour, bien au contraire. Les organisations de femmes nouent avec la société portée et accélérée par la communication et l’information, une relation de subordination, par fatalisme ou ignorance. Aussi, développer des formes de citoyenneté directe, en adéquation avec une définition corrigée de la démocratie, engage à interroger l’hypothèse d’une triangulaire politique, économique et informationnelle, ancrée dans l’articulation des sphères privée et publique. With the global economic crisis, women still assume the brunt of the responsibility for re-production and production,differently in different regions, and in particular in South Africa. They daily provide care for the family, including health,education, nutrition, and sanitation. This invisible responsibility, if it were brought to light, thanks, in particular, to ICT, wouldchallenge a dominant universalism, by highlighting common, every day and not scientific, knowledge. However, this optionis not yet on the horizon; quite the contrary: women's organizations, whether out of fatalism or ignorance, establish relations of subordination with the society supported by and accelerated through communication and information. Developing forms of direct citizenship, in line with a revised definition of democracy, questions the hypothesis of a political, economic andinformational triangular, which is rooted in the intersection of private and public spheres.

RIASSUNTO: Paul Magnaud, magistrato e politico francese operante tra la fine del XIX e gli inizi del XX secolo e divenuto noto con l'appellativo di "bon juge", ci offre l'opportunità di riflettere su un nodo ineliminabile della teoria e della prassi giuridica: il rapporto tra legge ed equitá, tra certezza del diritto ed esigenze di giustizia. Nel saggio vengono ricostruiti i casi principali di cui egli si occupò quando era presidente del Tribunale di Chateâu-Thierry al fine di riportare alla luce un episodio della storia del diritto che può dire ancora molto al dibattito giuridico e politico contemporaneo.ABSTRACT: Paul Magnaud, who was a French politician and magistrate, mainly active between the end of 19thand the beginning of 20th century and known as the “bon juge” provides the opportunity to reflect on an unavoidable issue concerning both legal theory and practice. The specific object of that focuses on the correlation between law and fairness, as well as, legal certainty and need of justice. This essay will retrace the most important legal cases he dealt with, when he was the president of the court of Chateâu-Thierry, in order to shed light on a specific case, pertaining to the annals of the history of law, which can enhance the current judicial and political debate.PAROLE CHIAVE: legge, equità, certezza del diritto, giustizia.KEYWORDS: law, fairness, legal certainty, justice.

Principal acteur de la communication au public en ligne, le fournisseur d'accès à Internet offre une connexion, contrôle les points d'accès, identifie les utilisateurs. Ses responsabilités extra-contractuelles résultent de ses multiples fonctions : prestataire technique, responsable de traitement des données, exécutant d'injonctions judiciaires. Ses responsabilités sont abondantes et parfois surabondantes. Toutefois, malgré un régime de responsabilité qui lui est spécifiquement applicable, la notion de "fournisseur d'accès à Internet" n'est toujours pas juridiquement définie. Cette imprécision de la notion entraîne une profusion de régimes juridiques imposant le statut de fournisseur d'accès à des acteurs dont l'activité principale n'est pas la fourniture d'une connexion à Internet : Universités, entreprises, particuliers. Dès lors, les responsabilités extra-contractuelles pénales, civiles et administratives se multiplient et créent un régime obligationnel instable, obscur, voire abscons. Cet éclatement lexical et juridique est encore aggravé par l'application fonctionnelle à l'activité de fourniture d'accès, du droit des communications électroniques et de la société de l'information. Il est alors nécessaire de proposer une définition formelle du fournisseur d'accès à Internet susceptible d'unifier son régime de responsabilité autour de notions juridiques stabilisées. Cette reconstruction affectera inévitablement la réglementation relative à la communication au public en ligne et à ses acteurs, mais proposera une possible fondation au droit des communications électroniques
Internet Service Providers are major actors of the Information Society. They offer connections, controls access points, and can also identify their users. Their many liabilities result from their multiple functions as technical services provider, data controller or performers of judicial orders. These legal obligations are numerous and sometimes overabundant. In spite of an existing and specific liability status, the very notion of "Internet service provider" still remains legally undefined. This lacuna entails a profusion of legal status imposing an ISP status to players for which the main activity is not to provide an Internet connection : Universities, companies, individuals. From then on, criminal, civil and administrative liabilities multiply and create an instable, obscure and even abstruse status. This lexical and legal scattering is even worsened by the functional application of the electronic communications and Information Society legal framework to access providing activities. It is then necessary to unify the legal regimes associated to those activities according to stabilized legal concepts. This reconstruction will inevitably affect the Information Society legal framework as a whole. Eventually, it will open on a possible ground for the electronic communications legal framework

L'elaborato vuole essere una lente di ingrandimento sulla responsabilità delle piattaforme social, in particolare Facebook e Twitter, nel propagare e diffondere disinformazione. Prima di vedere da vicino il ruolo dei social network, viene effettuata una panoramica sulla normative vigenti che disciplinano questi networks. Etichettati dalle regolamentazioni come Internet Service Provider, viene analizzato il loro fittizio ruolo neutrale online e le loro responsabilità nel momento in cui un utente carica all’interno di questi informazioni illecite, distinguendo la legislazione europeo con quella statunitense. Per comprendere dove nasce il problema della disinformazione online vengono poi presi in esame una serie di casi dove la propagazione di informazioni illecite a contribuito alla modifica delle percezione della realtà da parte degli utenti di queste piattaforme. Viene poi fatta un’analisi più profonda sul ruolo dei Social Network nella diffusione di notizie riguardanti il Covid-19, e partendo da questo, viene visionato uno studio su come combatterne la propagazione. Studio che se applicato, potrebbe essere espanso per diminuire in generale tutte le fake news e i discorsi d’odio, senza però limitare la libertà di parola degli utenti. In conclusione, si evince come ad oggi ci si affidi sostanzialmente ad una auto regolamentazione da parte di queste piattaforme, non essendo le normative aggiornate ed in grado di compiere atti decisi nei loro confronti. Ad ogni caso, qualsiasi sia la fonte della disinformazione, online o offline, questa va affrontata non solo con le regolamentazioni, ma sopratutto attraverso politiche volte all’educazione e responsabilizzazione dei cittadini, nonché con un’azione tesa ad alimentare il pluralismo informativo.

Dans un environnement de plus en plus instable et incertain, les entreprises en général, n’ont d’autres choix que de rechercher la performance globale et durable qui seule pourrait constituer un facteur de pérennité et un avantage concurrentiel majeur. La performance globale des entreprises agit sur toutes les dimensions du cycle de vie du produit/service : de la conception, à la livraison au consommateur, réduction des coûts pour être en mesure d’offrir le meilleur prix au Client. Cette logistique d’optimisation de bout à bout de la chaîne est devenue, une nécessité vitale pour assurer la pérennité de l’entreprise. Aujourd’hui, les entreprises en général, et les prestataires logistiques en particuliers, sont confrontés à la prise de conscience que la modélisation de leur chaîne logistique doit être revue de façon plus performante et surtout que les impacts de leur activité doivent être pris en compte : intégrer les contraintes environnementales dans la gestion de leurs activités d’approvisionnement, de distribution, de transport, … et en dégager des voies de progrès économique, social et environnemental, va être l’enjeu stratégique de la prochaine décennie.D’où, la nécessité d’adoption d’un management spécifique ayant pour objectif de concilier entre les pratiques classiques d’aboutissement à la performance globale, et des pratiques novatrices et spécifiques qui prônent le développement durable.Notre travail de recherche traitera la problématique suivante : comment réaliser la performance globale des PME du secteur Transport et logistique au Maroc, en adoptant les pratiques de développement durable ? Ainsi, nous traiterons dans ce travail d’un modèle de Management spécifique capable de conduire les prestataires logistiques Marocain à la performance globale, tout en conciliant les différents enjeux financiers, sociaux et environnementaux.A cet effet, nous avons posé une question centrale : à savoir en quoi le développement durable se présente comme une opportunité pour atteindre la performance durable ?
In an environment of increasingly unstable and uncertain, companies in general, have other choices only to search the global and durable performance which only could constitute a factor of sustainability and a major competing advantage. The global performance of companies’ acts on all the dimensions of the cycle of life of the product / service: from design to delivery to the consumer, reducing costs to be able to offer the best price to the customer. This optimization’s logistics endwise of the chain has become a vital necessity for the sustainability of the company.Today, businesses in general and logistics providers in particular, are confronted with the realization that modeling their supply chain needs to be reviewed more efficient and especially that the impacts of their activity must be taken into account : integrating environmental constraints in the management of their supply activities, distribution, transportation, ... and supply, distribution, of transport,… and to release some ways for economic, social and environmental progress, that must be the strategic challenge of the next decade.Hence, the need to adopt a specific management aiming to reconcile classical practices leading to the global performance, and innovative and specific practices that promote on sustainable development.Our research will treat the following problematic: how to realize the global performance of SMEs in the Transportation and Logistics sector in Morocco, by adopting the practices of sustainable development?Thus, we will treat in this work, a model of specific Management able to lead the Moroccan logistics providers to the global performance, while reconciling the various financial, social and environmental challenges For this purpose, we ask a key question: how the sustainable development is presented as an opportunity to achieve sustainable performance?

A pesar de que la tecnología ha evolucionado lo suficiente durante la presente década como para que los prestadores de servicios de la sociedad de la información (PSSI) de intermediación de acceso, que disfrutan de una posición única, puedan controlar toda la información transmitida por los usuarios de sus servicios, tanto los legisladores estadounidenses como los de la UE no han modificado los marcos normativos establecidos en los años 2000 y 1998 de exclusión de responsabilidad extracontractual derivada de las presuntas vulneraciones de los derechos de autor realizadas por los usuarios de sus servicios en la UE y de limitación de prestar reparación monetaria en el mismo tipo de casos en los EE.UU., respectivamente. Al contrario, ambos territorios han establecido las bases para proteger el carácter innovador de Internet que proporciona el uso de protocolos P2P, estableciendo la normativa necesaria para preservar la neutralidad de la Red, que favorece el desarrollo económico, obligando a permitir un servicio con el mismo ancho de banda tanto de entrada como de salida, excepto en casos puntuales por necesidades técnicas, y tampoco permiten que los PSSI de intermediación de acceso controlen el contenido de lo que se transmiten entre sí los usuarios. El presente estudio analiza los sistemas técnicos para acceder a contenido y la evolución de la tecnología P2P, así como el desarrollo histórico de estos protocolos en el ámbito jurídico en ambos territorios. También se describen, por un lado, los esquemas de respuesta gradual establecidos con dos modelos privados, el de EE.UU. y el de Irlanda, y otro público, el de Francia, así como, por otro, el intento de las poderosas asociaciones de las industrias de contenido de incluir una cláusula en el acuerdo internacional “ACTA”, de forma opaca y sin posibilidad de escrutinio judicial, que obligaría a los PSSI de intermediación de acceso de todos los Estados firmantes a implementar esquemas de respuesta gradual. En última instancia, estos esquemas posibilitarían la suspensión del acceso a Internet de los suscriptores por el uso de protocolos P2P, así como otras medidas jurídicamente discutibles en cuanto a los principios de la carga de la prueba y la presunción de inocencia. Todo ello, vulneraría derechos fundamentales y libertades individuales firmemente arraigados en nuestras sociedades occidentales. Además, se destaca como ambos territorios han implementado un enfoque común denominado “Follow the money approach” para evitar el lucro comercial a través de la vulneración de derechos de autor. Se concluye analizando cómo ambos modelos regulatorios han establecido que los PSSI de intermediación de acceso no pueden actuar de forma que se ponga en peligro la libertad de expresión y la privacidad de sus usuarios, la libre competencia, la innovación y el desarrollo del acceso a la Red de alta velocidad, así como el desarrollo cultural para beneficiar de este modo el interés del público en general, permitiendo la defensa de los derechos de autor, pero no de forma aislada, sino conjuntamente, respetándose principios de legalidad y proporcionalidad que deben equilibrarse con los demás derechos fundamentales en juego, ya que según los estudios de fuentes imparciales no se pueden demostrar los daños producidos al mercado potencial de los titulares de derechos de autor por el uso de las redes P2P cuando su uso se limita al ámbito privado y no existe ánimo comercial.
During the last few years, although technical capabilities have evolved enough to permit access Internet Service Providers (ISPs), with their very unique position, to develop surveillance techniques over all the information transmitted by their users through their services, both the United States and the European Union have not modified their legal frameworks established in years 2000 and 1998 regarding, on one side, the exemption from liability due to alleged online copyright infringements performed by the users of their services in the European Union and, on the other side, the liability limitation regarding monetary relief in the same cases in the United States. On the contrary, both territories have established the foundations to protect the innovative capacity the Net allows thanks to the use of P2P networks, establishing regulations to protect Internet´s neutrality to allow economic growth, forcing the availability of access services with the same bandwidth in both directions, except if necessary for temporary technical needs, and also not permitting the control over the information sent between end-users. We have analyzed the technical systems available to access content and the evolution of the P2P technologies, as well as their historical legal development in both territories included in our study. Moreover, we describe the graduated response schemes established privately in the United States and Ireland, and publicly in France, as well as the attempt performed by the powerful associations representing the content industries to establish through the implementation of a clause in the international agreement ACTA (“Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement”), in a non-transparent way and without the possibility of being subject to judicial scrutiny, of graduated response schemes to be implemented through access ISPs with the purpose to withdraw the Internet connection from end-users allegedly using P2P networks to infringe copyright, as well as the implementation of other techniques by the same access ISPs that do not respect the presumption of innocence and the burden of proof principles. The implementation of this type of schemes would infringe fundamental and civil rights strongly protected in our western societies. Also, we highlight how both territories have implemented the same “Follow the money” approach to avoid commercial gains due to online copyright infringements. We conclude analyzing how both regulatory models have established that access ISPs cannot behave jeopardizing the freedom of expression and privacy of their users, free competition, innovation and the development of high-speed Internet access, as well as the cultural development to benefit the interests of the public in general, permitting the defense of copyright, but not in an isolated way. Copyright should be protected jointly with other principles such as legal fairness and proportionality that should be balanced with the other fundamental rights at stake, as studies from impartial sources show that no damages exist in the potential market of copyright owners due to the use of P2P networks for private use and without commercial purposes.

La tesi che qui si presenta, dopo quattro anni di dottorato, analizza la responsabilità penale di pertinenza del provider di servizi Internet. Il lavoro si sviluppa in quattro capitoli che riguardano rispettivamente le leggi internazionali, la normativa italiana sulla responsabilità penale del provider, e l'analisi comparata della legislazione straniera. Quest'analisi tiene conto del modo e lo spazio intorno ai quali si configura il reato commesso in Internet e del rapporto che c’è fra il soggetto attivo e colui che proporziona lo spazio in cui o attraverso il quale si commette il reato on-line: il Internet Service Provider.
The thesis here presented after four year PhD, analyzes the criminal responsibility attributable to the Internet Service Provider. The work is developed in four chapters that concern respectively the international laws, the Italian legislation on criminal responsibility of the Provider, and the comparative analysis of foreign legislation. This analysis takes account of the way and the space around which constitutes the offense committed on the Internet and the relationship that exists between the active subject and the one proportional space in which or through which they commit the crime online : the Internet Service Provider.

Il nuovo millennio è stato caratterizzato dall’esplosione di Internet e dei nuovi mezzi tecnologici, che hanno comportato dei cambiamenti epocali in ogni settore della vita umana. Essi offrono molteplici opportunità di sviluppo, sul piano sociale, culturale ed economico, ma possono costituire altresì, da un lato, un terreno fertile per nuovi modi e tipi di comportamenti di rilievo penale, e, dall’altro lato, innovativi strumenti e mezzi per la ricerca delle prove e, in generale, per il contrasto a gravi fenomeni criminosi congenitamente transnazionali. Si assiste inoltre ad una sorta di “democratizzazione” del crimine: la rete e le tecnologie informatiche forniscono all’agente, anche di medie-basse competenze informatiche, il “potere” di porre in essere illeciti fino a qualche anno fa totalmente esclusi dalla portata del singolo. Anche solo i più recenti fatti di cronaca evidenziano il crescente allarme sociale suscitato dalle organizzazioni terroristiche, che si avvalgono di strumenti tecnologici, Internet, Darknet e social media non solo nelle fasi del reclutamento, della ricerca di fondi o della propaganda e dei discorsi di odio (hate speech), ma altresì nelle fase di realizzazione degli attacchi, che possono essere diretti contro sistemi informatici o banche dati sensibili. Tra le questioni giuridiche connesse all’esplosione della criminalità on-line, la problematica della responsabilità penale dell’ISP è sicuramente tra le più dibattute. La tematica risulta particolarmente complessa e delicata non con riguardo agli illeciti commessi direttamente dall’ISP nella veste di autore o coautore (trovando in tali casi applicazione le disposizioni ordinarie in tema di imputazione della responsabilità), ma in relazione a quelli realizzati dagli utenti della rete, per i quali sorgono innanzitutto limiti in virtù del principio di personalità di cui all’art. 27 Costituzione. Fa propendere per la configurabilità della responsabilità degli ISPs anche nell’ipotesi d’illeciti dei terzi la maggior facilità con cui gli stessi sono individuabili a differenza degli utenti che materialmente li realizzano, i quali possono beneficiare dell’anonimato o di altri strumenti tecnici per mascherare la propria identità. E’ inoltre chiaro che il prestatore, fornendo di solito i propri servizi in forma d’impresa, sarà presumibilmente più solvibile rispetto all’autore del reato. D’altra parte è ugualmente vero che prevedere obblighi di controllo e garanzia nei confronti dei providers renderebbe più onerosa la loro attività con possibili conseguenti effetti inibitori sullo sviluppo libero della rete: dal punto di vista economico i maggiori costi potrebbero essere addebitati agli internauti tramite l’aumento dei servizi a pagamento; dal punto di vista giuridico gli ISPs sarebbero inoltre portati a privilegiare forme di censure onde evitare di incappare in una responsabilità che, data la difficoltà tecnica del controllo sugli innumerevoli contenuti trasmessi, si avvicinerebbe molto ad una responsabilità di tipo oggettivo. Il progetto scientifico si è proposto di contribuire a fornire un quadro teorico e metodologico attraverso il quale valutare come, nel nostro ordinamento, debba essere affrontata la vexata quaestio della responsabilità penale degli ISPs in relazione ai fatti illeciti realizzati dagli utenti. Le considerazioni preliminari della ricerca hanno riguardato innanzitutto il concetto di responsabilità penale ed il carattere personale della stessa sancito all’art. 27, comma 1, della Costituzione, oggetto di una profonda evoluzione nei tracciati della Corte Costituzionale culminata nella sentenza n. 364 del 23 marzo 1988, che ha inaugurato l’affermarsi di un filone di pronunce in cui, secondo quanto già evidenziato dalla dottrina più sensibile, si accoglie il principio di colpevolezza specificando che per fatto proprio non s’intende il fatto collegato al soggetto dal mero nesso di causalità ma anche, e soprattutto, dal momento subiettivo, costituito, in presenza della prevedibilità ed evitabilità del risultato vietato, almeno dalla colpa in senso stretto. Interessante è stato quindi, alla luce di tale orientamento, affrontare la disciplina dei delitti commessi a mezzo stampa (per parte della dottrina suscettibile di applicazione in via analogica al service provider), la quale, sin dalla sua prima apparizione nell’Editto Albertino sulla stampa del 26 marzo 1848, ha suscitato numerose critiche e problematiche, proprio per il contrasto con il principio di responsabilità personale, nonché la problematica della responsabilità penale degli enti. L’art. 27, 1° comma, Cost., è stato a lungo considerato come una trasposizione a livello costituzionale dell’antico brocardo societas delinquere non potest, tant’è che la responsabilità punitiva degli enti collettivi introdotta dalla legge delega n. 300/2000 ed il successivo decreto legislativo di attuazione n. 231/2001, forse per non acuire i delicati equilibri con i dogmi personalistici dell’imputazione criminale di rango costituzionale, è stata etichettata come amministrativa, sebbene sia ancorata a presupposti e garanzie proprie del diritto penale che ne rendono molto controversa la natura. Si è proceduto quindi all’analisi di alcuni aspetti tecnici concernenti la struttura di Internet, essenziali per una corretta impostazione della questione inerente all’an e al quomodo della responsabilità penale degli ISPs. Fissate le caratteristiche fondamentali dell’Internet Trinity, una trinità fatta dalla tecnologia del mezzo, dalla distribuzione geografica dei suoi utenti, dalla natura dei suoi contenuti, mi sono concentrata sulla valutazione dell’impatto che la “rete delle reti” ha sulle possibilità di commettere crimini e sulle relative fattispecie illecite che, proprio per la loro eterogeneità, stanno mettendo a dura prova la capacità delle legislazioni nazionali ed internazionali di identificare strategie adeguate per proteggere non solo le loro infrastrutture ma anche la sicurezza dei cittadini. Il temine cybercrime da molto tempo viene utilizzato, soprattutto dai media, per raggruppare l’eterogenea gamma dei pericoli e degli illeciti che infettano il cyberspace. Nonostante l’esplosione a livello internazionale del fenomeno, non si riviene, in alcuna disposizione giuridica sovranazionale, una definizione specifica di cybercrime. Questo vuoto normativo ha fatto si che in dottrina ci si interroghi circa il rapporto intercorrente tra i “crimini cibernetici” e la nozione di “criminalità informatica”, altrettanto mancante di una specificazione giuridica internazionalmente riconosciuta nonostante il suo utilizzo in numerose fonti interne e sovranazionali e la recente menzione tra i crimini che, ai sensi dell’art. 83, par. 1, del Trattato sul funzionamento dell’Unione (TFUE), rientrano nella competenza penale diretta dell’Unione europea. Valutata la relazione che intercorre tra l’ampia categoria dei reati informatici e quella dei reati cibernetici, si è proceduto all’esposizione dalle iniziative contro i cybercrimes promosse a livello sovranazionale (ad esempio dal gruppo dei Paesi industriali (G8); dalle Nazioni Unite, ed in modo particolare dal suo Ufficio per il controllo della droga e la prevenzione del crimine (ONUDC), dall’Organizzazione per la Cooperazione e lo Sviluppo Economico (OCSE/OECD) e dal suo Comitato per Informazione, Informatica e Comunicazione (ICCP); dal Consiglio d’Europa e dall’Unione Europea) e a livello nazionale (in modo particolare Decreto del Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri del 24 gennaio 2013 “Direttiva recante indirizzi per la protezione cibernetica e la sicurezza informatica nazionale”, pubblicato in G.U. 19 marzo 2013, n. 66). Risolte queste questioni preliminari, stante l’intrinseca sovranazionalità del cyberspace, è stato essenziale il confronto con modelli di responsabilità elaborati in altri ordinamenti. Ho approfondito innanzitutto la regolamentazione della responsabilità degli ISPs per i contenuti immessi dai propri utenti nel sistema americano. Gli Stati Uniti, culla della rivoluzione cibernetica, sono stati i primi ad affrontare le problematiche inerenti alla possibile rilevanza penale delle condotte degli ISPs per gli abusi e gli illeciti commessi in rete. In modo particolare è stato sviluppato un sistema di normazione “verticale” nel senso che sono state previste specifiche disposizione per settori determinati. Si rinvengono infatti una forma d’immunità relativa a tutti i tipi di materiale fatta eccezione che per la proprietà intellettuale (IP) nello US Communications Decency Act (CDA), e “safe harbors” in materia di violazione del copyright nel Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA). Mi sono quindi concentrata sull’analisi del sistema di regolamentazione europeo, che, a differenza di quello americano, è “orizzontale”, ovvero si applica sia in caso di illeciti civili che penali ed abbraccia la totalità dei contenuti. La normativa di riferimento è contenuta nella Direttiva e-Commerce 2000/31/CE che, ad oggi, rappresenta il modello legislativo per i Paesi membri. Per l’influenza che la legislazione tedesca ed in modo particolare il Gesetz zur Regelung der Rahmenbedingungen für Informations-und Kommunikationsdienste (IuKDG) del 1997 ha avuto sull’elaborazione della Direttiva europea sopracitata, mi sono dedicata anche allo studio del sistema teutonico della responsabilita degli ISPs, al cui sviluppo il Prof. Sieber, direttore del Max Planck Institute for Foreign and International Criminal Law, presso il quale si è svolto parte del progetto, ha contribuito attivamente fin dalla sua origine. Alla luce della normativa sopra richiamata, per valutare la configurabilità di una responsabilità penale o amministrativa da reato dei providers (a seconda che gli stessi si identifichino in una persona fisica o giuridica) ho analizzato le regole penali di parte generale e specificatamente gli istituti del concorso di persone nel reato (art. 110 c.p.), della responsabilità per omesso impedimento dell’evento (art. 40, comma 2, c.p.), nonché la disciplina dei delitti commessi a mezzo della stampa, pur nella consapevolezza che la tematica non si presta ad una soluzione unica e applicabile ad ogni ipotesi, essendo sempre necessario sagomare l’individuazione dei soggetti responsabili nel greto delle sfumature del caso concreto. Anche sulla base degli orientamenti espressi dalla Corte Europea dei diritti dell’uomo e della Corte di Giustizia dell’Unione Europea, pur non sussistendo alcun “generale” obbligo di impedimento di reati altrui, nelle specifiche materie considerate (es. tutela della privacy) non si può non riconoscere che nella normativa vigente sono rinvenibili autonomi e specifici obblighi di protezione sulla cui base è possibile fondare anche una responsabilità penale del provider ex art. 40 c.p. per i reati commessi dai propri utenti in rete. D’altronde tutto ciò è pienamente in linea con la condotta virtuosa che, come previsto dal legislatore comunitario, gli stati membri possono richiedere agli intermediari della società dell’informazione. Il contemperamento tra l’esigenza di garantire la libertà di comunicazione e la necessità di tutelare diritti fondamentali del nostro ordinamento non può che comportare il superamento del paradigma del provider inerte o passivo non appena ricevuta la notizia dell’illecito commesso dai fruitori del suo servizio.
The overall aim of this research project is to contribute to theoretical framework concerning the creation of Internet Service Providers crime responsibility for offenses committed by third persons abusing the infrastructure of the internet. After a first investigation into the concept of “computer crime”, a catching and meaningful term that has not an internationally recognized legal definition but that, at European level, is included in the list of areas of “serious crimes” of the Article 83 of the Lisbon Treaty, the central question for this project is a deeper understanding of the conditions and bounds of ISPs crime responsibility.The rapid and pervasive development of information and communication technologies and infrastructures, enhanced by phenomena such as Internet, is leading to an ever changing world. Digital mobility is changing the way of working and business practices, it is changing the way in which we communicate, let’s think to the more and more important role of social networks and it has created opportunities for unanticipated economic and social developments. New opportunities has been created to allow a free and immediate access to a huge range of information and contents. But of course, all these positive effects for the economic, political, professional and interpersonal exchanges brings also uncountable risks. Cyber incidents affecting millions of users are becoming more and more common and they are increasing on a large scale. ISPs come and act in many forms and sizes and go by many names, such as phone companies, cable and wireless companies, etc. They are the Internet stewards that plan and manage resources, providing reliable connectivity and ensuring delivery for traffic and services, so, because of their important role we should therefore ask whether ISPs should have additional duties ensuring the reliable delivery as an essential service. We have also to understand if the information and communication industry can be considered responsible for offenses committed by third persons abusing the infrastructure of the internet. This issue raises numerous legal problems, which are at first connected to the structure of crime responsibility and in particular the criteria of the “personality” of criminal liability ex art. 27 Cost.Because of the intrinsic factor of internationalization of the cyberspace is necessary a comparative approach and the examination of the models of crime responsibility contemplated in other country, such as Germany or United States, and of the European Union Law (for example Directive 2000/31/EC).The supranational dimension and huge importance of the matter object of the research involves the need to create solutions not only at a European level but also internationally.