Дисертації з теми "Railroad bridges Live loads"

Thomson (1910) first suggested that when designing a bridge the static stress should be increased to account for the dynamic nature of vehicle-bridge interaction. Since that time engineers have increased the static design loads on bridges by a factor usually referred to as the impact factor. Between 1925 and 1979 this impact factor was codified throughout the world as a function of maximum span length. In 1979 the Ontario Highway Bridge Design Code (OHBDC) renamed the impact factor as the "Dynamic Load Allowance" (DLA) and specified it as a function of the first flexural frequency of bridge superstructures. This code provision was subsequently adopted by the National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA), now known as AUSTROADS. Neither the OHBDC nor the NAASRA bridge design specification suggest analysis methods for evaluating the first flexural frequency of bridge superstructures. Consequently, this thesis investigates, in detail, methods used to estimate the fundamental frequency of bridge superstructures and proposes a simple, accurate and quick method for simply supported bridges. As the correlation between field results and theoretical estimates was considered paramount, the significance of transverse and longitudinal support stiffness, dynamic modulus of elasticity and idealisation complexity were assessed. Subsequent to this, a relationship between support stiffness and the shift in fundamental frequency, relative to the frictionless case, was developed. A second major component of this thesis is the concept of Dynamic Load Allowance itself. To gain an appreciation of this phenomenon, full scale bridge testing was undertaken. Results obtained raised several questions about the significance of higher modes of bridge excitation and about the ability of a DLA-first flexural frequency code provision to embody vehiclebridge interaction. The results of the bridge testing led to the suggestion that the dynamic load allowance should be codified as a function of both the first flexural frequency and the length of a bridge.

Throughout the world, many countries are faced with the problem of ageing bridge infrastructure that is being called upon to carry increasing loads. With the difficulties associated with gaining funding to replace or rehabilitate these bridges, asset managers must ensure that the most efficient use is made of the existing infrastructure. It has been shown that theoretical assessment of bridges by analytical means often leads to conservative estimates of capacity. Many bridges therefore have been posted with load limits which do not accurately reflect the structural capacity of these bridges. Various methods of assessing bridge capacity are adopted by. road authorities throughout the world. These forms of assessment include analytical rating, calibration of analytical models by supplementary load testing and assessment by proof load testing. Proof load testing has consistently demonstrated that bridges often have reserves of strengths in excess of that indicated by theoretical analysis. The aim of proof load testing is to determine a realistic bridge load rating which accurately reflects the load capacity of the bridge. This thesis investigates the use of proof load testing in the assessment of bridges and its application to the Australian bridge infrastructure. The procedures used in proof load testing do not vary greatly between countries but the magnitude of the loads applied and the load factors used to calculate a load rating vary significantly. The procedures and practices adopted internationally were reviewed and adapted to suit Australian bridge infrastructure and conditions. The methodology was evaluated through a series of pilot proof load tests and subsequently potential improvements were identified. One of the challenges associated with proof load testing is the determination of the proof load that should be applied. In this thesis, structural reliability methods have been used to determine the proof load required to achieve a desired level of safety after testing. These methods were extended to incorporate the expected residual life of the structure and to investigate the resulting effect on the proof load required. Reliability theory has also been used to assess the risks involved, and the benefits gained by proof load testing. These risks and benefits are expressed in terms of a decreased probability of failure or an increased safety index after a successful proof load test. The methods developed have been applied to the results of the proof load test conducted on the South Pine River Bridge.

The highest live loads on railway lines are on dedicated freight corridors operated as heavy-haul lines. These lines carry high axle loads above 25 tonnes and total tonnage above 20 million tonnes per annum over distances greater than 150km. The South African iron ore line currently operates long trains of length 4.1km with 30 tonne per axle wagons on a narrow gage (1065mm) line over a distance of 861km. The operation of heavy haul lines require close monitoring and structural performance evaluation of existing bridges. This study covered both analytical studies and field measurements of bridge dynamic response and static vertical loads required to compute moments shear for beam-type bridges. The field study of dynamic amplification factors was based on strain measurements on the Olifants bridge located on the heavy-haul iron line in South Africa. The Olifants bridge is a 23 span box girder consisting of 2 continuous span segments of 11 spans at either end and a drop span in the middle. The collected strain data consisted 1174 loaded and 1372 empty train crossing events from June 2016 to March 2017. The probabilistic study was based on weigh-in-motion data of heavy-haul freight collected from January 2016 to August 2016. The study was limited to single span, 2 span and 4 span bridges with equal spans and did not consider fatigue. The dynamic response parameters of interest were frequency time evolution of bridge under heavy loads and dynamic amplification factors. An approximate formula derived using 2 dimensional beam model with moving masses is presented. The approximate formulae predicts the reduced frequency within 12% of the estimate from field vibration measurements of an 11 span continuous bridge with train to bridge linear mass ratio of 88%. The approximate formula underestimates the frequency as the stiffening contribution from train suspension system is ignored in a moving mass approximation. Dynamic amplification factors from strain measurements of a continuous 11 span bridge where considerably higher with maximum of 12% compared to 5% from a moving force analytical model for train speed below 60km/h. The amplification from measurements were considerably higher due to the additional local amplification of strains in upper flange of the box girder. A comparison of amplification factors for loaded and empty trains shows that increase in gross weight increases amplification factors. Furthermore, dynamic amplification factors are not dependent on changes in speed during train crossing. Different extrapolation techniques were used to obtain load effects from the same block maxima data. It was shown that the normal, GEV and Bayesian extrapolation methods give load effects within 1% of each other with the normal extrapolation being marginally on the lower end. This observation holds across beam types and span lengths from 5m to 50m. Although the GEV allows for all the three extreme type distributions, an analysis based on available weigh-in-motion data of axle weights show that the fitted distributions using Bayesian and Maximum Likelihood Estimate for all load effects for the span ranges are all Weibull type. On the other hand it is known that the domain of attraction for the normal distribution is Gumbel type. The study also found that extrapolated loads effects are less sensitive to increase in return period beyond 50 years. This aspect is significant as return period is a measure of safety target when determining design values for loads. The study investigated the impact of traffic volume increase and wagon axle load dependencies. The load effects on heavy-haul were shown to be more sensitive to the weak dependence than to traffic growth over the remaining service life of 50 years. The increase in return levels of load effects is less than 1% for traffic volume growth of 4% over a period of 50 years in contrast to the much higher values between 6% and 9% reported on highway bridges for 3% traffic volume growth over 40 year period. Assessment loads that account for some wagon axle dependence have lower return values of load effects than the assume that axle loads are independent which is consistent with theory.

Integral bridges (IBs) are defined as a class of rigid frame bridges with a single row of piles at the abutments cast monolithically with the superstructure. In the last decade, IBs have become very popular in North America and Europe as they provide many economical and functional advantages. However, standard design methods for IBs have not been established yet. Therefore, most bridge engineers depend on the knowledge acquired from performance of previously constructed IBs and the design codes developed for conventional jointed bridges to design these types of bridges. This include the live load distribution factors used to account for the effect of truck loads on bridge components in the design as well as issues related to the seismic design of such bridges. Accordingly in this study issues related to live load effects as well as seismic effects on IB components are addressed in two separate parts. In the first part of this study, live load distribution formulae for IB components are developed and verified. For this purpose, numerous there dimensional and corresponding two dimensional finite element models (FEMs) of IBs are built and analyzed under live load. The results from the analyses of two and three dimensional FEMs are then used to calculate the live load distribution factors (LLDFs) for the components of IBs (girders, abutments and piles) as a function of some substructure, superstructure and soil properties. Then, live load distribution formulae for the determination of LLDFs are developed to estimate to the live load moments and shears in the girders, abutments and piles of IBs. It is observed that the developed formulae yield a reasonably good estimate of live load effects in IB girders, abutments and piles. In the second part of this study, seismic performance of IBs in comparison to that of conventional bridges is studied. In addition, the effect of several structural and geotechnical parameters on the performance of IBs is assessed. For this purpose, three existing IBs and conventional bridges with similar properties are considered. FEMs of these IBs are built to perform nonlinear time history analyses of these bridges. The analyses results revealed that IBs have a better overall seismic performance compared to that of conventional bridges. Moreover, IBs with thick, stub abutments supported by steel H piles oriented to bend about their strong axis driven in loose to medium dense sand are observed to have better seismic performance. The level of backfill compaction is found to have no influence on the seismic performance of IBs.

The objective of this research is to develop a rational approach to the safety analysis of highway bridge superstructures. The developed models have been demonstrated on examples of short and medium span, prestressed concrete deck unit and girder bridges. Probabilistic models for structural resistance and load effects have been constructed using measured data. The load components considered were dead load and traffic live load. The ultimate resistance was assumed to be lognormally distributed, while dead load was assumed to be normally distributed. The Gumbel distribution was selected to model traffic live load effects. Safety was measured Reliability indices in terms of a reliability index. were calculated for the ultimate strength limit state for bridge superstructures. Structural reliability is calculated using the advanced methods, allowing consideration of actual distributions of loads and resistance. Safety was evaluated for prestressed concrete designed to the existing NAASRA Bridge Specification and also in accordance with the Bridge Design Code in Limit States format. The members Design draft draft code has achieved a more uniform level of reliability for all structures.

Accurately predicting the response of complex bridge structures to strong earthquake ground motion requires the use of sophisticated nonlinear dynamic analysis computer programs not generally available to the bridge design engineer. The analytical tools that have been developed are generally applicable to bridges whose substructures can be idealized as beam-columns. Bridges with wall piers do not belong to this category The major objective of this study is to develop an analysis tool capable of simulating the effects of earthquakes on monolithic concrete wall pier bridges. Thus, after surveying the literature, a mathematical model is developed for the geometrically nonlinear earthquake analysis of wall pier bridges. Mixed plate elements are used to model the wall pier. The plate element has eight nodes and the degrees of freedom per node are three displacements and three moments. Beam elements are used to model the bridge deck. The beam element accounts for shear deformation and it has two nodes with three displacements and three rotations as degrees of freedom per node. A transitional element is used to join the beam elements to the plate elements. The equation of dynamic equilibrium is solved using the Newmark method with modified Newton-Raphson type iteration at each time step. The mixed plate element is used to model two plate structures and the results are compared with analytical and other finite element solutions. A two span wall pier bridge is modeled using the structural elements developed in this study. The digitized time history for the N-S component of the El Centro Earthquake of May 18, 1940, is used to seismically excite the bridge model.
Ph. D.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2013.
ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Different types of live loading due to traffic may act on bridges. The focus of this study is on normal traffic loading according to the South African specification of TMH7. Heavy vehicles are not included in normal traffic loading. TMH7 represents the code of practice for the design of highway bridges and culverts in South Africa. The aim of the study is to provide an insight into the flexural analysis of skew bridges, under the effects of normal traffic loading. The need for the study arose since the specification of TMH7 does not explicitly specify application patterns for normal traffic loading. Only the intensity of normal traffic loading is specified and it should be applied to yield the most adverse effects. For these reasons, a set of so-called standard application patterns are investigated and developed through the course of this study. The envelope of the values from the standard application patterns are compared to the most adverse application pattern for flexural effects in certain design regions of the bridge deck. Flexure, as in the context of this study, translates into the bending and twisting of the bridge deck under loads. A number of numerical experiments are performed for typical single span and multi-span continuous carriageways, where the standard application patterns are compared to the most adverse application patterns. The results from the numerical experiments are documented and compared as the angle of skew of the bridge deck increases in plan-view. For this purpose, the development of effective and specialized software was necessary. It was found that the set of standard application patterns can be used as a preliminary approximation for the most adverse effects of normal traffic loading, for specific flexural resultants in certain design regions of a bridge deck. However, for a large number of secondary flexural effects, the set of standard application patterns did not represent a good approximation for the most adverse values.
AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Verskillende tipes lewendige belasting, as gevolg van verkeer, kan op brûe inwerk. Die fokus van die studie is op normale verkeers-belasting volgens die Suid-Afrikaanse spesifikasie van TMH7. Swaar-voertuie word nie ingesluit by normale verkeers-belasting nie. TMH7 verteenwoordig die kode vir die ontwerp van padbrûe en duikers in Suid-Afrika. Die doel van die studie is om insig te verskaf in die buig-analise van skewe brûe, as gevolg van die werking van normale verkeers-belasting. Die rede vir hierdie studie ontstaan aangesien die spesifikasie van TMH7 nie eksplisiet aanwendingspatrone vir normale verkeers-belasting voorskryf nie. Slegs die intensiteit van normale verkeersbelasting word voorgeskryf en dit moet aangewend word om die negatiefste effekte te verkry. Vir hierdie redes word 'n versameling van sogenaamde standaard aanwendings-patrone deur die loop van die studie ondersoek en ontwikkel. Die omhullings-kurwe van die waardes wat deur die standaard patrone gelewer word, word vergelyk met die waarde van die aanwendings-patroon wat die negatiefste buig-effek in sekere ontwerp-areas van die brugdek veroorsaak. Buig-effekte, soos van toepassing op hierdie studie, verwys na buig en wring van die brugdek as gevolg van belastings. 'n Aantal numeriese eksperimente, vir enkel-span sowel as multi-span deurlopende brugdekke, word uitgevoer en die standaard aanwendings-patrone word vergelyk met die aanwendings-patrone wat die negatiefste waardes lewer. Die resultate van die numeriese eksperimente word gedokumenteer en vergelyk soos die hoek van skeefheid van die brugdek in plan-aansig toeneem. Vir hierdie doel is die ontwikkeling van effektiewe en gespesialiseerde sagteware dus nodig. Daar is gevind dat die standaard aanwendings-patrone, vir spesifieke buig-resultante in sekere ontwerp-areas van die brugdek, as 'n voorlopige benadering vir die negatiefste effekte van normale verkeers-belasting gebruik kan word. Dit was egter verder gevind dat vir 'n groot aantal sekondêre buig-effkte, die versameling standaard aanwendings-patrone nie as 'n goeie benadering vir die negatiefste waardes dien nie.

Thesis (S.M.)--Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2012.
Cataloged from PDF version of thesis.
Includes bibliographical references (p. 115-117)
Highway bridges are exposed to numerous elemental and loading issues that are extremely difficult for a designer to anticipate and account for during design. The current state of practice is to design a bridge deck for a certain life span and then turn the bridge over to maintenance personnel who attempt to prolong the life of the deck through a variety of repair and rehabilitation measures. These repair measures are rarely, if ever, considered during the design process of the bridge deck. Numerous researchers have looked at making bridges, specifically decks, more repairable. The majority of these research efforts have focused on the bridge deck system as a whole. Other researchers have looked at individual elements of the bridge deck to girder connection to see if the required strength could be achieved while making the connections easier to take apart. One of the main components in the bridge deck to girder system is the steel shear stud connection, which is used to create composite action between the deck and the girder. Numerous researchers have studied this connection from a strength perspective, and the strength equations for the shear connection have been codified. Shear connections using headless studs have been researched as well, but always as a part of a larger deck to girder connection system. The headless stud has never been researched to see how it responds to a shear loading. This study looks at headless studs with varying levels of debonding along the stud shaft to analyze the impact on the load resistance that the levels of debonding would have. Granular materials for the shear transfer of load are also looked at. The results show that, as expected, the headless, debonded shear studs can carry less load than a bonded stud, but the difference in load carrying capacity is within the suggested over-estimation range of the codes that other researchers have suggested. These results suggest that the use of headless, debonded shear studs in a deck to girder connection is a feasible way to make that connection more repairable.
Funded by the U.S. Dept. of the Army.
by Berndt F. Spittka
S.M.

Scientific research has identified road roughness as a significant factor that contributes to increased vehicle dynamic wheel loads and therefore damage to pavements and bridges. The other factors include vehicle speed and vehicle suspension type. More specifically and regarding road roughness, research has shown that damaging effects are caused by certain wavelengths and features in road profiles and not the overall road roughness. Various methods of classifying road roughness based on the ride quality are available. These methods, though important, are limited in identifying the location of features along road profiles that cause exceptionally high dynamic wheel loads hence damage. It is the development of a methodology for identifying the location of these abnormally high dynamic wheel forces that this thesis addresses. A vehicle-road interaction model was developed for this research. This computer model uses a quarter vehicle model and recorded road profile elevation data to simulate the response of half a vehicle axle (quarter vehicle) driving along a road. 47 road profiles over 17 bridges were measured to run the model. Signal processing techniques developed by electrical and mechanical engineers have been used as an additional tool to road profile analysis. These techniques are very powerful and their application to road profile investigations is significant. Using computer simulation and by combining ride and damage criteria analysis, a methodology of identifying segments of road that induce high dynamic wheel forces and the location of abnormally high dynamic wheel forces has been established.

Bridges consisting of multiple parallel pre-stressed and pre-fabricated Tee-beams topped by a cast-on-site concrete slab are often a cost-effective way of constructing simply-supported and multi-span bridge structures in many countries world-wide. For the design of these bridges computer models are often utilised. This thesis presents a comprehensive discussion of modelling issues encountered in the practical design work on this bridge type. A chapter on the modelling of various loading conditions is followed by a detailed discussion of the modelling of the longitudinal load bearing system, the Tee-beams, and the lateral load-bearing system, the roadway slab. A summary of commonly used bridge systems in various countries is also included. All this material is presented considering design code requirements in various internationally used specifications. The information included in this thesis has been used to define specifications for the implementation of a software tool to support the design of so-called Super-Tee bridges. A summary of these specifications is given in the conclusions of this thesis. Material included in this thesis has also been published in the following conference proceedings: Pircher G., Pircher M. (2004) “Computer-aided design and analysis of multiple Tee-beam bridges”, Proceedings: Fifth Austroads Bridge Conference, Hobart, Australia, on CD Pircher M, Pircher G, Wheeler A (2006) “Automated Analysis and Design of Super-Tee Bridges”, Proceedings: Sixth Austroads Bridge Conference, Perth (in publication)
Master of Engineering (Hons)

Large numbers of 1950's vintage conventionally reinforced concrete (CRC) bridges remain in-service in the national bridge inventory. Many of these bridges are lightly reinforced for shear. Evaluation of these bridges to prevent unnecessary and costly repairs requires refined analytical techniques. This dissertation presents finite element (FE) modeling and comparisons of various analytical methods for predicting capacity of CRC girders typical of reinforced concrete deck girder (RCDG) bridges. Analyses included bridge-system load distribution, member capacity prediction, and consideration of corrosion damage for strength deterioration. Two in-service RCDG bridges were inspected and instrumented to measure response under known load configurations. Load distribution was developed for the bridges based on the field data. Comparisons with AASHTO factors indicated the design factors for load distribution are conservative. Load distribution of the tested bridges was numerically obtained using FE analysis. The comparisons between predicted results and field-test data indicated the elastic FE analysis can be used for modeling of cracked RCDG bridges to predict load distribution factors for more accurate bridge evaluation. Analyses were performed for a large set of full-size RCDG, designed to reflect 1950's vintage details, and tested using various loading configurations. Four different analysis methods were used to predict the capacity of the specimens considering details of various stirrup spacing, debonded stirrups, flexural-bar cutoff, anchorage of flexural reinforcing, and moving supports. Nonlinear FE analyses were performed to predict behavior of two groups of experimental reinforced concrete (RC) specimens. Two different span-to-depth ratios were included: 2.0 and approximately 3.0. Concrete confinement effects were included in the material modeling. A quasi-displacement control technique was developed to reduce solution times. The FE predicted results correlated well with the experimental data. FE modeling techniques were developed to isolate different contributions of corrosion damage to structural response of experimental RC beams designed to produce diagonal-tension failures. Corrosion-damage parameters included concrete cover spalling; uniform stirrup cross-sectional loss; local stirrup cross-sectional loss due to pitting; and debonding of corrosion-damaged stirrups from the concrete. FE analyses were performed including both individual and combined damages. The FE results matched experimental results well and quantitatively estimated capacity reduction of the experimental specimens.
Graduation date: 2005
Best scan available.

Optical fibres have been used for developing variety of sensing configurations for monitoring a wide range of parameters. This thesis presents the design, construction and characterisation of a new type of single-transducer optical fibre Weigh-ln-Motion (WIM) sensor. The sensor is based on an extended (long) fibre optic Fabry-Perot interferometer. The Fabry-Perot arrangement was chosen for its simplicity, sensitivity, low cost and ease of installation.