Дисертації з теми "Residual stress field"

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This thesis focuses on the use of x-ray diffraction to measure residual stresses around welds in aluminum ship structures both in the laboratory and in the field. Tensile residual stresses are often generated during welding and, in sensitized aluminum structures, can cause extensive stress corrosion cracking. Peening techniques, such as ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT), can mitigate and even reverse these tensile residual stresses. This research uses x-ray diffraction to measure residual stresses around welds in AA5456 before and after UIT. In particular, we examined the importance of UIT parameters such as peening amplitude and pin size. We found that all combinations of UIT parameters removed the tensile residual stresses and resulted in compressive stress several hundred microns below the weld surface. The exact level of compressive residual stress was sensitive to the pin size used with a smaller, but measurable, dependence upon the displacement amplitude. In an effort to extend these measurement techniques to the field, we successfully performed the first x-ray residual stress measurements on a U.S. naval combatant.

Welding is used extensively in aerospace, automotive, chemical, manufacturing, electronic and power-generation industries. Thermally-induced residual stresses due to welding can significantly impair the performance and reliability of welded structures. Numerical simulation of weld pool dynamics is important as experimental measurements of velocities and temperature profiles are difficult due to the small size of the weld pool and the presence of the arc. From a structural integrity perspective of welded structures, it is necessary to have an accurate spatial and temporal thermal distribution in the welded structure before stress analysis is performed. Existing research on weld pool dynamics simulation has ignored the effect of fluid flow in the weld pool on the temperature field of the welded joint. Previous research has established that the weld pool depth/width (D/W) ratio and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) are significantly altered by the weld pool dynamics. Hence, for a more accurate estimation of the thermally-induced stresses it is desired to incorporate the weld pool dynamics into the analysis. Moreover, the effects of microstructure evolution in the HAZ on the mechanical behavior of the structure need to be included in the analysis for better mechanical response prediction. In this study, a three-dimensional model for the thermo-mechanical analysis of Gas Tungsten Arc (GTA) welding of thin stainless steel butt-joint plates has been developed. The model incorporates the effects of thermal energy redistribution through weld pool dynamics into the structural behavior calculations. Through material modeling the effects of microstructure change/phase transformation are indirectly included in the model. The developed weld pool dynamics model includes the effects of current, arc length, and electrode angle on the heat flux and current density distributions. All the major weld pool driving forces are included, namely surface tension gradient, plasma drag force, electromagnetic force, and buoyancy. The weld D/W predictions are validated with experimental results. They agree well. The effects of welding parameters (like welding speed, current, arc length, etc.) on the weld D/W ratio are documented. The workpiece deformation and stress distributions are also highlighted. The transverse and longitudinal residual stress distribution plots across the weld bead and their variations with welding speed and current are also provided. The mathematical framework developed here serves as a robust tool for better prediction of weld D/W ratio and thermally-induced stress evolution and distribution in a welded structure by coupling the different fields in a welding process.
Ph. D.

This research sought to establish residual stress distribution characteristics in typical pipe and vessel welds by carrying out a comprehensive parametric study using an advanced sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical finite element procedure. The parametric study covered vessel and pipe components with a ranging radius to thickness ratio from r/t=2 to 100, for thickness ranging from t=1/4” to 10”. Component materials varied from low carbon steel to high alloy steels, such as stainless steel and titanium alloy. Furthermore, a structural mechanics based framework is proposed to generalize through-thickness residual stress distributions for a broad spectrum of joint geometry and welding conditions. The results of this study have been shown to provide both a significantly improved understanding of important parameters governing residual stresses in pipe and vessel welds, as well as a unified scheme for achieving consistent residual stress prescriptions for supporting fitness-for-service assessments of engineering structures. Specific contributions of this investigation may be summarized as follows: (a) A welding heating input characterization procedure has been developed and validated to relate prescribed temperature thermal modeling procedure to conventional linear input definition. With this development, a large number of parametric analyses can be carried in a cost-effective manner without relying on the heat flux based weld pool model that can be exhaustive and time-consuming. (b) A set of governing parameters controlling important residual stress distribution characteristics regardless of joint types, materials, and welding procedures have been identified. These are characteristic heat input intensity and radius over thickness ratio. (c) A shell theory based residual stress estimation scheme has been developed to interrelate all parametric analysis results for circumferential girth welds, which can also be used to estimate residual stress distributions in both through-thickness and at any distance away from the weld, for cases that are not covered in the parametric study. (d) In a similar manner, a curve bar theory based residual stress estimation scheme has also been developed for longitudinal seam welds. These developments can significantly advance the residual stress profile prescription methods stipulated in the current national and international FFS Codes and Standards such as 2007 API 579 RP/ASME FFS-1 and BS 7910: 2011.

The correlatioin between residual stresses and the global properties from an indentation test, i.e. hardness and size of the contact area, has been studied frequently in recent years. The investigations presented have been based on experimental, theoretical and numerical methods and as a result, the basic features of the problem are fairly well understood in the case of residual equi-biaxial surface stresses. The more general case, when the principal surface stresses are not necessarily equi-biaxial, has received nuch less attention and it is therefore the aim of the present study to remedy this shortcoming. In doing so, qualitative results are of immediate interest in this initial study but possible ways of quantitative descriptions are also discussed for future purposes. The present analysis is based on numerical methods and in particular the finite element method (FEM) is relied upon. Classical Mises elastoplastic material behavior is assumed throughout the investigation.

Ces travaux de thèse ont porté sur l'étude des phénomènes d'endommagement induits par l'introduction d'anomalies de surface de type choc ou rayure, lors d'opérations de maintenance des disques de turbine haute pression. D'une part, ces dernières créent une concentration de contraintes en fond d'anomalie liée au défaut géométrique, qui, couplée à la sévérité des chargements thermomécaniques subits par les disques, amène à l'amorçage et la propagation d'une fissure courte. D'autre part, ces anomalies s'accompagnent de déformations dans la matière qui induisent de l'écrouissage et des contraintes résiduelles. Ces dernières ont un effet du premier ordre sur la propagation de la fissure qu'il est nécessaire de prendre en compte. Ainsi l'objectif est de caractériser ces phénomènes induits par l'introduction des anomalies de surface, à savoir le comportement d'une fissure courte dans un champ de contraintes résiduelles.Concernant la caractérisation du comportement d'une fissure courte, une campagne expérimentale novatrice a été mise en place. Lors de cette dernière, des essais de fatigue uniaxiaux et biaxiaux ont été réalisés ainsi que des simulations numériques de propagation de fissure. D'une part, cette campagne expérimentale permet de mettre en exergue l'effet de la contrainte T sur la propagation de fissure. D'autre part, elle fournit un protocole expérimental permettant d'obtenir des fissures courtes et de caractériser leur comportement. Enfin, elle donne des pistes vers la prise en compte de l'effet de fissure courte via la contrainte T.Dans le but de caractériser les contraintes résiduelles, une campagne de caractérisation par diffraction des rayons X à l'European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) de Grenoble a été menée. La mesure des distances interatomiques permet de déterminer les déformations puis les contraintes résiduelles induites par l'anomalie. Les résultats obtenus sont cohérents avec ce qui était attendu : de forts niveaux de contraintes multiaxiales, de forts gradients et une portée sous la surface conséquente. Le modèle d'introduction de choc a été amélioré afin de pouvoir le comparer avec les résultats expérimentaux.Une stratégie d'intégration de ces différents phénomènes dans un modèle incrémental est proposé dans les perspectives afin de tenir compte de la fissuration causée par des anomalies de surface
This research work concerns the study of the induced physical phenomena by the introduction of handling surface anomalies such as dents or scratches, on high pressure turbine disks. On one hand, they create a geometrical stress concentration at the anomaly root and combined with the severe thermomechanical loadings undergone by the disks, leads to a short crack initiation and propagation. On the other hand, these anomalies induce deformations which lead to hardening and residual stresses in the material. The latter have an important influence on the crack propagation and is necessary to take into account. Thus, the aim is to characterize these phenomena induced by the introduction of surface anomalies, namely the short crack effect and the residual stress field.For the short crack effect characterization, a pioneering experimental campaign has been set up implying uniaxial and multiaxial fatigue tests as well as numerical simulations in crack propagation. This experimental campaign highlights the T-stress effect on the crack propagation first. Then, it gives an experimental protocol to obtain short cracks and characterize their behavior. Finally, it gives a lead to take into account the short crack effect via the T-stress.With the aim of characterizing the residual stress field, Synchrotron X-ray diffraction measurements have been performed at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) at Grenoble. The determination of the interatomic distances allows to determine the strains and the induced residual stresses by the anomaly. The results show important 3D stress levels, gradients and a substantial in-depths extent, as expected. The numerical model of a dent introduction has been improved to compare the experimental results with.A strategy to take into account these phenomena in the Incremental model is given in the perspectives in order to consider crack propagation from surface anomalies

Fatigue is one of the main failure mechanisms in engineering. Mechanical surface treatments are being widely used to reduce the incidence of fatigue failures. A new surface treatment, laser shock peening, or laser peening (LP) is being widely studied especialJy in the aerospace industry. LP-induced beneficial residual stresses (RS) act against structural loads leading to an increase in fatigue resistance. Therefore, one of the main parameters determining the fatigue life improvement after LP is the RS fields. Hence, it is crucial that the RS measurement and optimization is carried to obtain the most prolonged fatigue life after LP. RS after LP were obtained by incremental hole drilling, surface X-ray diffraction, synchrotron X-ray diffraction and neutron diffraction. The contour method of stress measurement was developed for thin samples and near-surface measurements in thick samples. Near-surface RS as well as RS in thin plates after LP, which are very challenging to obtain in a reliable manner due to geometrical and material constraints, were measured by at least two different methods to increase the confidence in the results. The possibility of application of LP to thin sections was investigated in this dissertation. After examining different LP parameters and systems, a beneficial RS field after LP was obtained. RS measurements and fatigue tests by Cranfield University, UK, suggest that LP can be applied to thin plates to have a significant increase in fatigue resistance as long as LP parameters are chosen appropriately. RS measurements were also conducted for thick samples after LP. RS results with fatigue tests conducted by EADS lW, Germany, confirm the increase in fatigue performance. Increase in surface roughness and geometrical distortion after LP were also observed for both thin and thick aluminium alloy samples after LP.

In the last few decades, new design concepts and manufacture processes have been developed in order to reduce the maintenance and manufacturing costs, and structural weight of aircraft components. The integral metallic structure with welding processes is one of the most promising solutions. The exclusion of fasteners and overlapping joints in the airframe reduces the costs, the weight, and eliminates stress concentrations near the holes. The research and development of welding processes for large civil aircraft is in the early stages, thus assessment of their impact on damage tolerance (DT) design must be carried out before the technology can be applied for large civil aircraft. Cont/d.

Shot peening is a cold-working surface treatment, basically consisting in pelting the surface of the to-be-treated component with a high number of small hard particles blown at relatively high velocity. This causes the plasticization of the surface layer of the substrate, and the generation of a compressive residual stress field beneath the component surface. The surface topology modification can be beneficial for coating adhesion, and the work hardening enhances the fretting resistance of components, but the most commonly appreciated advantage of the process is the increased fatigue resistance in the treated component, due to the compressive residual stress which inhibits the nucleation and propagation of fatigue cracks. In spite of its widespread use, the mechanisms underlying the shot peening process are not completely clear. Many process parameters are involved (material, dimension, velocity of the shots, coverage, substrate mechanical behavior) and their complex mutual interaction affects the success of the process as well as the jeopardizing of any beneficial effect due to the increased surface roughness. Experimental measurements are excessively expensive and time-costly to deal with the wide variability of the process parameters, and their feasibility is not always granted. The effect of shot peening is indeed particularly effective where geometrical details (e.g. notches or grooves) act as stress raisers and where the direct measurement of residual stresses is very difficult. Nonetheless, the knwoledge of the effects of the treatment in this crictical locations would be extremely useful for the quantitative assessment of the effect of shot peening and, ultimately, for the optimization fo the process as well as its complete integration in the design process. The implementation of the finite element method for the simulation of shot peening has been studied since many years. In this thesis the simulation of shot peening is studied, in order to progress towards a simulation approach to be used in the industrial practice. Specifically, the B120 micro shot peening treatment performed with micrometric ceramic beads is studied, which has proven to be very effective of aluminum alloys, such as the aeronautical grade Al7075-T651 alloy considered in this work. The simulation of shot peening on a flat surface is addressed at first. The nominal process parameters are used, to include stochastic variability of the shot dimensions and velocity. A MatLab routine based on the linearization of the impact dent dimension, on the shot dimension and velocity is used to assess the coverage level prior to the simulation and predict the number of shots to full coverage. To best reproduce the hardening phenomena of the substrate material under repeated impacts, the Lemaitre-Chaboche model is tuned on cyclic strain tests. Explicit dynamic finite element simulations are carried out and the statistical nature of the peening treatment is taken into account. The results extracted from the numerical analyses are the final surface roughness and residual stresses, which are compared to the experimentally measured values. A specific novel procedure is devised to account for the effect of surface roughness and radiation penetration in the in-depth residual stress profile. In addition, a static finite element model is devised to assess the concentration effect exerted by the increased surface roughness on an external stress. The simulation of shot peening on an edge is then addressed as a first step towards more complex geometries. Since the true peening conditions are not known in this locations, a synergistic discrete element - finite element method approach is chosen for the correct modelization of the process. A discrete element model of the peening process on a flat surface is used to tune the simulation on the nominal process parameters, i.e. mass flow rate and average shot velocity, and to assess the nozzle translational velocity. Discrete element simulations are used to simulate the process when the nozzle turns around the edge tip. To lower the computing cost, the process is linearized into static-nozzle simulations at different tilting angles. The number of impacting shots and their impact velocity distribution are used to set up the finite element simulations, from which the resulting residual stress field is obtained. In addition to the realistic simulation, two simplified simulation approaches for the practical industrial use are devised. The resulting residual stress fields are compared with the reference residual stress field computed using thermal fields in a finite element simulation, tuned with experimental XRD measurements. The effect of the dimension of the fillet on the edge tip is studied by modifying the finite element model of shot peening on an edge. 3 different fillet radii (up to 40 um) are considered, on the basis of experimental observations. The resulting residual stress field are compared to analyze the effect of the precise geometry of the substrate. Lastly, the simplified simulation approach devised in the case of the edge is used to simulate shot peening on the root of a notch. The resulting residual stress field is again compared to the reconstructed reference one.

Burnishing is a chipless finishing process used to improve surface integrity by severe plastic deformation (SPD) of surface asperities. As surface integrity in large measure defines the functional performance and fatigue life of aerospace alloys, burnishing is thus a means of increasing the fatigue life of critical components, such as turbine and compressor blades in gas turbine engines. Therefore, the primary objective of this dissertation is to characterize the burnishing-induced surface integrity of Ti-6Al-4V alloy in terms of the implemented processing parameters. As the impact of cooling mechanisms on surface integrity from SPD processing is largely unexplored, a particular emphasis was placed upon evaluating the influence of cryogenic cooling with liquid nitrogen in comparison to more conventional methodologies. Analysis of numerical and experimental results reveals that burnishing facilitates grain refinement via continuous dynamic recrystallization. Application of LN2 during SPD processing of Ti-6Al-4V alloy suppresses the growth of new grains, leading to the formation of near-surface nanostructures which exhibit increased microhardness and compressive residual stress fields. This is particularly true in cryogenic multipass burnishing, where successive tool passes utilizing lower working pressures generate thermally stable work hardened surface layers, uniform nano-level surface finishes, and significantly deeper layers of compressive residual stresses.

Foreign object damage (FOD) refers to the damage that generally takes place in aero engine fans and compressor blades, due to the ingestion of hard particles/debris during aeroplane take-off, taxiing, or landing. Such damage can reduce the fatigue life expectancy of the turbine engine components by 50%. Residual stresses and small microcracks induced by the high speed FOD impacts are two root causes that result in premature failure of these components. One way to mitigate the FOD related fatigue failure is to induce deep compressive residual stress into the surface. Among the available techniques that can induce such compressive residual stress, laser shock peening (LSP) has been found to be beneficial in improving the fatigue strength. In this study aerofoil-shaped Ti-6Al-4V leading edge specimens were laser shock peened. Subsequently, FOD was introduced onto the leading edge specimen through ballistic impacts of a cube edge at angles of 0° and 45° to the leading edge. The effect of foreign object damage (FOD) on the pre-existing compressive residual stress field associated with the laser shock peening (LSP), and its change upon solely low cycle fatigue (LCF) as well as combined low and high cycle fatigue cycling has been studied. The residual stress distribution and their redistribution upon fatigue cycling were mapped around the FOD notch, using synchrotron X-ray radiation and the contour method. The results suggest that under both impact angles, the FOD event superimposed a significant additional residual stress on top of the pre-existing stress associated with the LSP process. It has been observed that the FOD notch created by 45° impact was asymmetric in shape, and had differential notch depth between the entry and exit side. However, FOD damage that is created at 0° impact appeared as a sharp V notch. A higher amount of residual stresses were produced under 0° impact condition than at 45°. It has been found even though the FOD induced residual stresses relax, residual stresses due to LSP treatment remain highly stable even in the worst condition where a 7 mm long crack was grown from a 45° notch. The plastic zone sizes ahead of a crack tip was estimated for both 0° and 45° FOD impact, and the fatigue crack growth rates are predicted utilizing the measured residual stress distribution.

碩士
國立彰化師範大學
工業教育學系
85
ABSTRACT This paper aimed at the investigation of the effect of local temperature field changing on residual stress and angular distortion in weldment. The methods of local temperature changing include bacdside heat welding (BHW), backside cool welding (BCW) and upside cool welding (UCW). In this study , the materials of type 304 stainless steel, 1018 and 1050 carbon steel were used. An autogenous gas tungsten arc welding was utilized. The residual stress were determined by using the hole-drilling strain- gage method of ASTM standard E837. During welding, the thermal cycle of different locations in weldment were recorded. Optical microscrope and Vicker's hardness tester were used to evaluate the metallurgical effect. The experimental results showed that the residual stress increase with the increase of the area involved of temqerature history during welding. The angular distortion decrease with decrease the temperature difference in the thickness direction near the seam. In backside cool welding process, martensite structure was formed in the seam and HAZ in 1050 carbon steel, then the residual stress and angular distortion were reduced. Key words : Welding, Thermal cycle, Phase transformation, Thermal stress, Residual stress, Angular distortion

博士
國立雲林科技大學
工程科技研究所
103
This research constructed a measurement system that can quickly and accurately analyze the residual stress of flexible electronics in the full field. The automatic measurement system was developed with LabVIEW program and it has been made three generations of evolution. First, the double beam shadow moiré interferometer is a symmetry and precision measurement system which required only an interferogram to evaluate the curvature of specimen. According to Stoney formula, the residual stress of flexible electronics was calculated and the relative error of this measurement system was 1.69%. After that, phase-shifting interferometry (PSI) was applied in the double beam shadow moiré interferometer, which can reconstruct the 3D morphology of object. By using Hariharan algorithm, the topography of specimen was constructed with phase unwrapping and the relative error of measurement was 1.26 %. The last measurement system was introduced plane stress theory which can evaluated the principal stress and principal angle with Mohr’s circle. Transparent conductive Al-doped ZnO (AZO) thin films were deposited onto polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substrate and polycarbonate (PC) substrate, using the radio frequency (RF) magnetron sputtering method. The biaxial stress of AZO/PET and AZO/PC were investigated by a phase-shifting shadow moiré interferometer. In the heating process, the films have been subjected to tensile stress state that caused the anisotropy thin films. The optimal parameters of AZO/PET process were the sputtering power 50 W, the substrate temperature 75℃ and the oxygen flow 0.2 sccm.

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The stress-strain and strength properties of a residual soil sampled from the North Shore, Auckland, were investigated through stress and strain-controlled triaxial tests. Emphasis was placed on determining the behavioural characteristics of the soil under conditions of very low effective stress. The soil sampled was a silty clay, derived from the Waitemata Series, with the following average properties: natural water content 45.5%; initial bulk density l707 kg/m3; density of soil particles 2.63 t/m3; plastic limit 32; and liquid limit 60. The peak shearing resistance of the soil was observed to be accurately defined using the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion, even at very low confining pressures. In addition, the Waitemata clay exhibited a measurable tensile strength of between 7.7 and 12.0 kPa. These results lead to the conclusion that the observed cohesion intercept for the soil could be relied upon for design purposes. The natural variation in void ratio of the Waitemata clay led to the use of total volumetric strain for improved stress-strain correlations. A modified critical state relationship for the soil was subsequently presented, with a unified soil model being used to predict the behaviour of the Waitemata clay. This model demonstrated the ability to replicate the general stress-strain and peak characteristics of the soil. The Waitemata clay did not display the yielding characteristics which are common to residual soils, rather the soil demonstrated continuous yielding behaviour. Anisotropy of the Waitemata clay was also found to be negligible. The use of volumetric strain in the calculation of consolidation properties required only simple modifications to existing consolidation formulae. Bender element tests enabled the small strain shear modulus of the soil to be evaluated. Comparisons of Gmax with the undrained shear strength produced a linear correlation (Gmax =284su) which was significantly lower than expected.