Статті в журналах: "Protozoan diseases"

1

D'Ambrosio, Katia, Claudiu T. Supuran, and Giuseppina De Simone. "Are Carbonic Anhydrases Suitable Targets to Fight Protozoan Parasitic Diseases?" Current Medicinal Chemistry 25, no. 39 (January 17, 2019): 5266–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/0929867325666180326160121.

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Protozoans belonging to Plasmodium, Leishmania and Trypanosoma genera provoke widespread parasitic diseases with few treatment options and many of the clinically used drugs experiencing an extensive drug resistance phenomenon. In the last several years, the metalloenzyme Carbonic Anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) was cloned and characterized in the genome of these protozoa, with the aim to search for a new drug target for fighting malaria, leishmaniasis and Chagas disease. P. falciparum encodes for a CA (PfCA) belonging to a novel genetic family, the η-CA class, L. donovani chagasi for a β-CA (LdcCA), whereas T. cruzi genome contains an α-CA (TcCA). These three enzymes were characterized in detail and a number of in vitro potent and selective inhibitors belonging to the sulfonamide, thiol, dithiocarbamate and hydroxamate classes were discovered. Some of these inhibitors were also effective in cell cultures and animal models of protozoan infections, making them of considerable interest for the development of new antiprotozoan drugs with a novel mechanism of action.

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Vichi-Ramírez, Micheel M., Edgar López-López, Catalina Soriano-Correa, and Carolina Barrientos-Salcedo. "Using 5-Nitroimidazole Derivatives against Neglected Tropical Protozoan Diseases: Systematic Review." Future Pharmacology 4, no. 1 (March 5, 2024): 222–55. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/futurepharmacol4010015.

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Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a significant global health problem. Additionally, anti-protozoan treatments are toxic, and their therapeutic regimens require prolonged treatment times and high concentrations of the drugs. Additionally, multi-resistant protozoan strains represent an important global emergency that must be addressed. For these reasons, global efforts are being made to identify new drug candidates that are capable of combating these kinds of diseases. This systematic review shows that 5-nitroimidazole derivatives have been successfully used against neglected tropical protozoan diseases (NTPDs), with a specific focus on three diseases: malaria, leishmaniasis, and human trypanosomiasis. Some nitroimidazole derivatives have been repurposed, and an important group of new drugs is available for the treatment of NTPDs. Finally, we address 5-nitroimidazoles using chemoinformatics and medicinal chemistry tools to describe the most recent and promising 5-nitroimidazole derivatives associated with anti-protozoal activity using their published in vitro and in vivo data. We show that 5-nitroimidazoles offer a broader spectrum of activity against a variety of protozoal pathogens. More importantly, these compounds demonstrate a significantly reduced systemic toxicity compared to other nitroimidazoles. This makes them a more favorable option in the treatment of protozoal infections, particularly in scenarios where the patient’s tolerance to drug side effects is a critical concern.

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Mohanta, UK, Dr Anisuzzaman, and MMH Mondal. "Tick and Tick Borne Protozoan Diseases of Livestock in the Selected Hilly Areas of Bangladesh." International Journal of Agricultural Research, Innovation and Technology 1, no. 1-2 (February 23, 2013): 60–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v1i1-2.13934.

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To study the tick and tick borne protozoan diseases of livestock in the hilly areas of Bangladesh, an attempt was made to collect tick and blood samples from cattle, goat and gayal (Bos frontalis) from different areas of the three hill districts. In this study, two species of ticks namely, Boophilus microplus (92%) and Amblyomma testudinarium (21.6%) and two species of blood protozoa like Babesia bigemina (16.63%) and Anaplasma marginale (14.94%) were recorded. Seasonal prevalence of ticks was highest in summer (97%) in comparison to rainy (95%) and winter (86%) season. On the other hand, the seasonal prevalence of blood protozoa was highest in rainy season (45.45%) in comparison to summer (27.87%) and winter (16.55%). Again, animals aged more than 2 (two) years of age (52%) found to be more susceptible to blood protozoan diseases than animals aged between 1-2 years of age (33.97%). But none of the animals under one year of age were found to be infected with blood protozoan diseases. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/ijarit.v1i1-2.13934 Int. J. Agril. Res. Innov. & Tech. 1 (1&2): 60-63, December, 2011

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Grau-Pujol, Berta, Inocencia Cuamba, Chenjerai Jairoce, Anelsio Cossa, Juliana Da Silva, Charfudin Sacoor, Carlota Dobaño, Augusto Nhabomba, Rojelio Mejia, and Jose Muñoz. "Molecular Detection of Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Enteric Protozoa Infection in Children and Its Association with Household Water and Sanitation in Manhiça District, Southern Mozambique." Pathogens 10, no. 7 (July 3, 2021): 838. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens10070838.

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Intestinal parasite infections can have detrimental health consequences in children. In Mozambique, soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections are controlled through mass drug administration since 2011, but no specific control program exists for enteric protozoa. This study evaluates STH and protozoan infections in children attending healthcare in Manhiça district, Southern Mozambique, and its association with water and sanitation conditions. We conducted a cross-sectional study in children between 2 and 10 years old in two health centers (n = 405). A stool sample and metadata were collected from each child. Samples were analyzed by multi-parallel real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). We fitted logistic regression-adjusted models to assess the association between STH or protozoan infection with household water and sanitation use. Nineteen percent were infected with at least one STH and 77.5% with at least one enteric protozoon. qPCR detected 18.8% of participants with intestinal polyparasitism. Protected or unprotected water well use showed a higher risk for at least one protozoan infection in children (OR: 2.59, CI: 1.01–6.65, p-value = 0.010; OR: 5.21, CI: 1.56–17.46, p-value = 0.010, respectively) compared to household piped water. A high proportion of children had enteric protozoan infections. Well consumable water displayed high risk for that.

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Radwan, Eman H., Amel Abd El Rahman Hassan, Wael M. Lotfy, Ahmed Abd El-Mawgood, and Hala M. Mashaal. "The Prevalence of Intestinal Parasite Infection in El Behara Schoolchildren." International Journal of Limnology 1, no. 1 (June 15, 2019): 33–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.14302/issn.2691-3208.ijli-19-2853.

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This study was conducted to evaluate the prevalence of intestinal parasite in schoolchildren in Damanhur, Egypt and some of its villages. The pathogenic enteric protozoa have been progressively involved in bargaining the soundness of a great many individuals, for the most part in creating nations. Mediations are being set up to control the dreariness and mortality because of these protozoan contaminations. A portion of these mediations target school going kids with regards to class based wellbeing intercession. The present examination concentrated on exploring the commonness of intestinal protozoan contaminations among younger students chose networks comprising of urban, urban-poor and per urban settlements in the Damanhour and a few towns. In the present work Giardia lamblia was the second usually identified protozoan with a diseases rate 10.4% among the analyzed cases. In the present examination generally speaking level of parasitic contaminations among the kids was 57.3%. It's viewed as Enterobius vermicularis was the most usually identified protozoan as it spoke to 4.1% of the parasitic diseases in the considered cases pursued by Ascaris lumbricoides; 1.4% and Giardia lamblia contaminations as they spoke to 0.6%; separately. The protozoa like Giardia and Cryptosporidium are regularly present in surface waters and cause episodes in this manner legitimately affecting human wellbeing.

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Alemneh, Tewodros, Alemnew Alehegn, Gizienew Maru, Habtamu Alemayehu, Mequannet Fente, Muluken Agegnehu, and Moges Maru Moges Maru. "Major Ectoparasitic Protozoa of Fish and Other Aquatic Animals: With Particular Emphasis on Morphology, Biology, Epidemiology, Pathology, Diagnosis, Prevention and Control." Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Research 11, no. 1 (January 29, 2024): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.47739/2378-931x.veterinarymedicine.1262.

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The Phylum protozoa brings together several organisms evolutionarily different that may act as ecto or endoparasites of fishes and other aquatic animals over the world being responsible for diseases, which, in turn, may lead to economic, social and health impacts in many countries. Though ectoparasitic protozoans affect a wide variety of fish species and pose tremendous impact on the economy and health of people worldwide, only little attention is given towards the disease. Therefore, this review highlights on the most important protozoan ectoparasites infecting fish and other aquatic animals: with particular emphasis on morphological features, distribution, epidemiology, pathology, pathogenic effects, clinical importance, diagnosis, and prevention and control.

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Gao, Lian-Yong, Omar S. Harb, and Yousef Abu Kwaik. "Identification of Macrophage-Specific Infectivity Loci (mil) of Legionella pneumophila That Are Not Required for Infectivity of Protozoa." Infection and Immunity 66, no. 3 (March 1, 1998): 883–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.66.3.883-892.1998.

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ABSTRACT We have recently shown that many mutants of Legionella pneumophila exhibit similar defective phenotypes within both U937 human-derived macrophages and the protozoan hostAcanthamoeba (L.-Y. Gao, O. S. Harb, and Y. Abu Kwaik, Infect. Immun. 65:4738–4746, 1997). These observations have suggested that many of the mechanisms utilized by L. pneumophila to parasitize mammalian and protozoan cells are similar, but our data have not excluded the possibility that there are unique mechanisms utilized by L. pneumophila to survive and replicate within macrophages but not protozoa. To examine this possibility, we screened a bank of 5,280 miniTn10::kan transposon insertion mutants of L. pneumophila for potential mutants that exhibited defective phenotypes of cytopathogenicity and intracellular replication within macrophage-like U937 cells but not within Acanthamoeba polyphaga. We identified 32 mutants with various degrees of defects in cytopathogenicity, intracellular survival, and replication within human macrophages, and most of the mutants exhibited wild-type phenotypes within protozoa. Six of the mutants exhibited mild defects in protozoa. The defective loci were designated mil (for macrophage-specific infectivity loci). Based on their intracellular growth defects within macrophages, the mil mutants were grouped into five phenotypic groups. Groups I to III included the mutants that were severely defective in macrophages, while members of the other two groups exhibited a modestly defective phenotype within macrophages. The growth kinetics of many mutants belonging to groups I to III were also examined, and these were shown to have a similar defective phenotype in peripheral blood monocytes and a wild-type phenotype within another protozoan host, Hartmannella vermiformis. Transmission electron microscopy of A. polyphaga infected by three of the mil mutants belonging to groups I and II showed that they were similar to the parent strain in their capacity to recruit the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) around the phagosome. In contrast, infection of macrophages showed that the three mutants failed to recruit the RER around the phagosome during early stages of the infection. None of themil mutants was resistant to NaCl, and the dotor icm NaClr mutants are severely defective within mammalian and protozoan cells. Our data indicated that in addition to differences in mechanisms of uptake of L. pneumophila by macrophages and protozoa, there were also genetic loci required for L. pneumophila to parasitize mammalian but not protozoan cells. We hypothesize that L. pneumophilahas evolved as a protozoan parasite in the environment but has acquired loci specific for intracellular replication within macrophages. Alternatively, ecological coevolution with protozoa has allowedL. pneumophila to possess multiple redundant mechanisms to parasitize protozoa and that some of these mechanisms do not function within macrophages.

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Jimenez, Veronica, and Sebastian Mesones. "Down the membrane hole: Ion channels in protozoan parasites." PLOS Pathogens 18, no. 12 (December 29, 2022): e1011004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1011004.

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Parasitic diseases caused by protozoans are highly prevalent around the world, disproportionally affecting developing countries, where coinfection with other microorganisms is common. Control and treatment of parasitic infections are constrained by the lack of specific and effective drugs, plus the rapid emergence of resistance. Ion channels are main drug targets for numerous diseases, but their potential against protozoan parasites is still untapped. Ion channels are membrane proteins expressed in all types of cells, allowing for the flow of ions between compartments, and regulating cellular functions such as membrane potential, excitability, volume, signaling, and death. Channels and transporters reside at the interface between parasites and their hosts, controlling nutrient uptake, viability, replication, and infectivity. To understand how ion channels control protozoan parasites fate and to evaluate their suitability for therapeutics, we must deepen our knowledge of their structure, function, and modulation. However, methodological approaches commonly used in mammalian cells have proven difficult to apply in protozoans. This review focuses on ion channels described in protozoan parasites of clinical relevance, mainly apicomplexans and trypanosomatids, highlighting proteins for which molecular and functional evidence has been correlated with their physiological functions.

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9

Howells, R. E. "The modes of action of some anti-protozoal drugs." Parasitology 90, no. 4 (April 1985): 687–703. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182000052318.

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In spite of the continuing need for new and improved anti-protozoal drugs for use in man, a considerable contraction of industrially based research on anti-protozoal drugs has occurred in recent years. Newton (1983) reviewed the reasons for this decline and presented a compelling argument that fundamental research on the biology of the parasites is essential for the discovery of leads for the development of a new generation of drugs – a rational chemotherapy. The rapid advance in knowledge of the biochemistry of parasitic protozoa which has occurred in recent years has provided a number of potential leads to new drug development and has permitted a greater understanding of the mode of action of many current drugs. The account of these advances which follows is necessarily selective and relates to protozoan parasites of man.

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Kourbeli, Violeta, Eleni Chontzopoulou, Kalliopi Moschovou, Dimitrios Pavlos, Thomas Mavromoustakos, and Ioannis P. Papanastasiou. "An Overview on Target-Based Drug Design against Kinetoplastid Protozoan Infections: Human African Trypanosomiasis, Chagas Disease and Leishmaniases." Molecules 26, no. 15 (July 30, 2021): 4629. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154629.

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The protozoan diseases Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), Chagas disease (CD), and leishmaniases span worldwide and therefore their impact is a universal concern. The present regimen against kinetoplastid protozoan infections is poor and insufficient. Target-based design expands the horizon of drug design and development and offers novel chemical entities and potential drug candidates to the therapeutic arsenal against the aforementioned neglected diseases. In this review, we report the most promising targets of the main kinetoplastid parasites, as well as their corresponding inhibitors. This overview is part of the Special Issue, entitled “Advances of Medicinal Chemistry against Kinetoplastid Protozoa (Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp.) Infections: Drug Design, Synthesis and Pharmacology”.

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Martins, Mauricio Laterça, Lucas Cardoso, Natalia Marchiori, and Santiago Benites de Pádua. "Protozoan infections in farmed fish from Brazil: diagnosis and pathogenesis." Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinária 24, no. 1 (March 2015): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s1984-29612015013.

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The Phylum Protozoa brings together several organisms evolutionarily different that may act as ecto or endoparasites of fishes over the world being responsible for diseases, which, in turn, may lead to economical and social impacts in different countries. Apart from the recent advances for the diagnosis of fish diseases in Brazil, little is known on the protozoan parasites and their relationship with environment and host. This revision presents the most important protozoan parasites found in farmed fish from Brazil, not only with emphasis on its diagnosis, biology, transmission and host-parasite relationship, but also on some information that may be useful to researchers in determining the correct diagnosis in fish farms.

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12

Monzote, Lianet, and Afshan Siddiq. "Drug Development to Protozoan Diseases." Open Medicinal Chemistry Journal 5 (March 9, 2011): 1–3. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1874104501105010001.

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Castro, E. "Chagas and other protozoan diseases." ISBT Science Series 2, no. 1 (July 2007): 1–5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-2824.2007.00062.x.

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Ojuromi, Oladele T., and Anofi O. Ashafa. "An overview of some medicinal plants and isolated active compounds with potential antiprotozoal activity." Tropical Journal of Pharmaceutical Research 19, no. 7 (November 18, 2020): 1551–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/tjpr.v19i7.30.

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Diarrhoea associated illness presents with mortality and morbidity in rural communities in most low income countries especially in children < 5 years of age. The continuous emergence of several opportunistic infections in immuno-compromised individuals has worsened the burden of diarrhoea in most of these countries. Protozoan infections caused by species of Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba spp. Giardia intestinalis, Blastocystis hominis and Trichomonas vaginalis have received insufficient attention because data on their prevalence and incidence are scanty. The commonly used drugs to treat infections caused by these organisms are becoming less effective due to the development of drug resistance. Evidence from literature has shown that natural products from medicinal plants are likely to be suitable alternatives and complimentary therapeutic drugs to combat most protozoan infections. Natural products and their bioactive compounds could be the solution to treat most protozoan infections that have developed resistance to these drugs. This review provides comprehensive information on the potential and limitations on activity of medicinal plants and their isolated compounds used in the treatment of protozoan diseases. Especially those considered as neglected diseases such as Cryptosporidium and other protozoans that are inadequately funded and possibility of lack of interest in drug developments have made them receive little attention. Isolation and identification of bioactive natural products could be the ultimate panacea to cases of metronidazole resistance and discovery of effective and novel drug for Cryptosporidium infection which is currently suffering inadequate treatment options. Keywords: Protozoan parasites, Diarrhoea, Neglected diseases, Medicinal plants, Bioactive compounds

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C. Roy, S. R. Dey, and B. Bhowmik. "Freshwater fish parasite diversity in West Bengal – A review." Ecology, Environment and Conservation 29, no. 01 (2023): 161–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.53550/eec.2023.v29i01.026.

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Aquaculture has the potential to meet the need of growing demand of fish in an affordable price. But in capture and in culture fisheries the fishes face diseases that interfere in the production of fish. The occurrence of disease causes the reduced production in aquaculture or reduce the marketable value of fish because of change of flesh quality, thus hampering the production. Freshwater fishes whether they are cultured or wild face different types of diseases in their skin, gills, fins, blood, and internal organs. The parasites that cause the diseases may be protozoans or metazoans.The main protozoan freshwater fish diseases are ichthyophthiriasis, trichodiniasis, costiosis, chilodonellosis. The most common metazoan parasitic diseases of freshwater fishes are dactylogyrusis, gyrodactylosis, argulosis, myxosporidiasis, ligulosis, ergasilosis, lernaesis, etc. The focus of this review is to screen the research studies that takes place on freshwater fish parasites of West Bengal. The review also aims to study the diversity of freshwater fish parasites in West Bengal, so that it will helps the researcher to get an idea about the freshwater fish parasites and their mode of infection in the fishes. The research work that takes place in different regions of West Bengal. Some of them reveal new species of parasites in fishes. Protozoan, cnidarian, acanthocephalan, nematode, cestode, trematode, crustacean parasites are identified in freshwater fishes of West Bengal. Among the protozoans cailiates, flagellates are identified. Trichodinids are very common protozoan fish parasites in most districts. Parasites under genus Myxobolus, Dactylogyrus, Gyrodactylus, Argulus, Lernea are common among the metazoans.

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Ceravolo, Isabela P., Letícia F. Leoni, Antoniana U. Krettli, Silvane M. F. Murta, Daniela de M. Resende, Mariza G. F. de M. L. Cruz, Jodieh O. S. Varejão, Lorena L. Mendes, Eduardo V. V. Varejão, and Markus Kohlhoff. "Novel 2,5-Diketopiperazines with In Vitro Activities against Protozoan Parasites of Tropical Diseases." Pharmaceuticals 17, no. 2 (February 8, 2024): 223. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ph17020223.

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Malaria, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis are tropical diseases caused by protozoan parasites of the genera Plasmodium, Trypanosoma and Leishmania, respectively. These diseases constitute a major burden on public health in several regions worldwide, mainly affecting low-income populations in economically poor countries. Severe side effects of currently available drug treatments and the emergence of resistant parasites need to be addressed by the development of novel drug candidates. Natural 2,5-Diketopiperazines (2,5-DKPs) constitute N-heterocyclic secondary metabolites with a wide range of biological activities of medicinal interest. Its structural and physicochemical properties make the 2,5-DKP ring a versatile, peptide-like, and stable pharmacophore attractive for synthetic drug design. In the present work, twenty-three novel synthetic 2,5-DKPs, previously synthesized through the versatile Ugi multicomponent reaction, were assayed for their anti-protozoal activities against P. falciparum, T. cruzi, and L. infantum. Some of the 2,5-DKPs have shown promising activities against the target protozoans, with inhibitory concentrations (IC50) ranging from 5.4 to 9.5 µg/mL. The most active compounds also show low cytotoxicity (CC50), affording selectivity indices ≥ 15. Results allowed for observing a clear relationship between the substitution pattern at the aromatic rings of the 2,5-DKPs and their corresponding anti-Plasmodium activity. Finally, calculated drug-like properties of the compounds revealed points for further structure optimization of promising drug candidates.

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Shoda, Lisl K. M., Kimberly A. Kegerreis, Carlos E. Suarez, Isabel Roditi, Ricardo S. Corral, Gustavo M. Bertot, Junzo Norimine, and Wendy C. Brown. "DNA from Protozoan Parasites Babesia bovis, Trypanosoma cruzi, and T. brucei Is Mitogenic for B Lymphocytes and Stimulates Macrophage Expression of Interleukin-12, Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha, and Nitric Oxide." Infection and Immunity 69, no. 4 (April 1, 2001): 2162–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.69.4.2162-2171.2001.

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ABSTRACT The activation of innate immune responses by genomic DNA from bacteria and several nonvertebrate organisms represents a novel mechanism of pathogen recognition. We recently demonstrated the CpG-dependent mitogenic activity of DNA from the protozoan parasiteBabesia bovis for bovine B lymphocytes (W. C. Brown, D. M. Estes, S. E. Chantler, K. A. Kegerreis, and C. E. Suarez, Infect. Immun. 66:5423–5432, 1998). However, activation of macrophages by DNA from protozoan parasites has not been demonstrated. The present study was therefore conducted to determine whether DNA from the protozan parasites B. bovis, Trypanosoma cruzi, and T. brucei activates macrophages to secrete inflammatory mediators associated with protective immunity. DNA fromEscherichia coli and all three parasites stimulated B-lymphocyte proliferation and increased macrophage production of interleukin-12 (IL-12), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and nitric oxide (NO). Regulation of IL-12 and NO production occurred at the level of transcription. The amounts of IL-12, TNF-α, and NO induced by E. coli and protozoal DNA were strongly correlated (r 2 > 0.9) with the frequency of CG dinucleotides in the genome, and immunostimulation by DNA occurred in the order E. coli ≥ T. cruzi > T. brucei > B. bovis. Induction of inflammatory mediators by E. coli, T. brucei, and B. bovis DNA was dependent on the presence of unmethylated CpG dinucleotides. However, at high concentrations,E. coli and T. cruzi DNA-mediated macrophage activation was not inhibited following methylation. The recognition of protozoal DNA by B lymphocytes and macrophages may provide an important innate defense mechanism to control parasite replication and promote persistent infection.

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CRAIG, B. H., J. G. PILKINGTON, L. E. B. KRUUK, and J. M. PEMBERTON. "Epidemiology of parasitic protozoan infections in Soay sheep (Ovis ariesL.) on St Kilda." Parasitology 134, no. 1 (September 18, 2006): 9–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182006001144.

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The feral Soay sheep (Ovis ariesL.) population on Hirta, St Kilda, is host to a diverse component parasite community, but previous parasitological studies of the population have only focussed on the metazoan species. This paper reports the first epidemiological study of the protozoan species comprisingCryptosporidium parvum,Giardia duodenalisand 11 species ofEimeriain Soay sheep across 3 years of varying host population density. Prevalence and intensity of almost all species of protozoa significantly decreased with host age, with the exception ofE. granulosa, which increased in prevalence with host age. The prevalence ofC. parvumappeared to vary positively with host population density but that ofG. duodenalisdid not vary significantly with density. Most species ofEimeriashowed a distinct lag in infection level following the host population crash of 2002, taking up to 2 years to decrease. MixedEimeriaspecies intensity and diversity were highest in 2002, a year of low host density. Parasite diversity decreased with host age and was higher in males. There were 5 positive pair-wise associations between protozoa species in terms of prevalence. The results of this study highlight the potential for protozoal infection to shape the evolution of parasite resistance in wild host populations harbouring diverse parasite species.

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Stuart, Ken, Reto Brun, Simon Croft, Alan Fairlamb, Ricardo E. Gürtler, Jim McKerrow, Steve Reed, and Rick Tarleton. "Kinetoplastids: related protozoan pathogens, different diseases." Journal of Clinical Investigation 118, no. 4 (April 1, 2008): 1301–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1172/jci33945.

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de Waal, T. "Advances in diagnosis of protozoan diseases." Veterinary Parasitology 189, no. 1 (September 2012): 65–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.03.033.

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Barratt, J. L. N., J. Harkness, D. Marriott, J. T. Ellis, and D. Stark. "Importance of Nonenteric Protozoan Infections in Immunocompromised People." Clinical Microbiology Reviews 23, no. 4 (October 2010): 795–836. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/cmr.00001-10.

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SUMMARY There are many neglected nonenteric protozoa able to cause serious morbidity and mortality in humans, particularly in the developing world. Diseases caused by certain protozoa are often more severe in the presence of HIV. While information regarding neglected tropical diseases caused by trypanosomatids and Plasmodium is abundant, these protozoa are often not a first consideration in Western countries where they are not endemic. As such, diagnostics may not be available in these regions. Due to global travel and immigration, this has become an increasing problem. Inversely, in certain parts of the world (particularly sub-Saharan Africa), the HIV problem is so severe that diseases like microsporidiosis and toxoplasmosis are common. In Western countries, due to the availability of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), these diseases are infrequently encountered. While free-living amoebae are rarely encountered in a clinical setting, when infections do occur, they are often fatal. Rapid diagnosis and treatment are essential to the survival of patients infected with these organisms. This paper reviews information on the diagnosis and treatment of nonenteric protozoal diseases in immunocompromised people, with a focus on patients infected with HIV. The nonenteric microsporidia, some trypanosomatids, Toxoplasma spp., Neospora spp., some free-living amoebae, Plasmodium spp., and Babesia spp. are discussed.

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SCHAUMBURG, F., D. HIPPE, P. VUTOVA, and C. G. K. LÜDER. "Pro- and anti-apoptotic activities of protozoan parasites." Parasitology 132, S1 (March 2006): S69—S85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182006000874.

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During infection, programmed cell death, i.e. apoptosis, is an important effector mechanism of innate and adaptive host responses to parasites. In addition, it fulfils essential functions in regulating host immunity and tissue homeostasis. Not surprisingly, however, adaptation of parasitic protozoa to their hosts also involves modulation or even exploitation of cell death in order to facilitate parasite survival in a hostile environment. During recent years, considerable progress has been made in our understanding of apoptosis during parasitic infections and there is now convincing evidence that apoptosis and its modulation by protozoan parasites has a major impact on the parasite-host interaction and on the pathogenesis of disease. This review updates our current knowledge on the diverse functions apoptosis may fulfil during infections with diverse protozoan parasites including apicomplexans, kinetoplastids and amoebae. Furthermore, we also summarize common mechanistic themes of the pro- and anti-apoptotic activities of protozoan parasites. The diverse and complex effects which parasitic protozoa exert on apoptotic cell death within the host highlight fascinating interactions of parasites and their hosts. Importantly, they also stress the importance of further investigations before the modulation of host cell apoptosis can be exploited to combat parasitic infections.

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Adeiza, A. M., N. A. Sani, N. B. Alhaji, E. A. Godwin, C. E. Okwolo, and G. Uchendu. "Prevalence and Diversity of Zoonotic Protozoa in Dogs in Lokoja, North ‎Central, Nigeria." Sahel Journal of Veterinary Sciences 20, no. 4 (December 31, 2023): 34–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.54058/saheljvs.v20i4.392.

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The risk of zoonotic protozoan diseases has increased in recent times through the unregulated breeding of dogs in the neighbourhood of human dwellings. Dogs (341) brought into the seven major (Based on full employment of at least one veterinarian) veterinary clinics in Lokoja, North Central Nigeria (October 2021 to August, 2022) for medical evaluations were enlisted in this study to determine the prevalence and diversity of zoonotic protozoa in the dogs. Faecal and blood samples were screened using modified Ziehl – Neelsen and direct microscopy techniques for the presence of intestinal and blood protozoan oocysts. Out of the faecal and blood samples collected from each of the 341 dogs enlisted in the study, 207 (60.7%) were positive for protozoa. Faecal protozoa had a higher frequency of occurrence; 50.4% (172/341) compared to blood protozoan; 10.3% (35/341).Eimeria histolytica was the most frequently occurring protozoa; 14.4% (49/341), followed by Giardia; 12.0% (41/341) and the least was Babesia; 3.8% (13/341). There was however no significant difference in the prevalence of protozoa and the type of parasite (P = 0.702). Age-specific, prevalence showed that puppies under 1 year had a higher prevalence of protozoa; 84.1% (174/207) compared to the adults; 16.0% (33/207). The relationship was not significant (χ2=3.816; P = 0.702). Local breed of dogs had the highest prevalence of protozoa; 68.2% (137/201), followed by exotic; 60.47% (26/43) and the least was the cross breed, 45.4% (44/97). There is a significant difference in the prevalence of protozoa in local and cross breeds of dogs (P = 0.001). The female dogs had a higher prevalence; 77.0% (117/152) compared to males; 45.5% (86/189). There was an association between prevalence of protozoa and sex of dogs (χ2 = 16.77; P = 0.010).

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Ibañez-Escribano, Alexandra, Maria Teresa Gomez-Muñoz, Marta Mateo, Cristina Fonseca-Berzal, Esperanza Gomez-Lucia, Raquel Garcia Perez, Jose M. Alunda, and Javier Carrion. "Microbial Matryoshka: Addressing the Relationship between Pathogenic Flagellated Protozoans and Their RNA Viral Endosymbionts (Family Totiviridae)." Veterinary Sciences 11, no. 7 (July 17, 2024): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vetsci11070321.

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Three genera of viruses of the family Totiviridae establish endosymbiotic associations with flagellated protozoa responsible for parasitic diseases of great impact in the context of One Health. Giardiavirus, Trichomonasvirus, and Leishmaniavirus infect the protozoa Giardia sp., Trichomonas vaginalis, and Leishmania sp., respectively. In the present work, we review the characteristics of the endosymbiotic relationships established, the advantages, and the consequences caused in mammalian hosts. Among the common characteristics of these double-stranded RNA viruses are that they do not integrate into the host genome, do not follow a lytic cycle, and do not cause cytopathic effects. However, in cases of endosymbiosis between Leishmaniavirus and Leishmania species from the Americas, and between Trichomonasvirus and Trichomonas vaginalis, it seems that it can alter their virulence (degree of pathogenicity). In a mammalian host, due to TLR3 activation of immune cells upon the recognition of viral RNA, uncontrolled inflammatory signaling responses are triggered, increasing pathological damage and the risk of failure of conventional standard treatment. Endosymbiosis with Giardiavirus can cause the loss of intestinal adherence of the protozoan, resulting in a benign disease. The current knowledge about viruses infecting flagellated protozoans is still fragmentary, and more research is required to unravel the intricacies of this three-way relationship. We need to develop early and effective diagnostic methods for further development in the field of translational medicine. Taking advantage of promising biotechnological advances, the aim is to develop ad hoc therapeutic strategies that focus not only on the disease-causing protozoan but also on the virus.

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Darmawan, Moch Rizky, Poedji Hastutiek, Arimbi Arimbi, Sunaryo Hadi Warsito, Dian Ayu Permatasari, and Ririn Ririn. "Identification and Prevalence of Blood Protozoa on Culling Layer Hen That Were Sold in Wonokromo Traditional Market Surabaya City." Journal of Parasite Science 6, no. 1 (March 28, 2022): 7. http://dx.doi.org/10.20473/jops.v6i1.34199.

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The most common types of blood protozoa in chickens are from the phylum of Apicomplexa, including Plasmodium, Leucocytozoon and Haemoproteus. Blood protozoan diseases can cause decreased egg production, stunting and death in poultry farms. This study aims to identify and calculate the prevalence of blood protozoan infection in casted off laying chickens sold at Wonokromo Market, Surabaya City. One hundred blood samples from casted off laying chickens were taken by purposive sampling method. Blood samples were collected in Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetate (EDTA) tubes, and then taken to the Parasitology Laboratory to make a blood smear which was then examined using a microscope with a magnification of 1000x. The results showed that the single infection was 43% positive for Plasmodium sp., 3% positive for Leucocytozoon sp. and 3% for mixed infections (Plasmodium sp. and Leucocytozoon sp.), with a total prevalence of positive samples infected with blood protozoa was 49%.

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26

Lee, Kim, Hayat, and Shin. "Recent Advances in the Discovery of Novel Antiprotozoal Agents." Molecules 24, no. 21 (October 28, 2019): 3886. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules24213886.

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Parasitic diseases have serious health, social, and economic impacts, especially in the tropical regions of the world. Diseases caused by protozoan parasites are responsible for considerable mortality and morbidity, affecting more than 500 million people worldwide. Globally, the burden of protozoan diseases is increasing and is been exacerbated because of a lack of effective medication due to the drug resistance and toxicity of current antiprotozoal agents. These limitations have prompted many researchers to search for new drugs against protozoan parasites. In this review, we have compiled the latest information (2012–2017) on the structures and pharmacological activities of newly developed organic compounds against five major protozoan diseases, giardiasis, leishmaniasis, malaria, trichomoniasis, and trypanosomiasis, with the aim of showing recent advances in the discovery of new antiprotozoal drugs.

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Mingbayeva, Sh N., and N. A. Dehkan-Hodjaeva. "Skin lesions in fungous and protozoan diseases." Parasitology International 47 (August 1998): 195. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1383-5769(98)80505-9.

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Andrews, Katherine T., Gillian Fisher, and Tina S. Skinner-Adams. "Drug repurposing and human parasitic protozoan diseases." International Journal for Parasitology: Drugs and Drug Resistance 4, no. 2 (August 2014): 95–111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpddr.2014.02.002.

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Mahmud, MAA, SMSH Belal, and FMJ Uddin. "Prevalence of Protozoan Diseases in Pet Dogs at District Veterinary Hospital, Sirajganj, Bangladesh." Bangladesh Journal of Veterinary Medicine 12, no. 2 (December 24, 2014): 191–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v12i2.21290.

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A study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of protozoan diseases of 272 sick pet dogs submitted to the District Veterinary Hospital (DVH), Sirajganj during the two years period from January, 2009 to December, 2010. A total 7 types of protozoan diseases were identified in only 61 dogs and their variation in prevalence were analyzed on the basis of age and sex. The overall prevalence of protozoan diseases of pet dogs in the study area was observed 22.42%.The highest prevalence (%) of the diseases was found as Giardiasis (42.62%) followed by Amoebiasis (26.23%), Coccidiosis (14.75%), Balantidiasis (9.84%), Toxoplasmosis (3.28%), Babesiosis (1.64%) and Leishmaniasis (1.64%). Age-wise highest cumulative prevalence (%) of protozoan diseases was identified in age group above 1 year (54.10%), compare to that in less than or equal to 1 year (45.90%) age groups of pet dogs. On the other hand, sex-wise overall cumulative prevalence (%) of the diseases of dog was noticed in the female (55.74%) than male (44.26%). Results of this study revealed that the protozoan disease problems of dogs may be high in Sirajganj district and it also showed that people of this district does not follow scientific method of dogs rearing.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/bjvm.v12i2.21290 Bangl. J. Vet. Med. (2014). 12 (2): 191-196

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Queiroz, Aline Maria Vasconcelos, Johny Wysllas de Freitas Oliveira, Cláudia Jassica Moreno, Diego M. A. Guérin, and Marcelo Sousa Silva. "VLP-Based Vaccines as a Suitable Technology to Target Trypanosomatid Diseases." Vaccines 9, no. 3 (March 5, 2021): 220. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9030220.

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Research on vaccines against trypanosomatids, a family of protozoa that cause neglected tropical diseases, such as Chagas disease, leishmaniasis, and sleeping sickness, is a current need. Today, according to modern vaccinology, virus-like particle (VLP) technology is involved in many vaccines, including those undergoing studies related to COVID-19. The potential use of VLPs as vaccine adjuvants opens an opportunity for the use of protozoan antigens for the development of vaccines against diseases caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, Leishmania spp., and Trypanosoma brucei. In this context, it is important to consider the evasion mechanisms of these protozoa in the host and the antigens involved in the mechanisms of the parasite–host interaction. Thus, the immunostimulatory properties of VLPs can be part of an important strategy for the development and evaluation of new vaccines. This work aims to highlight the potential of VLPs as vaccine adjuvants for the development of immunity in complex diseases, specifically in the context of tropical diseases caused by trypanosomatids.

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Bodnia, I. P., and S. I. Pokhil. "On the state of laboratory diagnostics of travelers’ diarrhea of protozoal etiology in Ukraine and worldwide." Shidnoevropejskij zurnal vnutrisnoi ta simejnoi medicini 2023, no. 1 (February 2023): 56–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.15407/internalmed2023.01.056.

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Traveler’s diarrhea is an invasive disease associated with travel. The morbidity rate ranges from 30 to 70% and depends on the destination and seasonality. The epidemiology and clinical features of traveler’s diarrhea were first described in 1963. Among the etiological diversity of pathogens, protozoa come to the fore. A significant part is accounted for by Blastocystis spp., D. fragilis, Giardia spp. Other rare causes can be Cryptosporidium parvum, Entamoeba histolytica, Microsporidia and Cystoisospora. Parasitic infestation is most often diagnosed in returning travelers, due to the longer incubation period and the prescription of antibiotics. The diagnosis of traveler’s diarrhea in humans is established taking into account epidemiological, clinical data and the results of special laboratory studies. The latter play a leading role in the evidentiary verification of the protozoan etiology of travelers’ diarrhea, which directly affects the effectiveness of the therapy of patients and the prevention of the development of chronic forms of protozoa and delayed post-infectious complications. Due to technical availability, traditional microscopic methods remain the most popular in the laboratory diagnosis of protozoan intestinal diseases and are based on the detection of «diagnostic forms» of parasites — trophozoites, cysts, oocysts and/or others depending from the features of the life cycle of a specific species of protozoan parasites. However, microscopic methods of diagnosing intestinal protozoan parasitosis have a number of significant limitations: the means and procedures of microscopic examination of faecal smears (coproscopy) are considered satisfactory for the detection of Giardia spp., only to a certain extent (partially) suitable for the detection/identification of Blastocystis spp. and completely unsuitable for performing research aimed at the detection/identification of D. fragilis.

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Capela, Moreira, and Lopes. "An Overview of Drug Resistance in Protozoal Diseases." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 20, no. 22 (November 15, 2019): 5748. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms20225748.

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Protozoan diseases continue to be a worldwide social and economic health problem. Increased drug resistance, emerging cross resistance, and lack of new drugs with novel mechanisms of action significantly reduce the effectiveness of current antiprotozoal therapies. While drug resistance associated to anti-infective agents is a reality, society seems to remain unaware of its proportions and consequences. Parasites usually develops ingenious and innovative mechanisms to achieve drug resistance, which requires more research and investment to fight it. In this review, drug resistance developed by protozoan parasites Plasmodium, Leishmania, and Trypanosoma will be discussed.

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Cox, F. E. G. "Interactions in protozoan infections." International Journal for Parasitology 17, no. 2 (February 1987): 569–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0020-7519(87)90133-0.

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ANDREEVA, A., and M. KUTUZOV. "Protozoan protein tyrosine phosphatases." International Journal for Parasitology 38, no. 11 (September 2008): 1279–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpara.2008.04.003.

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Cho, Frederick Nchang, Humphrey Ngala Ngala, Ranibell Tung Bongazi, Rogers Sanga Kinsam, Beltha Tahnteng Tata, Desmond Aji, Paulette Ngum Fru, and Patrick Kofon Jokwi. "Effects of Soil-Transmitted Helminths and Intestinal Protozoan Infections on Haemoglobin Levels among School-Aged Children in Belo and Bui, North West Cameroon: A Cross-Sectional Study." Journal of Parasitology Research 2021 (February 1, 2021): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2021/8873555.

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Introduction. Soil-transmitted helminths (STH) remain a public health problem worldwide especially in low-income countries. Soil-transmitted helminths are known to affect both growth and haemoglobin levels. In this study, we determine the prevalence of intestinal parasites and explored its association with anaemia in school-aged children (SAC). Methodology. A cross-sectional study was carried out amongst pupils selected from 18 primary schools in four communities of the North West Region. Stool samples were examined using direct wet mount and formol-ether concentration techniques, while finger prick was performed for the measurement of haemoglobin with a haemoglobinometer. Results. The results showed significant variation of STHs, intestinal protozoan prevalence, and anaemia between age, sex, and communities. The prevalence of Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworms was 15.1%, 0.8%, and 2%, respectively, with an overall STH prevalence of 18.3% across the four communities. Soil-transmitted helminths were more prevalent in Mbessa (30.2%) in comparison to Nkor (26.7%), Djottin (17.5%), and Kumbo (9.6%) communities. The prevalence of Entamoeba histolytica/dispar was 25.4% and Giardia duodenalis (6.9%), with an overall intestinal protozoa prevalence of 31% across the four communities. The prevalence of anaemia in the study population was 23.1%. Conclusion. Soil-transmitted helminths, intestinal protozoan infections, and anaemia are prevalent in the study area. Anaemia was observed to be associated with STH, intestinal protozoa, and the communities under study. This study recommends continuous deworming and health education on personal sanitation and environmental sanitation.

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Harizanov, R., I. Rainova, N. Tsvetkova, I. Kaftandjiev, R. Borisova, A. Ivanova, and M. Videnova. "Prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among the Bulgarian population over a three year period (2015 – 2017)." Helminthologia 57, no. 1 (January 25, 2020): 12–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/helm-2020-0002.

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SummaryThe aim of the present study is to perform a retrospective analysis of the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infections among the Bulgarian population over the period 2015 – 2017. The study involved all Bulgarians and foreign nationals residing in the country who had been tested for intestinal protozoa and helminths. A total of 23,785 infections have been revealed, of which 17,712 (74.47 %) were helminth and 6,073 (25.53 %) protozoan invasions. Enterobiasis was found to be the most prevalent among patients infected with intestinal helminths (81.75 %), while giardiasis (62.05 %) was the most common among those diagnosed with protozoan infections. In spite of improved living conditions and increasing public health awareness, parasitic diseases in general, and intestinal parasitic infections in particular, still represent a significant part of the overall morbidity in Bulgaria, thus posing a major issue for the public health care system.

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Noe, Perla, and Veronica Jorge Babo-Terra. "Feline leishmaniasis – review." Clínica Veterinária XXI, no. 122 (May 1, 2016): 56–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.46958/rcv.2016.xxi.n.122.p.56-68.

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Leishmaniases are diseases caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania, and are a major challenge to public health. While dogs and various wild species serve as reservoirs of the protozoan, domestic and wild cats can also be infected. The number of diagnosed cases of feline leishmaniasis has recently grown in endemic areas, suggesting that this species can no longer be considered an unusual host of Leishmania sp. There was a great advance in laboratory techniques in recent years, which may have contributed to increasing the number of positive diagnoses. Thus, it is necessary to understand the real role of the cat in the epidemiology of the disease and clarify whether this species can behave like a protozoan reservoir. The purpose of this review is to gather important information about the disease in domestic cats, such as epidemiology, clinical signs and diagnosis.

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Deng, Silu, Marion L. Graham, and Xian-Ming Chen. "The Complexity of Interferon Signaling in Host Defense against Protozoan Parasite Infection." Pathogens 12, no. 2 (February 15, 2023): 319. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12020319.

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Protozoan parasites, such as Plasmodium, Leishmania, Toxoplasma, Cryptosporidium, and Trypanosoma, are causative agents of health-threatening diseases in both humans and animals, leading to significant health risks and socioeconomic losses globally. The development of effective therapeutic and prevention strategies for protozoan-caused diseases requires a full understanding of the pathogenesis and protective events occurring in infected hosts. Interferons (IFNs) are a family of cytokines with diverse biological effects in host antimicrobial defense and disease pathogenesis, including protozoan parasite infection. Type II IFN (IFN-γ) has been widely recognized as the essential defense cytokine in intracellular protozoan parasite infection, whereas recent studies also revealed the production and distinct function of type I and III IFNs in host defense against these parasites. Decoding the complex network of the IFN family in host–parasite interaction is critical for exploring potential new therapeutic strategies against intracellular protozoan parasite infection. Here, we review the complex effects of IFNs on the host defense against intracellular protozoan parasites and the crosstalk between distinct types of IFN signaling during infections.

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Sylla, Khadime, Souleye Lelo, Cheikh Binetou Fall, Isaac A. Manga, Magatte Ndiaye, Babacar Faye, Thérèse Dieng, et al. "Epidemiological Profile of Intestinal Protozoan Infection in Dakar, Senegal: Results from Hospital-Based Survey." Journal of Parasite Research 1, no. 3 (December 27, 2022): 11–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.14302/issn.2690-6759.jpar-22-4382.

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Background Intestinal parasitic infections, especially intestinal protozoan parasites remain significant public health problem in Senegal. Several studies have demonstrated the endemicity of the diseases. The study was carried out with the objective of assessing the epidemiolocal profile of intestinal protozoan infection diagnosed among patients attending to Fann University Hospital in Dakar, Senegal. Materials and Method A retrospective study was conducted from 2016 to 2020. Samples were collected from patients attending to the laboratory for parasitological confirmation. Fresh stool samples were observed using direct examination, formal-ether concentration method and modified Zeilh Nielsen staining method. Descriptive analysis was performed using Stata MP 16 software. The significance level was set at 5%. Results Among 3825 patients selected in the study, 1009 were found with at least one intestinal protozoan parasite representing an overall prevalence of 26.4% (CI 95% (24.7– 28)). Mono-parasitic and di-parasitic infection represent 81.6% and 18.2% respectively while polyparasitism was observed in 26 patients representing 2,6%. Among positive samples, 16 (8.7%) were associated with helminths. Blastocystis sp. (40.8%), Entamoeba Coli (38.2%), Endolimax nana (8.2%) and Giardia intestinalis (8.1%) were mainly observed. Trophozoites Entamoeba histolytica was observed with 2.3%. Frequency of intestinal protozoa was higher in the 15 – 30 age group (28.3%) and in male group (26.9%). The parasite carriage was most important during the wet season comparing the dry season (p = 0.65). Asymptomatic patients (29.5%) were more infected than symptomatic patients (23.5%) (p <10-3). The main clinical symptoms were diarrhea, abdominal pain, dysenteric syndrome, fever, dyspeptic disorders, and vomiting. Conclusion These results showed that intestinal protozoan infections remain prevalent in Senegal with a high proportion of asymptomatic who constitute an important reservoir of parasites. Effective control strategies such as water supply, hands washing, and mass deworming campaign could reduce the prevalence of these diseases.

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F Awadin, Walaa, Ahmed Fawzi Elshaieb, and Yasmin EL-Morshidy. "Retrospective pathological studies on gastrointestinal tract parasitic diseases in cattle and buffaloes at EL-Dakahlyia province." Journal of Dairy, Veterinary & Animal Research 10, no. 1 (March 30, 2021): 5–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.15406/jdvar.2021.10.00304.

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Background and objective: The present study was carried out to study gross pathology, histopathological examination of gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of animals affected with helminthes and protozoan parasites in cattle and buffaloes slaughtered in Mansoura governmental abattoir and necropsied in local dairy farms at EL-Dakahlyia Province. Materials and methods: Different kinds of trematodes, cestodes and nematodes were generally screened during the period 2017-2020 by post-mortem examination of 12,250 slaughtered bovine carcasses. Results: Out of 12,250 slaughtered bovine carcasses, 3604 cases (29%) were affected with gastrointestinal parasites. Helminthes and protozoan parasites were encountered in 3209 (89%) and 395 (10.9%) cases, respectively. The observed helminthes were nematodes (Gongylonema pulchrum, toxocara vitillorum), trematodes (Fasciola; F. gigantica) and cestodes (Moniezia, hydatid cyst), while sarcosporidia, eimeria and cryptosporidia were the encountered protozoa. Grossly, fasciola and hydatid cysts were detected in liver, gongelonema pulchrum, major sarcocysts were detected in esophagus, toxocara vitillorum were detected in small intestine. Minor sarcocysts, intestinal cryptosporidiosis and coccidiosis were discovered microscopically. The histopathological lesions were graded from 0 (no lesion), I (mild), II (moderate) to III (severe). Conclusion: No or minimal lesions as observed with living gongelonema, major and minor sarcocysts to severe caseation, calcification and granuloma formation as demonstrated with hydatid cysts and fasciola.

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Debierre-Grockiego, Françoise. "Glycolipids are potential targets for protozoan parasite diseases." Trends in Parasitology 26, no. 8 (August 2010): 404–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2010.04.006.

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Saunders, Eleanor, David De Souza, James McRae, Vladimir Likic, and Malcolm McConville. "Metabolomic analysis of protozoan parasites." Microbiology Australia 32, no. 4 (2011): 144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/ma11144.

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Protozoan parasites cause a number of important diseases in humans, including malaria, African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease and the leishmaniases. Current therapeutics for these diseases are limited and their effectiveness is being further undermined by the emergence of drug-resistant parasite strains. Parasite genome sequencing projects have provided new insights into the metabolic capacity of these pathogens and have highlighted potential drug targets. However, these genome-based reconstructions of metabolic networks are incomplete and we still have only a limited understanding of the metabolic requirements of these pathogens during infection. Metabolomics has emerged as a powerful new tool for investigating parasite metabolism and host responses, complementing more established omics technologies as well as being useful as a stand-alone technique.

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Margarita, Valentina, Antonella Congiargiu, Nicia Diaz, Pier Luigi Fiori, and Paola Rappelli. "Mycoplasma hominis and Candidatus Mycoplasma girerdii in Trichomonas vaginalis: Peaceful Cohabitants or Contentious Roommates?" Pathogens 12, no. 9 (August 25, 2023): 1083. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12091083.

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Trichomonas vaginalis is a pathogenic protozoan diffused worldwide capable of infecting the urogenital tract in humans, causing trichomoniasis. One of its most intriguing aspects is the ability to establish a close relationship with endosymbiotic microorganisms: the unique association of T. vaginalis with the bacterium Mycoplasma hominis represents, to date, the only example of an endosymbiosis involving two true human pathogens. Since its discovery, several aspects of the symbiosis between T. vaginalis and M. hominis have been characterized, demonstrating that the presence of the intracellular guest strongly influences the pathogenic characteristics of the protozoon, making it more aggressive towards host cells and capable of stimulating a stronger proinflammatory response. The recent description of a further symbiont of the protozoon, the newly discovered non-cultivable mycoplasma Candidatus Mycoplasma girerdii, makes the picture even more complex. This review provides an overview of the main aspects of this complex microbial consortium, with particular emphasis on its effect on protozoan pathobiology and on the interplays among the symbionts.

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Meira, Cássio, Jaqueline Silva, Helenita Quadros, Laís Silva, Breno Barreto, Vinícius Rocha, Larissa Bomfim, Emanuelle Santos, and Milena Soares. "Galectins in Protozoan Parasitic Diseases: Potential Applications in Diagnostics and Therapeutics." Cells 12, no. 23 (November 21, 2023): 2671. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/cells12232671.

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Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) constitute a group of diseases that generally develop in tropical or subtropical climatic conditions and are related to poverty. Within the spectrum of NTDs, diseases caused by protozoa such as malaria, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis exhibit elevated mortality rates, thereby constituting a substantial public health concern. Beyond their protozoan etiology, these NTDs share other similarities, such as the challenge of control and the lack of affordable, safe, and effective drugs. In view of the above, the need to explore novel diagnostic predictors and therapeutic targets for the treatment of these parasitic diseases is evident. In this context, galectins are attractive because they are a set of lectins bound to β-galactosides that play key roles in a variety of cellular processes, including host-parasite interaction such as adhesion and entry of parasites into the host cells, and participate in antiparasitic immunity in either a stimulatory or inhibitory manner, especially the galectins-1, -2, -3, and -9. These functions bestow upon galectins significant therapeutic prospects in the context of managing and diagnosing NTDs. Thus, the present review aims to elucidate the potential role of galectins in the diagnosis and treatment of malaria, leishmaniasis, and Chagas disease.

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Mitchell, G. H. "Immunization against protozoan disease." Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 1, no. 6 (November 1988): 883–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00001432-198811000-00008.

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46

Karpiyevich, Maryia, and Katerina Artavanis-Tsakonas. "Ubiquitin-Like Modifiers: Emerging Regulators of Protozoan Parasites." Biomolecules 10, no. 10 (October 3, 2020): 1403. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/biom10101403.

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Post-translational protein regulation allows for fine-tuning of cellular functions and involves a wide range of modifications, including ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modifiers (Ubls). The dynamic balance of Ubl conjugation and removal shapes the fates of target substrates, in turn modulating various cellular processes. The mechanistic aspects of Ubl pathways and their biological roles have been largely established in yeast, plants, and mammalian cells. However, these modifiers may be utilised differently in highly specialised and divergent organisms, such as parasitic protozoa. In this review, we explore how these parasites employ Ubls, in particular SUMO, NEDD8, ATG8, ATG12, URM1, and UFM1, to regulate their unconventional cellular physiology. We discuss emerging data that provide evidence of Ubl-mediated regulation of unique parasite-specific processes, as well as the distinctive features of Ubl pathways in parasitic protozoa. We also highlight the potential to leverage these essential regulators and their cognate enzymatic machinery for development of therapeutics to protect against the diseases caused by protozoan parasites.

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Barzegar, Maryam, Mehdi Raissy, and Shokoofeh Shamsi. "Protozoan Parasites of Iranian Freshwater Fishes: Review, Composition, Classification, and Modeling Distribution." Pathogens 12, no. 5 (April 27, 2023): 651. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens12050651.

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This article investigates the occurrence and distribution of parasitic protozoa of Iranian freshwater fishes (both farmed and wild). Our search shows 26 known parasitic protozoan species were recorded from 52 freshwater fish species across different ecoregions of Iran. Most of these fish are edible. While none of the identified protozoan parasites are of zoonotic importance, our study does not exclude presence of zoonotic species in Iranian fishes. Present data suggest the northern and western regions of the country are the main macrohabitat of protozoa (35 parasitic records reported), with the greatest concentration of parasitic protozoa occurring in the Urmia basin in Iran’s northwest. The clustered distribution pattern of protozoa among freshwater fish was also more evident in the northern and western parts of the country. The gills and skin were the most infected microhabitats for parasitic protozoa. The highest number of parasites was observed in the fish family Cyprinidae with nine species found in the native fish, Capoeta capoeta. The most diverse host range was observed in the holotrich ciliate, Ichthyophthirius multifiliis isolated from 46 cyprinid species in 39 different locations. However, due to the great richness of fish and extreme habitat diversity, parts of the parasite fauna of Iranian freshwater fish are still poorly understood. Furthermore, current and future changes in climate and environmental parameters, and anthropogenic interventions are likely to affect fish hosts and their parasites.

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Canning, Elizabeth U. "Protozoan infections." Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 84 (January 1990): 19–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0035-9203(90)90451-j.

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Miné, Júlio César, and João Aristeu da Rosa. "Frequency of Blastocystis hominis and other intestinal parasites in stool samples examined at the Parasitology Laboratory of the School of Pharmaceutical Sciences at the São Paulo State University, Araraquara." Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 41, no. 6 (December 2008): 565–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0037-86822008000600004.

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Blastocystis homins is a protozoan that causes an intestinal infection known as human blastocystosis. This infection is diagnosed by means of parasitological examination of stools and by permanent staining techniques. The present study was developed to evaluate the frequency of Blastocystis hominis infection among inhabitants of the Araraquara region, State of São Paulo, and to compare different methods for investigating this protozoan in feces samples. Evaluations on 503 stool samples were performed by means of direct fresh examination and using the techniques of Faust et al., Lutz and Rugai et al. In addition, the iron hematoxylin, trichrome and modified Kinyoun staining techniques were used. Out of the 503 samples examined, 174 (34.6%) were found to be positive for the presence of intestinal parasites. The most frequent protozoa and helminths were Entamoeba coli (14.6%) and Strongyloides stercoralis (6.7%), respectively. Blastocystis hominis was present in 23 (4.6%) fecal samples, with a predominately pasty consistency and without characterizing a condition of diarrhea. Despite the low frequency of Blastocystis hominis found in the Araraquara region, compared with other regions of Brazil, it is important to perform laboratory diagnostic tests for this protozoan. Its finding in fecal material is indicative of food and drinking water contamination. Since the transmission route for this parasite is accepted to be oral-fecal, this implies that the population needs guidance regarding hygiene and basic sanitation measures as a means for controlling health problems caused by enteroparasites.

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TATE, EDWARD W., ANDREW S. BELL, MARK D. RACKHAM, and MEGAN H. WRIGHT. "N-Myristoyltransferase as a potential drug target in malaria and leishmaniasis." Parasitology 141, no. 1 (April 24, 2013): 37–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0031182013000450.

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SUMMARYInfections caused by protozoan parasites are among the most widespread and intractable transmissible diseases affecting the developing world, with malaria and leishmaniasis being the most costly in terms of morbidity and mortality. Although new drugs are urgently required against both diseases in the face of ever-rising resistance to frontline therapies, very few candidates passing through development pipelines possess a known and novel mode of action. Set in the context of drugs currently in use and under development, we present the evidence for N-myristoyltransferase (NMT), an enzyme that N-terminally lipidates a wide range of specific target proteins through post-translational modification, as a potential drug target in malaria and the leishmaniases. We discuss the limitations of current knowledge regarding the downstream targets of this enzyme in protozoa, and our recent progress towards potent cell-active NMT inhibitors against the most clinically-relevant species of parasite. Finally, we outline the next steps required in terms of both tools to understand N-myristoylation in protozoan parasites, and the generation of potential development candidates based on the output of our recently-reported high-throughput screens.

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