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Статті в журналах з теми "Race, ethnicity and law"

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Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 10 грудня 2022

Оновлено: 28 січня 2023

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1

Jetelina, Katelyn K., Stephen A. Bishopp, Jared G. Wiegand, and Jennifer M. Reingle Gonzalez. "Race/ethnicity composition of police officers in officer-involved shootings." Policing: An International Journal 43, no. 2 (January 3, 2020): 263–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-10-2019-0166.

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Purpose The purpose of this paper is to evaluate officer and civilian race/ethnicity disparities during ten years of officer-involved shootings (OIS). Design/methodology/approach Internal affairs, personnel and geospatial data were triangulated for 253 OIS at the Dallas Police Department from 2005 to 2015. Multinomial regression models were used to evaluate the relationship between civilian and officer race/ethnicity in OIS, controlling for officer, situational and neighborhood factors. Findings In total, 48 percent of unique OIS involved a non-Hispanic black civilian and most OIS occurred in Hispanic majority neighborhoods (48 percent). Officer age and number of shooters on scene were the only variables significantly associated with officer race/ethnicity. Most notably, officer race/ethnicity was not associated with the race/ethnicity of the civilian during OIS incidents. Originality/value There is limited scientific evidence on whether officers of certain races/ethnicities are disproportionately likely to engage in OIS with civilians of a particular race/ethnicity due to the relative rarity of such events.

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2

Hans, Valerie P., and Ramiro Martinez. "Intersections of race, ethnicity, and the law." Law and Human Behavior 18, no. 3 (1994): 211–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf01499585.

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3

Edwards, Barry Clayton. "Race, Ethnicity, and Alphabetically Ordered Ballots." Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy 13, no. 3 (September 2014): 394–404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/elj.2013.0226.

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4

López, Ian F. Haney, and Ian F. Haney Lopez. "Race, Ethnicity, Erasure: The Salience of Race to LatCrit Theory." California Law Review 85, no. 5 (October 1997): 1143. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3481058.

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5

Bonner, Heidi S., Frank A. Rodriguez, and Jon R. Sorensen. "Race, ethnicity, and prison disciplinary misconduct." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 15, no. 1 (November 21, 2016): 36–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2016.1261058.

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6

Wu, Jawjeong, and Miriam A. DeLone. "Revisiting the Normal Crime and Liberation Hypotheses." Criminal Justice Review 37, no. 2 (February 13, 2012): 214–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016811436336.

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The established sentencing scholarship focusing on race/ethnicity and sentencing disparity indicates that the effect of race/ethnicity on sentencing severity varies across offense types. However, it is not clear whether this argument holds true when race/ethnicity is replaced with offender citizenship status as the primary variable of interest. In light of the research gap, this study extends beyond the existing literature exclusively on race/ethnicity by investigating the nexus between citizenship status, offense types, and sentencing outcomes through the normal crime hypothesis and the liberation hypothesis. Using the Monitoring of Federal Criminal Sentences data that include information on all offenders sentenced in 17 federal district courts for fiscal years 2006–2008, the present study assesses the independent and interactive effects of citizenship status and offense types on the judicial sentence length decision. Findings reveal that although models fail to support the normal crime hypothesis, there is robust support for the liberation hypothesis.

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7

Lee, Jacqueline G., and Rebecca L. Richardson. "Race, Ethnicity, and Trial Avoidance: A Multilevel Analysis." Criminal Justice Policy Review 31, no. 3 (November 25, 2018): 422–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0887403418812998.

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Minority criminal defendants are more likely than White defendants to exercise their right to trial, which is concerning given that research also consistently finds trial sentences to be harsher than those obtained via pleas. However, guilty pleas are not the only disposition available for avoiding a trial; pretrial diversions and case dismissals also serve as mechanisms for trial avoidance. Using hierarchical linear modeling, we find that Black criminal defendants are more likely than Whites to go to trial rather than receive other case disposition. Relationships for Hispanic defendants are less consistent. Fewer county-level effects emerge than expected, providing little to no support for racial threat theory. Results suggest that Black defendants are less often able or willing to avoid a trial, a finding which highlights and perhaps helps to explain racial disparities in final sentencing outcomes.

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8

Wu, Yuning, and Liqun Cao. "Race/ethnicity, discrimination, and confidence in order institutions." Policing: An International Journal 41, no. 6 (December 3, 2018): 704–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/pijpsm-03-2017-0031.

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PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to propose and test a conceptual model that explains racially/ethnically differential confidence in order institutions through a mediating mechanism of perception of discrimination.Design/methodology/approachThis study relies on a nationally representative sample of 1,001 respondents and path analysis to test the relationships between race/ethnicity, multiple mediating factors, and confidence in order institutions.FindingsBoth African and Latino Americans reported significantly lower levels of confidence compared to White Americans. People who have stronger senses of being discriminated against, regardless of their races, have reduced confidence. A range of other cognitive/evaluative variables have promoted or inhibited people’s confidence in order institutions.Research limitations/implicationsThis study relies on cross-sectional data which preclude definite inferences regarding causal relationships among the variables. Some measures are limited due to constraint of data.Practical implicationsTo lessen discrimination, both actual and perceived, officials from order institutions should act fairly and impartially, recognize citizen rights, and treat people with respect and dignity. In addition, comprehensive measures involving interventions throughout the entire criminal justice system to reduce racial inequalities should be in place.Social implicationsEqual protection and application of the law by order institutions are imperative, so are social policies that aim to close the structural gaps among all races and ethnicities.Originality/valueThis paper takes an innovative effort of incorporating the currently dominant group position perspective and the injustice perspective into an integrated account of the process by which race and ethnicity affect the perception of discrimination, which, in turn, links to confidence in order institutions.

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9

Georges-Abeyie, Daniel E. "Defining Race, Ethnicity, and Social Distance: Their Impact on Crime, Criminal Victimization, and the Criminal Justice Processing of Minorities." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 8, no. 2 (May 1992): 100–113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/104398629200800204.

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This paper examines the social, cultural, and biological realities of the popular as well as scientific use of the terms race and ethnicity then examines the significance of “social distance” in the criminal justice context which frequently involves Negroids, Hispanics, and other nonwhite minorities. It provides an analysis of the possible impact of them is application of the concepts race and ethnicity, and thus, social distance, upon the crime commission, criminal victimization, and criminal justice processing of “Blacks” and other nonwhite ethnic and racial minorities. It concludes with seven pertinent research questions that could be explored which would further the understanding of the role race, ethnicity, and social distance play in the perpetration of crimes by minorities as well as the criminal victimization and criminal justice processing of minorities.

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10

Ren, Ling, Fei Luo, and Kyler Nielson. "Racial/Ethnic Connection with Confidence in the Police: Equal Treatment Matters." Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice 64, no. 3 (July 1, 2022): 49–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjccj.2021-0050.

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Recent discussions on confidence in the police by race/ethnicity call for shifting the research focus from whether race/ethnicity matters to why and how it matters. The purpose of this article is to decipher the mediating role of the quality of police treatment in a nuanced study of racial impact on confidence in the police. Data were collected from a two-wave random-sample telephone survey of approximately 2400 residents in Houston, TX. The results confirm the expected effect of race/ethnicity on confidence in the police, net of neighborhood contexts and respondents’ demographics. More importantly, we found that the three measures tapping into the quality of police treatment during police–resident encounters partially mediate the race/ethnicity effect on views of police. Perceived equal treatment emerged as having the strongest effect. When the combined race/ethnicity sample was divided into three racial/ethnic subsamples, perceived equal treatment exerted the largest effects on confidence in the police both within and across the groups. Its effect is most pronounced for the Black subsample. Implications for future research and policy are discussed.

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11

Grossman, Susan F., and Marta Lundy. "Domestic Violence Across Race and Ethnicity." Violence Against Women 13, no. 10 (October 2007): 1029–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801207306018.

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12

O’Neal, Eryn Nicole, and Laura O. Beckman. "Intersections of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender." Violence Against Women 23, no. 5 (July 9, 2016): 643–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1077801216646223.

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Using an intersectional framework, this article discusses the barriers to social services that Latina victims of intimate partner violence encounter, a drastically underdeveloped area of theorizing. We argue that placing Latinas at the center of analysis will facilitate empirical knowledge, which is necessary because mainstream inquiry has historically ignored their interests. First, we discuss cultural barriers through the lenses of gender, race, and ethnicity. Second, we describe socioeconomic barriers in conjunction with gender, race, and ethnicity. Third, we examine legal barriers along with the representation of gender, race, and ethnicity. Finally, we suggest directions for research and recommendations for service providers.

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13

Brown, Joe M., and Jon R. Sorensen. "Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Waiver to Adult Court." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 11, no. 3 (July 2013): 181–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2012.756846.

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14

Crow, Matthew S. "The Complexities of Prior Record, Race, Ethnicity, and Policy." Criminal Justice Review 33, no. 4 (October 13, 2008): 502–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016808320709.

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15

Chérif, Mohamed, and André Normandeau. "Police, Race and Ethnicity: A Guide for Law Enforcement Officers." Canadian Journal of Criminology 30, no. 3 (July 1988): 305–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.3138/cjcrim.30.3.305.

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16

Ward, James D. "Race, Ethnicity, and Law Enforcement Profiling: Implications for Public Policy." Public Administration Review 62, no. 6 (November 2002): 726–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1540-6210.00254.

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17

Peguero, Anthony A., Ann Marie Popp, and Dixie J. Koo. "Race, Ethnicity, and School-Based Adolescent Victimization." Crime & Delinquency 61, no. 3 (February 28, 2011): 323–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128711398021.

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18

Webster, Colin. "Marginalized white ethnicity, race and crime." Theoretical Criminology 12, no. 3 (August 2008): 293–312. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1362480608093308.

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19

Petersen, Nick. "Cumulative Racial and Ethnic Inequalities in Potentially Capital Cases." Criminal Justice Review 45, no. 2 (August 21, 2017): 225–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016817721291.

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To understand how racial/ethnic disparities are formed and sustained within death penalty institutions, this study tracks homicide cases through multiple stages of Los Angeles County’s criminal justice system. Drawing upon cumulative disadvantage research, this study focuses on the accumulation of racial/ethnic biases across multiple decision-making points. Logistic regressions seek to answer the following questions: (1) does victim/defendant race/ethnicity influence prosecutorial decision-making? and (2) if so, do these racial/ethnic disparities accumulate across multiple stages of the criminal justice system? Results indicate that cases with minority victims are less likely to involve a death-eligible charge or death notice. Moreover, these racial/ethnic disparities increase as cases advance through the courts, producing a Whiter pool of victims at later stages in the process. Defendant race/ethnicity is not predictive of death penalty charging decisions but does moderate the influence of victim race/ethnicity such that cases with minority defendants and White victims are treated more punitively.

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20

Treviño González, Mónica. "Race, Gender, and Ethnicity in Contemporary Brazil." Latin American Research Review 43, no. 1 (2008): 219–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lar.2008.0014.

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21

Salzmann, Zdenek. "The Language, Ethnicity and Race Reader (review)." Language 81, no. 3 (2005): 777–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1353/lan.2005.0151.

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22

Peck, Jennifer H. "Contemporary issues of race/ethnicity, offending behavior, and justice responses." Journal of Crime and Justice 39, no. 1 (January 2, 2016): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/0735648x.2015.1136381.

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23

Gibbons, Don C. "Review Essay: Race, Ethnicity, Crime, and Social Policy." Crime & Delinquency 43, no. 3 (July 1997): 358–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128797043003008.

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This essay discusses some of the major facets of the race, ethnicity, and crime topic and identifies the major questions that need to be addressed. It reviews the development of criminological interest in this topic from the 1920s to the present. Furthermore, it reviews the evidence on race and crime and on ethnicity and gang behavior. Finally, it examines a number of recent statements that have addressed issues of public policy related to “underclass” crime.

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24

Simba, Malik. "Gong Lum v. Rice: The Convergence of Law, Race and Ethnicity." Explorations in Ethnic Studies 15, no. 2 (July 1, 1992): 1–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/ees.1992.15.2.1.

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25

Ellis, Lee. "Race/ethnicity and criminal behavior: Neurohormonal influences." Journal of Criminal Justice 51 (July 2017): 34–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2017.05.013.

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26

Martin, Christine. "Conviction Odds in Chicago Homicide Cases: Does Race/Ethnicity Matter?" Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 11, no. 1-2 (January 1, 2013): 22–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2013.739386.

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27

Shahad Marzoog, Zahraa, Ashraf Dhannon Hasan, and Hawraa Hassan Abbas. "Gender and race classification using geodesic distance measurement." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 27, no. 2 (August 1, 2022): 820. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v27.i2.pp820-831.

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<span lang="EN-US">Gender and ethnicity classifications are a long-standing challenge in the face recognition’s field. They are key-demographic traits of individuals and applied in real-world applications such as biometric and demographic research, human-computer interaction (HCI), law enforcement and online advertisements. Thus, many methods have been proposed to address gender or/and race classifications and achieved various accuracies. This research improves race and gender classification by employing a geodesic path algorithm to extract discriminative features of both gender and ethnicity. PCA is also utilized for dimensionality reduction of Gender-feature and race-feature matrices. KNN and SVM are used to classify the extracted feature. This research was tested on the face recognition technology (FERET) dataset, with classification results demonstrating high-level performance (100%) in distinguishing gender and ethnicity.</span>

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28

King, Laura L. "Book Review: Citizenship Status, Race, Ethnicity, and Their Effects on Sentencing." Criminal Justice Policy Review 25, no. 4 (March 12, 2013): 525–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0887403413476513.

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29

Brennan, Pauline K., and Cassia Spohn. "Race/Ethnicity and Sentencing Outcomes Among Drug Offenders in North Carolina." Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice 24, no. 4 (June 19, 2008): 371–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1043986208322712.

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30

Baker, Thomas. "Exploring the Relationship of Shared Race/Ethnicity With Court Actors, Perceptions of Court Procedural Justice, and Obligation to Obey Among Male Offenders." Race and Justice 7, no. 1 (July 31, 2016): 87–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2153368716650728.

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Using survey data from a sample of White, Black, and Hispanic male offenders ( n = 311), this study examines whether the relationship between procedural justice and obligation to obey the law is substantiated among a sample of offenders. Further, this study explores the impact that sharing the race/ethnicity of the defense attorney, prosecutor, and judge in their most recent conviction has on male offenders’ perceptions of court procedural justice and their perceived obligation to obey the law. The findings reveal that male offenders who perceive the courts as more procedurally just report a significantly greater obligation to obey the law. In addition, Black and Hispanic offenders who shared the race/ethnicity of the prosecutor in their case perceived the courts as significantly more just. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.

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31

Saviet, Micah, and Geoffrey L. Greif. "Relationships Between Parents-In-Law and Children-In-Law of Differing Racial and Ethnic Backgrounds." Advances in Social Work 21, no. 1 (June 14, 2021): 154–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.18060/23935.

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In-law relationships have drawn recent interest from family scholars. Historical trends demonstrate a significant rise in newlyweds marrying someone of a different race or ethnicity. Given this growing population of inter-racial marriage, the need to know more about these couples and their families is paramount. This article describes four themes that emerged from qualitative interviews with nine parents-in-law discussing their relationships with their child-in-law who is of a different race. The overarching themes identified for in-laws included: being initially hesitant based on race and/or culture; managing barriers pertaining to communication, language, and/or culture; differences that were enriching to the in-law relationship; and bonding related to shared minority status. Based on these findings, social workers may assume a supportive role for members of interracial families as they navigate not only social barriers but also their in-law relationships.

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32

HUEBNER, BETH M., and TIMOTHY S. BYNUM. "THE ROLE OF RACE AND ETHNICITY IN PAROLE DECISIONS*." Criminology 46, no. 4 (November 2008): 907–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2008.00130.x.

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33

BONTRAGER, STEPHANIE, WILLIAM BALES, and TED CHIRICOS. "RACE, ETHNICITY, THREAT AND THE LABELING OF CONVICTED FELONS*." Criminology 43, no. 3 (August 2005): 589–622. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0011-1348.2005.00018.x.

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34

Block, Carolyn Rebecca. "Race/Ethnicity and Patterns of Chicago Homicide 1965 to 1981." Crime & Delinquency 31, no. 1 (January 1985): 104–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0011128785031001006.

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The pattern of change over time in the number of homicides in Chicago is a composite of patterns of homicides involving many segments of the population. This analysis uses time series specification to determine whether the pattern of change from 1965 through 1981 can be explained by change in homicide of one race or ethnic group. The rapid increase of the sixties is not specified by race/ethnicity; it occurred for every race and ethnic group despite differing patterns of change in their populations. The peaks in 1970 and 1974 and the increase from 1977 to 1981 occurred only for certain groups. However, no single segment of the population was responsible for the entire pattern.

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35

Äystö, Tuomas. "Religion, Ethnicity, and Race in Finnish Legal Cases on Insults Against Religion." Temenos - Nordic Journal of Comparative Religion 54, no. 2 (December 19, 2018): 185–212. http://dx.doi.org/10.33356/temenos.69828.

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This article scrutinizes the Finnish religious insults and the related legal practice during the 21st century. It examines how the Office of the Prosecutor General, the courts, as well as the defendants construct the category of religion – i.e. that, which is a target of a special protection – and how the discourses on ethnicity and race play a part in that process. It is found, that ways in which the defendants construct the targeted groups with terms considered to be about religion, ethnicity or race affects the ways the officials construct these groups. This includes the practical abolishment of the formal category of religion, found in the letter of law, in favour of the popular one. Furthermore, it is argued, that while being part of the established religion discourse improves the chances for benefitting from the religious insult legislation, the said law, applied quite inconsistently, is found to be relatively ineffective avenue for groups seeking justice amid speech or actions considered to be religiously offending. More generally, the article demonstrates that the discursive study of religion can benefit from a perspective where empirically nearby categories (such as ethnicity and race) are incorporated into the analysis.

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36

Brennan, Fernne. "The Race Directive: Recycling Racial Inequality." Cambridge Yearbook of European Legal Studies 5 (2003): 311–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1528887000004377.

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The new european Race Directive is one of the latest measures adopted by the Council of Ministers under its enlarged powers aimed at combating racism in the EU. This Race Directive reflects the strategic thinking of EU policy aimed at combating institutionally racist constraints on the free movement of persons within the Community. Nevertheless, this paper argues that the effectiveness of the Directive is likely to be limited. This potential impediment is premised on two factors: the textual ambivalence that surrounds the concepts of ‘race’ and ‘ethnicity’ and the scope of the instrument. In turn, these restrictions are indicative of a power struggle between the EU and nation states, a struggle that threatens to sideline the broader picture of institutional racism and how to defeat it.

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37

Nowacki, Jeffrey S. "Federal Sentencing Guidelines and United States v. Booker: Social Context and Sentencing Disparity." Criminal Justice Policy Review 29, no. 1 (December 15, 2015): 45–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0887403415619987.

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The United States v. Booker decision rendered Federal Sentencing Guidelines advisory rather than mandatory. In the context of this decision, this study examines both the direct influence of aggregate-level political, community, and administrative variables on sentencing outcomes, and the way that such characteristics might contextualize individual-level predictors. Using multi-level regression techniques, this study examines the role of aggregate-level variables on sentence length decisions across four distinct time periods. Moreover, this article also examines whether aggregate-level variables condition the effects of race/ethnicity on sentencing outcomes. Whereas the direct effects of aggregate-level variables on sentencing outcomes are generally limited to political climate effects, there is evidence that political climate and other aggregate-level measures contextualize individual-level race/ethnicity effects. Future research should seek to better understand the specific mechanisms behind these relationships.

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38

Deb, Shreyasi, and Nancy A. Miller. "Relationships Among Race/Ethnicity, Gender, and Mental Health Status in Patient–Provider Interactions." Journal of Disability Policy Studies 29, no. 3 (April 24, 2018): 131–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1044207318772064.

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Patient–provider interactions are associated with improved health outcomes and are of particular importance to individuals with mental health disabilities. We examine the relation between having a severe mental health–related disability (SMD) and patient–provider interactions and whether this is moderated by patient race/ethnicity and gender. We pooled Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data over multiple years and used multivariate techniques to examine the relation between having a SMD, race/ethnicity and gender and four measures of patient/provider interactions (e.g., being treated with respect). Adults with SMD had significantly higher relative risks (RRs) of reporting poorer interactions across measures. Although some effects of race/ethnicity and gender were observed, they did not moderate SMD. Individuals with Medicaid coverage or no health insurance had higher RRs of poorer interactions, while individuals with a person as a usual source of care had lower RRs. Incorporating these process measures of care into national quality initiatives may foster improved interactions. Continued policy support of models of care such as medical homes may enhance interactions as well.

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39

Watson, Sidney D. "Race, Ethnicity and Quality Of Care: Inequalities and Incentives." American Journal of Law & Medicine 27, no. 2-3 (2001): 203–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0098858800011485.

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As was my custom, I moved from one exam room to the next with a fluidity that comes from years of practice, yet I was stopped in my tracks when Mr. North rose to his feet to greet me. His deep ebony, six foot-three-inch frame dwarfed my pale, five-foot-three presence. The tremendous hands on his 260 pound body grabbed my own outstretched right hand and shook it…. I glanced at his face, trying to see through my initial discomfort, only to be greeted by my own face staring back at me from the silver, reflective sunglasses he wore beneath a baseball cap that covered his head and any hair that might have been growing on it. His huge chest was tightly wrapped in a black T-shirt that, even in its largest version, couldn't stretch comfortably to encompass his pectoral girth….Mr. North became one of my favorite patients….I like him because I realize how hard I have had to work all of my life to overcome the racist feelings that made me fear him when we first met and that never allow me to act completely naturally in his presence.

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Jordan, Kareem L., and Shaun L. Gabbidon. "Race/Ethnicity and Perceptions of Safety Among a National Sample of Americans." Criminal Justice Review 35, no. 3 (May 6, 2010): 281–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734016810366453.

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Padilla, K. E. "Sources and severity of stress in a Southwestern police department." Occupational Medicine 70, no. 2 (February 5, 2020): 131–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqaa018.

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Abstract Background Policing is a stressful occupation. Most research examining police stress focuses solely on patrol officers, and often focuses on black and white officers only. Further, organizational sources of stress tend to be more important for police officers generally. Aims To explore sources and severity of stress in a predominately Hispanic, mid-sized, Southwestern police department. Methods A cross-sectional study of 147 police officers of all ranks was conducted. A modified version of the Police Stress Survey (PSS) was administered during daily briefings. Logistical regression models were utilized to examine predictors of stress based on gender, race/ethnicity, rank and tenure. Results Overall, occupational stressors proved more prominent than organizational stressors, contrary to previous research. Additionally, race/ethnicity was predictive of both total stress and occupational stress; rank was predictive of organizational stress; and tenure in law enforcement was predictive of occupational stress. Conclusions The sources of stress that impact police officers may be shifting as the climate surrounding law enforcement changes. What is stressful for officers depends on the race/ethnicity, rank and tenure of the officer within the organizational structure. Potential interventions designed to alleviate stress should be mindful of the variety of needs within any given department.

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Welch, Ashton Wesley. "Ethnic and Racial Definitions as Manifestations of American Public Policy." Ethnic Studies Review 26, no. 2 (January 1, 2003): 1–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/esr.2003.26.2.1.

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Official definitions of race and ethnicity in American law reveal a great deal about public policy in an environment of ethnic pluralism. Despite some ambiguity over who is black or Hispanic or an Aleut, relatively few people fall between the wide cracks in the American patchwork of identity classifications. Those cracks, however, tell us a great deal about the ambivalence of the American polity toward ethnicity.

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Foster, Kathryn, Melissa S. Jones, and Hayley Pierce. "Race and Ethnicity Differences in Police Contact and Perceptions of and Attitudes Toward the Police Among Youth." Criminal Justice and Behavior 49, no. 5 (March 3, 2022): 660–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/00938548221078296.

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While investigations examining the effects of direct and vicarious police stops on youth attitudes toward the police have been limited, even less research has explored how these processes vary by race/ethnicity. Thus, this study uses the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) to examine how race/ethnicity shapes: (1) the relationship between direct and vicarious police stops and youth attitudes toward police and (2) how the contextual nature of these stops (intrusiveness) influence youth perceptions of police. The results suggest that direct and/or vicarious police contact can generate negative attitudes toward police among black, Hispanic, and in some cases, white youth, though these effects vary across type of police stop and type of attitude. When a direct stop involved more officer intrusiveness, black youth reported less respect and more negative perceptions of procedural justice. As such, policymakers and criminologists should consider how race/ethnicity influences youth attitudinal responses to police encounters.

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Lehmann, Peter S., Ted Chiricos, and William D. Bales. "Sentencing Transferred Juveniles in the Adult Criminal Court." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 15, no. 2 (November 11, 2016): 172–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1541204016678048.

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Much prior research has demonstrated that race and ethnicity are associated with harsher punishment outcomes among adult defendants in the criminal court. However, few studies have explored these disparities in the sentencing of juvenile offenders who have been transferred to the adult court, and this research has reported conflicting findings. Moreover, the ways in which offenders’ race and ethnicity may interact with their sex, age, and offense type have yet to be explored among this population. Analysis of defendants sentenced in Florida ( N = 30,913) reveals that Black transferred juveniles are more likely to be sentenced to jail or prison and are given longer prison sentences than Whites, but Hispanic youth are only penalized in the sentence to jail. Interaction analyses suggest that Black males are sentenced particularly harshly regardless of age, and the effects of race and ethnicity are conditioned by a violent, sex, or drug offense.

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Steffensmeier, Darrell, Noah Painter-Davis, and Jeffery Ulmer. "Intersectionality of Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Age on Criminal Punishment." Sociological Perspectives 60, no. 4 (November 24, 2016): 810–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0731121416679371.

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Race, ethnicity, gender, and age are core foci within sociology and law/criminology. Also prominent is how these statuses intersect to affect behavioral outcomes, but statistical studies of intersectionality are rare. In the area of criminal sentencing, an abundance of studies examine main and joint effects of race and gender but few investigate in detail how these effects are conditioned by defendant’s age. Using recent Pennsylvania sentencing data and a novel method for analyzing statistical interactions, we examine the main and combined effects of these statuses on sentencing. We find strong evidence for intersectionality: Harsher sentences concentrate among young black males and Hispanic males of all ages, while the youngest females (regardless of race/ethnicity) and some older defendants receive leniency. The focal concerns model of sentencing that frames our study has strong affinity with intersectionality perspectives and can serve as a template for research examining the ways social statuses shape inequality.

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Kposowa, Augustine J., and Kevin Breault. "Race, Ethnicity and the Risk of Homicide Victimization in the United States." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 3, no. 1-2 (April 4, 2005): 21–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1300/j222v03n01_02.

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Mallicoat, Stacy L., and Gregory C. Brown. "The Impact of Race and Ethnicity on Student Opinions of Capital Punishment." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 6, no. 4 (December 16, 2008): 255–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377930802530296.

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Wu, Yuning, Brad W. Smith, and Ivan Y. Sun. "Race/Ethnicity and Perceptions of Police Bias: The Case of Chinese Immigrants." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 11, no. 1-2 (January 1, 2013): 71–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2012.735989.

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Spohn, Ryan E., and Spencer D. Wood. "Spare the Rod, Endanger the Child? Strain, Race/Ethnicity, and Serious Delinquency." Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice 12, no. 3 (July 3, 2014): 159–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15377938.2013.837855.

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Lockwood, Ashley, Jennifer H. Peck, Kevin T. Wolff, and Michael T. Baglivio. "Understanding Adverse Childhood Experiences and Juvenile Court Outcomes: The Moderating Role of Race and Ethnicity." Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice 20, no. 2 (December 24, 2021): 83–112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/15412040211063437.

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Youth involved in the juvenile justice system have enhanced traumatic exposure including abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction compared to their non-involved counterparts. While prior research has conceptualized the role of trauma in predicting juvenile recidivism, the interrelated role of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and race/ethnicity in informing juvenile court processing and outcomes is unaddressed. As such, we examine the moderating role of race/ethnicity with ACEs across court outcomes (e.g., dismissal, diversion, probation, residential placement) among juveniles after their first ever arrest (37.2% Black, 18.3% Hispanic). Higher ACEs were associated with (1) decreased adjudication likelihood, (2) case dismissal for Black and Hispanic youth, (3) deeper dispositions versus diversion for Hispanic youth, (4) residential placement versus diversion for White youth, and (5) residential placement versus probation, with no racial or ethnic differences. Policy implications and future research surrounding the treatment of justice-involved youth with childhood traumatic exposure across race/ethnicity are discussed.

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