Статті в журналах: "Pyrolytic apparatus"

1

Hou, Jian, Qingna Zheng, Abraham K. Badu-Tawiah, Caiqiao Xiong, Cuizhong Guan, Suming Chen, Zongxiu Nie, Dong Wang, and Lijun Wan. "Electrospray soft-landing for the construction of non-covalent molecular nanostructures using charged droplets under ambient conditions." Chemical Communications 52, no. 94 (2016): 13660–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c6cc06195h.

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2

Januszewicz, Katarzyna, Paweł Kazimierski, Wojciech Kosakowski, and Witold M. Lewandowski. "Waste Tyres Pyrolysis for Obtaining Limonene." Materials 13, no. 6 (March 17, 2020): 1359. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma13061359.

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This review deals with the technologies of limonene production from waste tyre pyrolysis. Thermal decomposition is attractive for tackling the waste tyre disposal problem, as it enables both: energy to be recovered and limonene to be obtained. This material management recycling of tyres is environmentally more beneficial than the burning of all valuable products, including limonene. Given this recoverability of materials from waste tyres, a comprehensive evaluation was carried out to show the main effect of process conditions (heating rate, temperature, pressure, carrier gas flow rate, and type of volatile residence and process times) for different pyrolytic methods and types of apparatus on the yield of limonene. All the results cited are given in the context of the pyrolysis method and the type of reactor, as well as the experimental conditions in order to avoid contradictions between different researchers. It is shown that secondary and side reactions are very sensitive to interaction with the above-mentioned variables. The yields of all pyrolytic products are also given, as background for limonene, the main product reported in this study.

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3

Susman, Sherman, S. Clark Rowland, and Kenneth J. Volin. "The purification of elemental sulfur." Journal of Materials Research 7, no. 6 (June 1992): 1526–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1992.1526.

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Sulfur has been purified by a dynamic pyrolysis procedure that takes into account the unique viscosity-temperature relationship of the liquid. An apparatus is described that incorporates gas-bubbling and rocking to overcome diffusion-limited kinetics. For the first time, a mechanism is proposed for the pyrolytic purification of sulfur based upon Carsul formation and the H2S ↔ H2Sx equilibrium. Infrared methods are delineated for qualitative analysis and quantitative estimates of anion contaminants, including the omnipresent hydrocarbon impurities. Our purified sulfur has a total carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen impurity level of <10 μg/g.

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4

Bai, Jin Feng, Jiu Shi Shang, Yang Liu, Xiang Yun Zhong, Ya Ru Zhang, Jun Xu, and Hong Chun Liu. "Effect of Bulk Density of 1/3 Coking Coal on Pyrolysis Kinetics." Applied Mechanics and Materials 148-149 (December 2011): 938–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.148-149.938.

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This work investigated the weight loss profile and kinetic parameters during the pyrolysis process of the 1/3 coking coal samples from Dongshan (Jixi, Heilongjiang province) in inert gases with the help of thermal-gravimetry apparatus. The characteristic temperatures, the activation energy and the frequency factors gained from the experiment change regularly during the pyrolytic process of the sample coal. The activation energy change with the bulk density indicates that the increase of the bulk density of the coal is beneficial to the coking reaction process of the coking coal.

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5

Zhang, Xue, Hengxiang Li, Qing Cao, Li’e Jin, and Fumeng Wang. "Upgrading pyrolytic residue from waste tires to commercial carbon black." Waste Management & Research: The Journal for a Sustainable Circular Economy 36, no. 5 (March 28, 2018): 436–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734242x18764292.

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The managing and recycling of waste tires has become a worldwide environmental challenge. Among the different disposal methods for waste tires, pyrolysis is regarded as a promising route. How to effectively enhance the added value of pyrolytic residue (PR) from waste tires is a matter of great concern. In this study, the PRs were treated with hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acids in turn under ultrasonic waves. The removal efficiency for the ash and sulfur was investigated. The pyrolytic carbon black (PCB) obtained after treating PR with acids was analyzed by X-ray fluorescence spectrophotometry, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, X-ray diffractometry, laser Raman spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric (TG) analysis, and physisorption apparatus. The properties of PCB were compared with those of commercial carbon black (CCB) N326 and N339. Results showed PRs from waste tires were mainly composed of carbon, sulfur, and ash. The carbon in PCB was mainly from the CCB added during tire manufacture rather than from the pyrolysis of pure rubbers. The removal percentages for the ash and sulfur of PR are 98.33% (from 13.98 wt % down to 0.24 wt %) and 70.16% (from 1.81 wt % down to 0.54 wt %), respectively, in the entire process. The ash was mainly composed of metal oxides, sulfides, and silica. The surface properties, porosity, and morphology of the PCB were all close to those of N326. Therefore, PCB will be a potential alternative of N326 and reused in tire manufacture. This route successfully upgrades PR from waste tires to the high value-added CCB and greatly increases the overall efficiency of the waste tire pyrolysis industry.

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6

Penconi, Marta, Lorenzo Ferraro, Jacek Waluk, Lamberto Duò, Franco Ciccacci, Alberto Bossi, Marcello Campione, and Gianlorenzo Bussetti. "Porphycene Films Grown on Highly Oriented Pyrolytic Graphite: Unveiling Structure–Property Relationship through Combined Reflectance Anisotropy Spectroscopy and Atomic Force Microscopy Investigations." Proceedings 56, no. 1 (March 3, 2021): 44. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/proceedings2020056044.

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Thin organic films are widely used in sensors, solar cells, and optical devices due to their intense absorption in the visible/near-infrared (IR) region. Shifting, quenching, or reshaping of some spectral features can be achieved by chemical functionalization of the molecules, whereas an anisotropic fingerprint due to preferential molecular alignment can be induced via a proper design and/or preparation of the substrate. Recently, we investigated the optical response of thin films of porphycene to acidification. With respect to the well-known and closely related tetraphenyl porphyrin, porphycene has the clear advantage of being optically active in the full visible range, and this makes visible by naked eye the immediate change of the film from brilliant blue-turquoise to green when exposed to HCl vapors. In this work, by exploiting a homemade reflectance anisotropy spectroscopy (RAS) apparatus, we explore possible optical anisotropies in the visible spectral range of porphycene films and relate them to the film morphology analyzed by atomic force microscopy (AFM).

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7

Khokha, Yu V., M. B. Yakovenko, and O. V. Lyubchak. "Simulation of kerogen evolution by thermodynamic methods (on the example of Southern oil and gas region)." Prospecting and Development of Oil and Gas Fields, no. 3(76) (September 27, 2020): 33–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.31471/1993-9973-2020-3(76)-33-45.

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The article considers the methods for estimating the level of organic matter transformation, scattered in sedimentary strata, in the process of catagenetic transformations. The authors show the efficiency of kerogen property research by coal petrographic methods and palynological analysis, the purpose of which is to establish the paleotemperature that was actualized in the process of evolution. The advantages and disadvantages of establishing the organic matter generation potential by pyrolytic methods, primarily by pyrolysis by Rock-Eval, are evaluated. In the context of the organic matter evolution indirect study methods, brief information on gas geochemistry is given and the main indicators used in the analysis of the chemical composition of gases in hydrocarbon deposits are listed. It is shown that the equilibrium thermodynamics apparatus can provide information about the conditions and level of organic compounds transformation in the lithosphere. The general information on geological history of the Southern oil and gas region of Ukraine is given and the main events that influenced the modes of transformation of organic matter are shown. The most important of these were the plate collision processes and the accompanying spreading that took place during the approaching of the Arabian continent and Eurasia, which led to the formation of a faults network: submeridional and sublatitudinal. According to the chemical composition of the region's depo-sits, graphs within the coordinates C2/C3 to C2/i-C4 and ln(C2/C3) to ln(C1/C2) are plotted. According to the graphs, the authors establish the trends of organic matter evolution: development in the direction of maturation and kerogen formation without secondary oil destruction. Information on the method of calculating the kerogen/gas system composition according to the Jaynes formalism is given. According to thermodynamic simulation combined with the chemical composition of deposits, maps of equilibrium temperatures and depths for several temperature flows are constructed. The effect of the individual deposits geological structure on the evolution of its contents is shown. The map of generation depletion of the region kerogen is made. According to the results of the map analysis, it is found that the kerogen of the Kerch-Taman interpericline depression is maximally depleted, while the kerogen of the southern side of the Karkinitsky-North-Crimean depression retains the high potential for the formation of light hydrocarbons.

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8

Wentrup, Curt. "Flash (Vacuum) Pyrolysis Apparatus and Methods." Australian Journal of Chemistry 67, no. 9 (2014): 1150. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ch14096.

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The history of pyrolysis equipment, methods, and reactions is narrated in the Introduction. Detailed descriptions of flash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) (or thermolysis, FVT) apparatus for preparative and spectroscopic (UV, IR, electron spin resonance) purposes with product isolation at 77 K or in Ar matrices at ~10 K are presented. Very low pressure pyrolysis (VLPP), laser pyrolysis, and pulsed pyrolysis (jet flash pyrolysis) are also described together with illustrations of apparatus. The solvent spray flash vacuum pyrolysis (SS-FVP) of liquids or solutions of compounds of low volatility is described together with methods for the addition of solids to a pyrolysis tube, in particular details of pipto-pyrolysis (‘falling solid pyrolysis’). Methods used for catalytic vacuum gas–solid reactions (VGSR) are also summarised.

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9

Hauge, Robert H., Leif Fredin, Zakya H. Kafafi, and John L. Margrave. "A Multisurface Matrix-Isolation Apparatus." Applied Spectroscopy 40, no. 5 (July 1986): 588–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1366/0003702864508601.

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A multisurface matrix-isolation apparatus has been designed and interfaced to an FT-IR vacuum spectrometer. The design permits independent matrix-isolation studies with sixty different surfaces. It also allows direct measurement of matrix gas to guest ratios with an integral cooled quartz crystal microbalance. Problems associated with moving the matrix block while maintaining good thermal contact are discussed. Finally, some applications to studies of coal pyrolysis, metal atom chemistry, and quantitative analysis are presented.

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10

Gibbins, J. R., R. A. V. King, R. J. Wood, and R. Kandiyoti. "Variable‐heating‐rate wire‐mesh pyrolysis apparatus." Review of Scientific Instruments 60, no. 6 (June 1989): 1129–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1140327.

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11

Wang, Hao, Xiaogang Li, Jingyi Zhu, Zhaozhong Yang, Jie Zhou, and Liangping Yi. "Numerical Simulation of Oil Shale Pyrolysis under Microwave Irradiation Based on a Three-Dimensional Porous Medium Multiphysics Field Model." Energies 15, no. 9 (April 29, 2022): 3256. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15093256.

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The pyrolysis characteristics of oil shale during heat treatment dominate the oil production of kerogen. In this study, the pyrolysis characteristics of oil shale in a laboratory microwave apparatus were investigated based on a novel fully coupled three-dimensional electromagnetic-thermal-chemical-hydraulic model according to the experimental microwave apparatus. By simulating the electric field, temperature distribution, and kerogen decomposition within oil shale subjected to microwave irradiation, several parameters, including waveguide, position, and power, were successfully optimized. The results indicated that the non-uniform temperature distribution was consistent with the distribution of the electric field. Double microwave ports were more effective than single ports in terms of heating rate and temperature uniformity. There was an optimal location where the highest heating efficiency was obtained, which was on the left of the cavity center. When irradiation was conducted over a range of microwave powers, a higher power was suitable for achieving a rapid temperature increase, whereas a lower power was suitable to gain a high efficiency of the pyrolysis rate. Therefore, a variable power heating mode was introduced to decrease the heating time and improve the heat uniformity simultaneously during oil shale pyrolysis. Specifically, the secondary reactions of oil products should be maximally avoided by controlling the microwave power.

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12

Shamsudin, M. S., M. F. Achoi, M. N. Asiah, L. N. Ismail, A. B. Suriani, S. Abdullah, S. Y. S. Yahya, and M. Rusop. "An Investigation on the Formation of Carbon Nanotubes by Two-Stage Chemical Vapor Deposition." Journal of Nanomaterials 2012 (2012): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2012/972126.

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High density of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) has been synthesized from agricultural hydrocarbon: camphor oil using a one-hour synthesis time and a titanium dioxide sol gel catalyst. The pyrolysis temperature is studied in the range of 700–900°C at increments of 50°C. The synthesis process is done using a custom-made two-stage catalytic chemical vapor deposition apparatus. The CNT characteristics are investigated by field emission scanning electron microscopy and micro-Raman spectroscopy. The experimental results showed that structural properties of CNT are highly dependent on pyrolysis temperature changes.

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13

Zhang, Hong-Gang, Ya-Qi Zhuo, Xiao-Min Zhang, Leng Zhang, Piao-Yang Xu, Han-Rui Tian, Shui-Chao Lin, Qianyan Zhang, Su-Yuan Xie, and Lan-Sun Zheng. "Synthesis of Fullerenes from a Nonaromatic Chloroform through a Newly Developed Ultrahigh-Temperature Flash Vacuum Pyrolysis Apparatus." Nanomaterials 11, no. 11 (November 12, 2021): 3033. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano11113033.

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The flash vacuum pyrolysis (FVP) technique is useful for preparing curved polycyclic aromatic compounds (PAHs) and caged nanocarbon molecules, such as the well-known corannulene and fullerene C60. However, the operating temperature of the traditional FVP apparatus is limited to ~1250 °C, which is not sufficient to overcome the high energy barriers of some reactions. Herein, we report an ultrahigh-temperature FVP (UT-FVP) apparatus with a controllable operating temperature of up to 2500 °C to synthesize fullerene C60 from a nonaromatic single carbon reactant, i.e., chloroform, at 1350 °C or above. Fullerene C60 cannot be obtained from CHCl3 using the traditional FVP apparatus because of the limitation of the reaction temperature. The significant improvements in the UT-FVP apparatus, compared to the traditional FVP apparatus, were the replacement of the quartz tube with a graphite tube and the direct heating of the graphite tube by impedance heating instead of indirect heating of the quartz tube using an electric furnace. Because of the higher temperature range, UT-FVP can not only synthesize fullerene C60 from single carbon nonaromatic reactants but sublimate some high-molecular-weight compounds to synthesize larger curved PAHs in the future.

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14

Werstiuk, Nick Henry, Chandra Deo Roy, and Jiangong Ma. "A study of the vacuum pyrolysis of 11 -oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,7]undeca-2,9-diene. The HeI ultraviolet photoelectron spectrum of 1,2-cyclohexadiene." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 74, no. 10 (October 1, 1996): 1903–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v96-214.

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A newly developed ultraviolet photoelectron spectrometer – CO2, laser apparatus that utilizes a 50-watt CW CO2, laser as a directed heat source is used to study the vacuum pyrolysis of 11-oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,7]undeca-2,9-diene (4). We report the HeI photoelectron spectrum of the strained cyclic allene 1,2-cyclohexadiene (1) that correlates with the HAM/3 ionization energies calculated with the optimized C2, equilibrium structure obtained with AM1 and the molecular orbital energies of the optimized C2, equilibrium structure calculated at the ab initio HF/6-31G** level of theory. Key words: 11-oxatricyclo[6.2.1.02,7]undeca-2,9-diene, vacuum pyrolysis, HeI ultraviolet photoelectron spectrum, 1,2-cyclohexadiene.

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15

Mitrofanov, A. V., V. E. Mizonov, S. V. Vasilevich, and M. V. Malko. "Experiments and Computational Research of Biomass Pyrolysis in a Cylindrical Reactor." ENERGETIKA. Proceedings of CIS higher education institutions and power engineering associations 64, no. 1 (February 8, 2021): 51–64. http://dx.doi.org/10.21122/1029-7448-2021-64-1-51-64.

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The article features an experimental study of thermally thin biomass samples (beech wood particles 17×8×6 mm) pyrolysis in a laboratory scale batch reactor. The reactor was a cylindrical steel body with internal diameter of 200 mm and height of 500 mm. The temperature of a lateral surface of the cylinder during the experiment was being kept constant (550 °C) due to electrical heating. The initial loading of the apparatus was about 4 kg with moisture content of about 14 % by weight. During the experiment, the temperature values of the material being pyrolyzed were recorded at two points of the radial coordinate, viz. at the wall of the apparatus and on its axis. A one-dimensional numerical model of the nonstationary process of biomass conversion (heat and mass transfer in combination with the Avrami – Erofeev reaction model) has been proposed and verified. The reactor is represented as a set of a countable number of cylindrical layers, considered as cells (representative meso-volumes) with an ideal mixing of the properties inside. The cylindrical surfaces that form cells are considered to be isothermal. The size of the cells is chosen to be sufficiently large in comparison with the individual particles of the layer, which makes it possible to consider the temperature field inside the cell volume as monotonic. The evolution of the temperature distribution over the radius of a cylindrical reactor is determined on the basis of a difference approximation of the process of non-stationary thermal conductivity. The calculated forecasts and experimental data showed a good agreement, which indicates the adequacy of the developed mathematical model of pyrolysis and makes it possible to recommend it for engineering calculations of biomass pyrolysis. This model can also be useful in improving the understanding of the basic physical and chemical processes occurring in the conditions of biomass pyrolysis.

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16

Wu, Dan, and Donal F. O’Shea. "Potential for release of pulmonary toxic ketene from vaping pyrolysis of vitamin E acetate." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 12 (March 10, 2020): 6349–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1920925117.

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A combined analytical, theoretical, and experimental study has shown that the vaping of vitamin E acetate has the potential to produce exceptionally toxic ketene gas, which may be a contributing factor to the upsurge in pulmonary injuries associated with using e-cigarette/vaping products. Additionally, the pyrolysis of vitamin E acetate also produces carcinogen alkenes and benzene for which the negative long-term medical effects are well recognized. As temperatures reached in vaping devices can be equivalent to a laboratory pyrolysis apparatus, the potential for unexpected chemistries to take place on individual components within a vape mixture is high. Educational programs to inform of the danger are now required, as public perception has grown that vaping is not harmful.

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17

Aboughaly, Mohamed, Hossam A. Gabbar, Vahid Damideh, and Isaac Hassen. "RF-ICP Thermal Plasma for Thermoplastic Waste Pyrolysis Process with High Conversion Yield and Tar Elimination." Processes 8, no. 3 (February 28, 2020): 281. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr8030281.

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This paper demonstrates an RF thermal plasma pyrolysis reaction apparatus that achieves 89 wt.% reaction conversion yield with no tar content. The demonstrated experimental apparatus consists of a 1100 W RFVII Inc. (104 Church St, Newfield, NJ 08344, United States) @ 13.56 MHz RF thermal plasma generator, a Navio matching network, intelligent feedback controller, and an 8-turn copper RF-ICP torch embedded in a 12 L thermochemical reactor. The intelligent feedback controller optimizes the thermal performance based on feedback signals from three online gas analyzers: CO, CO2 and NOx. The feedback controller output signal controls the RF thermal plasma torch current that provides real-time temperature control. The proposed reaction system achieves precise temperature profiles for both pyrolysis and gasification as well as increases end-product yield and eliminates undesired products such as tar and char. The identified hydrocarbon liquid mixture is 90 wt.% gasoline and 10 wt.%. diesel. The 8-turn RF-ICP thermal plasma torch has an average heating rate of +35 °C/min and a maximum operating temperature of 2000 °C and is able to sustain stable flame for more than 30 min. The reaction operating parameters are (550–990 °C τ = 30 min for pyrolysis and (1300 °C τ = 1 sec) for the gasification process. The identified hydrocarbon liquid products are 90 wt.% of a n-butyl-benzene (C6H5C4H9) and oluene (C7H8) mixture with less than 10 wt.% decane diesel fuel (C10 H22). Comsol simulation is used to assess the RF-ICP thermal plasma torch’s thermal performance.

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18

Lanteigne, Jean-Remi, Jean-Philippe Laviolette, and Jamal Chaouki. "Determination of Enthalpy of Pyrolysis from DSC and Industrial Reactor Data: Case of Tires." Chemical Product and Process Modeling 10, no. 2 (June 1, 2015): 97–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/cppm-2015-0011.

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Abstract This study was motivated by the fact that differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)/differential thermal analysis (DTA) results in literature showed significant exothermic peaks while in overall, pyrolysis is an endothermic phenomenon. The specific heat of the decomposing tires has been determined with a new methodology: instead of assuming constant char properties throughout pyrolysis, the specific heat of evolving solids (char) was evaluated with increasing temperature and conversion. Measured specific heat values were observed to increase until pyrolysis was triggered at 250°C. Then, the specific heat of the solids decreased continuously until 400°C at which point they started to increase. This unexpected trend pointed out that the exothermic peak observed with DSC is an artefact generated by the control system of the apparatus. To overcome this limitation, the energy balance was performed over industrial data and the newly found heat capacity values. The enthalpy of pyrolysis was found to have a term dependent on the weight loss derivative, with a constant value of 410 kJ/kg tires. Two other terms for the enthalpy of pyrolysis have been identified, which were independent of weight loss. The first one is believed to correspond to the sulphur cross-link breakage at low temperature (65 kJ/kg), while the second one, at the final stage of pyrolysis, should correspond to charring reactions approaching the thermodynamic equilibrium (75 kJ/kg). Ultimately, this work proposes a new methodology to determine the enthalpy of pyrolysis with larger scale experimental data.

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19

Milani, Massimo, Luca Montorsi, Gabriele Storchi, Matteo Venturelli, Carlo Pirola, and Ermelinda Falletta. "Development of an experimental test rig for the pyrolysis of plastic residues and waste tires." E3S Web of Conferences 238 (2021): 01013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202123801013.

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The paper presents the design of the experimental apparatus developed in order to analyse the performance of a prototype of a pyrolysis system for the exploitation of the plastic residues of industrial processes and the end of life tires. The small scale pilot prototype is specifically designed for carrying out an experimental campaign aimed at determining the influence of different plastic types on the yield and on the quality of the liquid oil, gas and char obtained in the pyrolysis process. The study investigates the effect of different mixture of various plastic products mainly made of polyethylene, styrene butadiene rubber, nylon and natural rubber. The prototype is equipped with a control system able to monitor the main operating parameters of the process, such as the pyrogas pressure and temperature as well as the temperature inside the reactor where the pyrolysis takes place. The monitored variables are employed for deriving correlations among the operating conditions and the yield of the pyrolysis process. Therefore, further analysis concerns experimental measurements in order to estimate the main compounds that are contained in the syngas in comparison to the different plastic wastes analysed. Finally, the emissions of the small-scale prototype are evaluated.

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20

Mitrofanov, A. V., O. V. Sizova, N. S. Shpeynova, and V. A. Katyushin. "Mathematical modeling and analysis of operation of cylindric pyrolysis reactor with radial heating." Vestnik IGEU, no. 5 (October 31, 2021): 60–67. http://dx.doi.org/10.17588/2072-2672.2021.5.060-067.

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The vector of development of solid-fuel energy is currently directed towards expanding the range of renewable fuels used. Along with the direct combustion of fuel, the processes of controlled thermal transformation of the raw biomass in an oxygen-free surrounding to obtain a new fuel based on it (liquid, solid, gaseous) are widely spread. A significant part of research in this sphere is related to the study of the formal kinetics of such processes, at the same time, the hardware design of the process is no less important, but less studied. Thus, development of mathematical models of pyrolysis equipment operation is relevant. A decisive difference approximation of these processes in the framework of an axisymmetric formulation of the problem is chosen as a mathematical basis for modeling physical and chemical transformations and transfer processes in the radial direction of a cylindrical pyrolysis reactor. The material constants of the processes are borrowed from the well-known literature references The authors studied the modes of reactor operation not covered by a full-scale experiment, using the previously proposed and verified one-dimensional mathematical model of a cylindrical pyrolysis reactor. The issues of the influence of the dimensionless kinetic function of the process (reaction model) on the thermal transformation of the material in the apparatus are considered. The significant influence of the chosen reaction model on the kinetic nature of the process is pointed out. The mutual influence of drying and pyrolysis the presence of which is due to the energy effects of the processes is considered. A significant spatial heterogeneity of the process is defined and the possibility of the existence of a non-trivial effect of advanced heating of the internal zones of the apparatus in comparison with the peripheral ones is specified. The paper shows that a computational experiment can help to detect non-trivial effects and identify the variability of the process implementation even within the framework of a single design and technological solution of the pyrolysis process. According to the authors, the results of the obtained numerical experiments indicate that mathematical modeling can be the basis of making technological solution. However, further research is also needed to determine reliably the material constants of the process.

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21

Bacskai, Madar, Fogarassy, and Toth. "Modeling of Some Operating Parameters Required for the Development of Fixed Bed Small Scale Pyrolysis Plant." Resources 8, no. 2 (April 24, 2019): 79. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/resources8020079.

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In recent years, we have read a lot of research aimed at creating a small, easy-to-mobilize pyrolysis unit. But these devices were not efficiently designed. According to literature data, small equipment (5.0–50 kW) has to be considered differently on the combustion aspects, compared to a larger pyrolysis unit. The main purpose of our research is to determine the operating characteristics of a small fixed bedding CHP (combined heat and power) pyrolysis power plant. At the design stage, it is also critical to know the properties of the biomass (usually different biological wastes) used on the input side. The use of a wide diversity of biomass waste may result in the volume of material remains and the energy produced is not usable in the right form. To obtain a clear picture of the combustion conditions, a fixed bedding pilot pyrolysis device was made. With the measurements in the experimental apparatus, we have a clearer picture of the changes in some of combustion parameters. We have examined exactly how the size and hardness of biomass materials affect the efficiency of pyrolysis. By modelling the “mass change”—with the knowledge of the material content, physical characteristics, and the parameters of the pyrolysis equipment—the amount of the expected material remains, and combustion conditions can be predicted with a mathematical function. We have found an appropriate mathematical model (R2 = 0.8758) to describe the relationship between gas production and material structure for a given period.

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22

Atasever, Şule, Pınar A. Bozkurt, and Muammer Canel. "Pyrolysis of Waste Printed Circuit Board Particles." International Journal of Energy Optimization and Engineering 4, no. 2 (April 2015): 70–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijeoe.2015040105.

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Electrical and electronic apparatus and instruments which are obsolete value in use or completion of the life can be defined as e-waste. E-waste is one of the fastest growing types of hazardous waste. Printed circuit boards a major component of this waste. In this study, printed circuit board particles of mobile phone (MPCB) were used as electronic waste. MPCB waste was obtained from a local electronic waste factory. The elemental analysis and ICP-MS analysis were performed on these electronic wastes and thereafter pyrolysis runs were carried out between 500 and 900°C in a horizontal furnace. The liquid yields were determined and compared at different temperatures.

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23

Xu, Ren. "Autostoichiometric vapor deposition: Part I. Theory." Journal of Materials Research 10, no. 10 (October 1995): 2536–41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/jmr.1995.2536.

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The possibility of an autostoichiometric vapor deposition is explored. Heterometal-organic complexes such as double alkoxides are potential candidate precursors for such deposition. Two reaction schemes, the hydrolysis-assisted pyrolysis and the hydrolysis-polycondensation of double alkoxides, are identified to be autostoichiometric reactions. A simple low-pressure apparatus is suggested for autostoichiometric vapor deposition. Mass-flow analysis allows for the identification of a nonstoichiometry factor K which can be used as a quantitative measure of the precursor's autostoichiometric capability.

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24

Wilkens Flecknoe-Brown, Konrad, and Patrick van Hees. "Sensitivity analysis on the microscale combustion calorimeter for polyurethane foam using a full factorial design methodology." Journal of Fire Sciences 36, no. 6 (September 7, 2018): 453–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0734904118798603.

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A sensitivity analysis on test outcomes from the microscale combustion calorimeter was performed using flexible polyurethane foam as the sample material. Three input factors were investigated: sample preparation, heating rate and pyrolysis chamber atmosphere. The experiments were setup according to the principles of design of experiments and a full factorial design was implemented. In total, 39 experiments were performed as part of this study: 27 unique tests and 12 repeat experiments. Results from the microscale combustion calorimeter showed excellent repeatability in most cases. Sample inhomogeneity was suggested as a possible explanation for the variation observed. A statistical analysis was performed to quantitatively assess how each input factor affected the test results. Analysis showed that all three factors had some effect on the test outcomes, with heating rates and pyrolysis chamber atmosphere proving to be the most influential in regard to the analysed output quantities. Increasing the heating rate from 15 to 180°C/min illustrated the effects of thermal lag, increasing the temperatures at which the sample reactions took place. Interaction effects between input parameters were also observed. The pyrolysis chamber atmosphere, either inert or oxidative, was observed to have the largest effect on the tested output parameters. The energy release was observed to decrease with the introduction of 20% oxygen. Increasing the oxygen levels also produced a drop in the peak reaction temperatures; this was consistent for all tested atmospheres (from 0% to 10% and 10% to 20% oxygen). This study illustrated that outcomes from this apparatus, for materials such as flexible polyurethane foam, can be dependent on sample preparation as well as heating rate and testing atmosphere. In addition, it highlights the importance of apparatus characterisation for less homogeneous materials to understand how input factors choices can influence the outcomes of the tests performed.

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25

Swann, Joshua D., Yan Ding, Mark B. McKinnon, and Stanislav I. Stoliarov. "Controlled atmosphere pyrolysis apparatus II (CAPA II): A new tool for analysis of pyrolysis of charring and intumescent polymers." Fire Safety Journal 91 (July 2017): 130–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.03.038.

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26

Mukoyama, Izumi, Kenichi Myoujin, Takashi Ogihara, Masao Uede, Hironori Ozawa, and Kazunori Ozawa. "Large-Scale Synthesis and Electrochemical Properties of LiAl_XMn_2-XO₄ Powders by Internal Combustion Type Spray Pyrolysis Apparatus Using Gas Burner." Key Engineering Materials 320 (September 2006): 251–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.320.251.

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Spherical LiAlxMn2-xO4 fine powders were continuously produced by Internal Combustion Type Spray Pyrolysis Apparatus Using Gas Burner from metal nitrate precursor solutions. XRD showed that LiAlxMn2-xO4 powders were well crystallized in a spinel structure with the Fd3m space group. As-prepared powders have a spherical particle shape with a diameter of 2.3 μm. As-prepared samples were calcined at 800 for 10 h in air. The charge/discharge capacity of LiAlxMn2-xO4 was over 100 mAh/g. A powder production capacity speed of 1 kg/h was attained by this system.

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27

Kang, Yun-Chan, Seo-Hee Ju, Hye-Young Koo, Hee-Sang Kang, and Seung-Bin Park. "The Characteristics of Silica Powders Prepared by Spray Pyrolysis Applying Droplet Classification Apparatus." Korean Journal of Materials Research 16, no. 10 (October 27, 2006): 633–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.3740/mrsk.2006.16.10.633.

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28

Font, Rafael, M. Francisca Gómez-Rico, and Nuria Ortuño. "Analysis of the vaporization process in TG apparatus and its incidence in pyrolysis." Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 91, no. 1 (May 2011): 89–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2011.01.007.

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29

Delichatsios, M. A. "Basic Polymer Material Properties for Flame Spread." Journal of Fire Sciences 11, no. 4 (July 1993): 287–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073490419301100401.

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We present and demonstrate the application of a systematic methodology for predicting fire spread and growth and for a relative fire hazard classification of materials for any scale and fire environment. This methodol ogy consists of three steps: (1) select laboratory test methods to perform flam mability measurements; (2) based on these measurements, obtain key flamma bility material properties which are precisely defined in this work; and (3) use these properties in a mathematical model of fire spread and growth to predict fire hazards. The complementary test methods we have selected and used are: (a) a general flammability test apparatus (such as NIST or FMRC) [1,2] modified to also provide pyrolysis measurements in an inert N2 atmosphere; (b) the Limited Oxygen Index (LOI) apparatus, which is used here as a tool for ob taining properties needed for creeping flame spread and extinction, including vitiated environments; and (c) a solid material smoke-point height apparatus [8], which is used to characterize the smokiness of the burning material needed to determine the radiation and smoke yield for arbitrary fire situations (wall fires, pool fires or ceiling fires) [8]. The use and proper interpretation of the Limited Oxygen Index apparatus can replace the LIFT [10] apparatus for deter mining in a more accurate and direct way the material properties required for creeping (vertical downward, lateral, horizontal) flame spread. The present methodology has been compared well with experiments in this work and else where [9], and it has been used to predict critical conditions for fire spread [11], not empirically as it is usually done, but based on first principles of fire spread, fire growth and burning, together with material flammability properties syste matically deduced from small-scale test measurements.

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30

Kodera, Takayuki, Kenichi Myoujin, and Takashi Ogihara. "Preparation and Characterization of Spherical Metal Particles by Spray Pyrolysis." Key Engineering Materials 421-422 (December 2009): 558–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.421-422.558.

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Ag and Ni spherical fine powders were continuously produced by carrying out an aerosol process in a mass nanopowder production apparatus. The particles size, particle morphology, crystal phases and crystallinity of the as-prepared powders were characterized by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The particles were nonaggregated and they exhibited a spherical morphology with a narrow size distribution. The average sizes of Ag and Ni particles were 500 nm and 700 nm, respectively. The crystallinity of the as-prepared powders was high. The XRD patterns showed that the crystal phases of the as-prepared powders were the same as those of their respective metals.

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31

Werstiuk, N. H., J. Ma, C. D. Roy, A. J. Kresge, and E. A. Jefferson. "A study of the vacuum pyrolysis of 4-diazoisothiochroman-3-one with Hel ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 74, no. 12 (December 1, 1996): 2536–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1139/v96-285.

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A newly developed ultraviolet photoelectron spectrometer apparatus that utilizes a tunable 50 W CW CO2 laser as a directed heat source is used to study the vacuum pyrolysis of 4-diazoisothiochroman-3-one (1a). Analysis of the pyrolysate with ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy shows that 1a undergoes a facile pyrolysis at a laser power level of less than 26 W, yielding two new compounds: thiaketene 3a, the product of a Wolff rearrangement, and benzocyclobutenthione (6a), which can be derived from thiacarbene 4a, the decarbonylation product of 3a. Activation enthalpies/energies calculated at the AM1 and ab initio levels of theory indicate that, unlike the case of 4-diazoisochroman-3-one (1b), the Wolff rearrangement of the incipient carbene may be concerted with loss of nitrogen from 1a. The activation enthalpy/energy calculated for the decarbonylation of 3a is significantly higher (AM1, 20.5 kcal/mol; RHF/6-31G(d), 11.7 kcal/mol; MP2(full)//RHF/6-31G(d), 14.3 kcal/mol) than the activation enthalpy/energy for the decarbonylation of 3b. This result is in keeping with the fact that we detect 3a, but 3b is not found in detectable amounts in the pyrolysate of 1b. Key words: vacuum pyrolysis, 4-diazoisothiochroman-3-one, HeI ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy, AM1 and ab initio calculations.

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32

Chaudhari, Dushyant M., Stanislav I. Stoliarov, Mark W. Beach, and Kali A. Suryadevara. "Polyisocyanurate Foam Pyrolysis and Flame Spread Modeling." Applied Sciences 11, no. 8 (April 13, 2021): 3463. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11083463.

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Polyisocyanurate (PIR) foam is a robust thermal insulation material utilized widely in the modern construction. In this work, the flammability of one representative example of this material was studied systematically using experiments and modeling. The thermal decomposition of this material was analyzed through thermogravimetric analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and microscale combustion calorimetry. The thermal transport properties of the pyrolyzing foam were evaluated using Controlled Atmosphere Pyrolysis Apparatus II experiments. Cone calorimetry tests were also carried out on the foam samples to quantify the contribution of the blowing agent (contained within the foam) to its flammability, which was found to be significant. A complete pyrolysis property set was developed and was shown to accurately predict the results of all aforementioned measurements. The foam was also subjected to full-scale flame spread tests, similar to the Single Burning Item test. A previously developed modeling approach based on a coupling between detailed pyrolysis simulations and a spatially-resolved relationship between the total heat release rate and heat feedback from the flame, derived from the experiments on a different material in the same experimental setup, was found to successfully predict the evolution of the heat release rate measured in the full-scale tests on the PIR foam.

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33

Ismailov, Bakhtiyar, Zhanat Umarova, Khairulla Ismailov, Aibarsha Dosmakanbetova, and Saule Meldebekova. "Mathematical modeling and algorithm for calculation of thermocatalytic process of producing nanomaterial." Indonesian Journal of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science 23, no. 3 (September 1, 2021): 1590. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijeecs.v23.i3.pp1590-1601.

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<p>At present, when constructing a mathematical description of the pyrolysis reactor, partial differential equations for the components of the gas phase and the catalyst phase are used. In the well-known works on modeling pyrolysis, the obtained models are applicable only for a narrow range of changes in the process parameters, the geometric dimensions are considered constant. The article poses the task of creating a complex mathematical model with additional terms, taking into account nonlinear effects, where the geometric dimensions of the apparatus and operating characteristics vary over a wide range. An analytical method has been developed for the implementation of a mathematical model of catalytic pyrolysis of methane for the production of nanomaterials in a continuous mode. The differential equation for gaseous components with initial and boundary conditions of the third type is reduced to a dimensionless form with a small value of the peclet criterion with a form factor. It is shown that the laplace transform method is mainly suitable for this case, which is applicable both for differential equations for solid-phase components and calculation in a periodic mode. The adequacy of the model results with the known experimental data is checked.</p>

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34

Wang, Fang, Xi Zeng, Guojun Kang, Ke Li, Jinfeng Ma, and Guangwen Xu. "Secondary reactions suppression during fuel fast pyrolysis in an infrared heating apparatus for the fixed bed pyrolysis process with internals." Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 156 (June 2021): 105163. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2021.105163.

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35

Kojima, Masayuki, Izumi Mukoyama, Kenichi Myoujin, Takayuki Kodera, and Takashi Ogihara. "Mass Production and Battery Properties of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ Powders Prepared by Internal Combustion Type Spray Pyrolysis." Key Engineering Materials 388 (September 2008): 85–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.388.85.

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Internal combustion type spray pyrolysis apparatus was used to prepare cathode materials for lithium ion batteries. Spherical LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 precursor powders with an average size of about 2 m were successfully produced by this technique. After calcination at 800°C, LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 precursor powders crystallized to a spinel structure. The spherical morphology changed to an irregular morphology at temperatures higher than 900°C. The discharge capacity of the LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 cathode was 130 mAh/g at 1C. After 300 cycles at 1C, 90% of the initial discharge capacity was maintained, and after 100 cycles at 6C, 70% of the discharge capacity at 1C was maintained.

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36

Jodłowski, Andrzej. "Differential absorbance as evaluation method of TOX concentrations generated during surface water chlorination." E3S Web of Conferences 59 (2018): 00030. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20185900030.

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Chlorination of waters containing natural organic matter (NOM) produces disinfection by-products (DBPs) including harmful THMs and HAAs. A collective parameter and toxicity index of all chlorination products contained in finished water is the total concentration of organic-bound halogen compounds (TOX). Determination of this indicator is carried out by adsorption-pyrolysis method, which is complicated and requires specialized apparatus. The competitive method of TOX concentration determination in water is differential absorbance. Effect of natural organic matter removal from surface waters in coagulation as well in coagulation and adsorption processes on the decrease of TOX concentration measured by differential absorbance was determined.

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37

Bock, Hans, and Bodo Berkner. "Gasphasen-Reaktionen, 91 [1-3]Thermische und heterogen-katalysierte N2-Abspaltung aus Azo-Verbindungen R–N=N–R (R = CH3, C3H5, C6H5) / Gas Phase Reactions, 91 [1-3]Thermal and Heterogeneously Catalyzed N2 Elimination of Azo-Compounds R–N=N–R (R = CH3, C3H5, C6H5)." Zeitschrift für Naturforschung B 47, no. 11 (November 1, 1992): 1551–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/znb-1992-1108.

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Thermal decompositions of azo compounds in the gas phase under reduced pressure are further investigated using photoelectron spectroscopic gas analysis. Passing diallyl, diphenyl and phenylmethyl derivatives either through a short-pathway pyrolysis (SPP) apparatus or through an external thermal reactor (ETR) results in the following fragmentations: Under nearly unimolecular conditions (SPP, 10-4 mbar pressure), diallyldiazene decomposes above 600 K to N2 and hexadiene-1,5 with the allyl radical as a detectable intermediate. The PE spectra recorded for diphenyldiazene above 1000 K (ETR, 1-2 mbar pressure) show N2, benzene, as well as traces of diphenyl. Phenylmethyldiazene yields above 800 K (SPP) predominantly N2, toluene, diphenyl and ethane with the methyl radical as the only detectable intermediate. Insertion of quartz wool into the pyrolysis tube (ETR) lowers the fragmentation temperatures, and in addition, above 850 K, HCN and aniline are PE spectroscopically identified. Surprisingly, this second reaction channel can be heterogeneously catalyzed: phenylmethyldiazene decomposes under 10-2 mbar pressure at a [Ni/SiO2] catalyst surface selectively to HCN and aniline.

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38

S, Jargalmaa, Tsatsral G, Battsetseg M, Batkhishig D, Ankhtuya A, Namkhainorov J, Bat-Ulzii B, Purevsuren B, and Avid B. "Kinetic study of Mongolian coals by thermal analysis." Mongolian Journal of Chemistry 18, no. 44 (February 13, 2018): 20–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.5564/mjc.v18i44.933.

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Thermal analysis was used for the thermal characterization of the coal samples. The experiments were performed to study the pyrolysis and gasification kinetics of typical Mongolian brown coals. Low rank coals from Shivee ovoo, Ulaan ovoo, Aduun chuluun and Baganuur deposits have been investigated. Coal samples were heated in the thermogravimetric apparatus under argon at a temperature ranges of 25-1020ºC with heating rates of 10, 20, 30 and 40ºC/min. Thermogravimetry (TG) and derivative thermogravimetry (DTG) were performed to measure weight changes and rates of weight losses used for calculating the kinetic parameters. The activation energy (Ea) was calculated from the experimental results by using an Arrhenius type kinetic model.

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39

Zou, Xiao Ping, H. Abe, Toru Shimizu, A. Ando, H. Tokumoto, S. M. Zhu, and Hao Shen Zhou. "Chemical Vapor Deposition Growth of Multi-Walled Carbon Nanotubes on Metallic Substrates." Solid State Phenomena 121-123 (March 2007): 101–4. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/ssp.121-123.101.

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A simple thermal chemical vapor deposition (STCVD) growth technique of multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) is present. Carbon nanotube film was synthesized on the Pt plate substrates by pyrolysis of ethyl alcohol as carbon source at lower reaction temperature at atmospheric pressure by using simple apparatus. The as-synthesized MWCNTs were characterized by both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). The electrical property of an individual MWCNT was evaluated by I-V measurement. The electrical resistance of single MWCNT is about 450 k/ in linear region under bias voltage between 2 to 4 V. It can undergo a large current of 6 2A at 4 V

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40

Mukoyama, Izumi, Kenichi Myoujin, Takahiro Nakamura, Hironori Ozawa, Takashi Ogihara, and Masao Uede. "Lithium Battery Properties of LiNi_0.5Mn_1.5O₄ Powders Synthesized by Internal Combustion Type Spray Pyrolysis Apparatus Using Gas Burner." Key Engineering Materials 350 (October 2007): 191–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.350.191.

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Spherical LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 powders were prepared by internal combustion type spray pyrolysis apparatus using gas burner. The powder production capacity was 1 kg/h by this equipment. After calcinations of as-prepared powders contained Ni at different temperatures from 800 to 1200 °C in air for 10h, LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 powders were obtained. As-prepared particles have a porous microstructure with an average diameter of about 5 μm with narrow size distribution. XRD showed that LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 powders were well crystallized to a spinel structure with Fd3m space group. LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4 powders calcined at 1000°C show good cycle performance with after 30 cycles discharge capacity of 112mAh/g and 95% retention after 400 cycles between 3.5 V and 5 V.

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41

Kaliszewski, M., M. Zgrzebnicki, A. Kałamaga, S. Pinjara, and R. J. Wróbel. "Commercial Kevlar derived activated carbons for CO2 and C2H4 sorption." Polish Journal of Chemical Technology 23, no. 2 (June 1, 2021): 81–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/pjct-2021-0021.

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Abstract The carbonaceous precursor was obtained via pyrolysis of commercial aramid polymer (Kevlar). Additionally the precursor was activated at 1000°C in CO2 atmosphere for different times. Obtained materials were characterised by BET; XPS; SEM and optical microscopy. The sorption capacities were determined by temperature swing adsorption performed in TGA apparatus for CO2 and C2H4 gases. The obtained materials exhibit high difference in sorption of these gases i.e. 1.5 and 2.8 mmol/g @30°C respectively and high SSA ~1600 m2/g what can be applied in separation applications. The highest uptakes were 1.8 and 3.1 mmol/g @30°C respectively. It was found that the presence of oxygen and nitrogen functional groups enhances C2H4/CO2 uptake ratio.

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42

ZarZar, HLAING, Mariko ADACHI, Shigehisa UCHIYAMA, and Hideki NAKAGOME. "B113 Thermal pyrolysis of High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) plastic by using a reflux-condenser apparatus : Removal of waxes from the pyrolysis oil." Proceedings of the National Symposium on Power and Energy Systems 2013.18 (2013): 47–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmepes.2013.18.47.

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43

Wagner, David Ray, and Kevin J. Whitty. "A pulse-width modulation controlled wire-mesh heater apparatus for investigation of solid fuel pyrolysis." Review of Scientific Instruments 83, no. 11 (November 2012): 115116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.4768538.

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44

Bruno, Thomas J., and Jessica E. Nichols. "Method and apparatus for pyrolysis—Porous layer open tubular column—Cryoadsorption headspace sampling and analysis." Journal of Chromatography A 1286 (April 2013): 192–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2013.02.047.

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45

Liang, Peng, Jia Feng Wu, Jian Hui Li, Xuan Qu, and Ji Cheng Bi. "The Characteristic Research of Shenmu Coal Pyrolysis by Solid Heat Carrier." Advanced Materials Research 512-515 (May 2012): 2032–36. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.512-515.2032.

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A fixed-bed experimental apparatus with the capacity of 1kg coal was set up for coal pyrolysis by solid heat carrier. Shenmu bituminous coal and quartz sand was used as raw material and solid heat carrier respectively. The effects of initial temperature of solid heat carrier, reaction time and blending ratio on the yield of gas and tar were examined at different conditions. The results showed that tar yield was above 10 wt% when the initial temperature of solid heat carrier more than 800oC, reaction time and blend ratio had lesser influence on gas and tar yield. At the investigated test condition, smaller coal particle leads to an inconspicuous increase on gas and tar yield. The characteristic of gas and tar products was also investigated in this paper.

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46

Wu, Chia Lung, Simón Santamaria, and Ricky Carvel. "Critical Factors Determining the Onset of Backdraft Using Solid Fuels." Fire Technology 56, no. 3 (November 21, 2019): 937–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10694-019-00914-9.

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AbstractBackdraft is an explosive fire phenomenon which typically occurs during fire-fighting activities, occasionally leading to fire-fighter fatalities. Real backdraft incidents involve complex fuel gas mixtures consisting of the products of underventilated burning and pyrolysis following burnout. However, most experimental research into backdraft has used methane gas or flammable liquids as fuel. Some aspects of real backdraft behavior may have been overlooked as a consequence of this simplicity. A reduced scale series of compartment fire tests have been carried out to investigate the critical factors governing the onset of backdraft, using polypropylene and high density polyethylene samples as fuel. It is established that there are critical temperatures for auto-ignition of the pyrolysis gases leading to backdraft which vary with fuel properties. For polypropylene the highest temperature in the compartment must be above 350°C for auto-ignition of the fuel gases, while mixtures in the presence of a pilot source can be ignited down to about 320°C. Backdraft cannot occur when the compartment temperature is below 320°C. For polyethylene, the corresponding temperature for auto-ignition is 320°C. In parallel with these tests, a series of pyrolysis investigations have been carried out using the fire propagation apparatus, with FTIR gas analysis. The observed critical temperatures for backdraft correlate well with the evolved pyrolysis gases. Analysis shows that higher temperatures are required for backdraft when the CO/CO2 ratio is small, and that below the auto-ignition temperature, backdraft can only occur above a CO/CO2 ratio of about 35%. It is concluded that the crucial factors determining whether backdraft occurs or not are the maximum temperature and the CO/CO2 ratio in the compartment, prior to opening the door.

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47

Xie, Zheng Wen, and Qu Fang. "Research on Combustion Characteristics of Cooking Oil Tar in Pipe by TG-FTIR Analysis." Advanced Materials Research 236-238 (May 2011): 45–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.236-238.45.

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The pyrolysis characteristics of the cooking oil tar in an ambient air were investigated using a thermogravimetric apparatus with infrared-spectrum analyzer. Experimental results showed that the combustion process of cooking oil tar can be divided into five stages. The first step of mass loss is due to water evaporation. The second stage is the volatilization and combustion of the low boiling point compound，the third stage is the combustion of instauration hydrocarbon，the fourth stage is the combustion of ester and the last stage is the combustion of saturation hydrocarbon. A simple kinetic description, named in this work as ‘First Order Reaction and Three-dimensional Diffusion Separate-stage Model (O1+D3)’ model, was developed based on the experimental results and integral analysis method.

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48

Green, Joseph. "Char Studies: Flame Retarded Polycarbonate/PET Blend." Journal of Fire Sciences 12, no. 6 (November 1994): 551–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/073490419401200606.

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Bromine and phosphorus were shown to be synergistic in flame retarding a polycarbonate/PET blend as measured by oxygen index. This synergy is enhanced when both elements are present in the same molecule. Cone calorimeter data confirm these observations. Chars were formed by py rolysis in the TGA apparatus, by burning at high oxygen concentration in the oxygen index apparatus and by forced combustion in the cone calorimeter. Chars formed from the polymer blend containing the brominated phosphate gave 40-50% more char by weight than when bromine, phosphorus or blends of the two were used. Analyses of the chars showed no bromine and considerable phosphorus. TGA and DSC studies suggest that the polycarbonate and the PET undergo transesterification during pyrolysis above 400°C and the brominated phosphate acts as a transesterification inhibitor or stabilizer. SEM of the chars showed a considerable difference. When the brominated phosphate was used the char had a fine porous structure and thick solid skin. The other chars showed poorer structure and less to no skin. Measurement of the properties of the chars showed the char from the polymer containing the brominated phosphate to have a creep modulus 35 times greater than the char obtained from the polymer containing the bromine flame retardant.

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49

Girods, P., H. Bal, H. Biteau, G. Rein, and Jose Torero. "Comparison of Pyrolysis Behavior Results between the Cone Calorimeter and the Fire Propagation Apparatus Heat Sources." Fire Safety Science 10 (2011): 889–901. http://dx.doi.org/10.3801/iafss.fss.10-889.

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50

Billaud, F. "Thermal decomposition of propane: An original method of temperature calibration in a plug flow pyrolysis apparatus." Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis 21, no. 1-2 (September 1991): 15–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0165-2370(91)80013-x.

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