Статті в журналах: "Proactive aggression"

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Ang, Rebecca P., Vivien S. Huan, Xiang Li, and Wei Teng Chan. "Functions of Aggression and Delinquency: The Moderating Role of Parent Criminality and Friends’ Gang Membership." Journal of Interpersonal Violence 33, no. 22 (March 2, 2016): 3531–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0886260516636066.

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This study examined the relationships between two functions of aggression (i.e., reactive and proactive) and delinquency, including the moderating effects of parent criminality and friends’ gang membership, in a sample of 1,027 Singaporean adolescents from Grade 7 to Grade 9, with age ranging from 12 to 19 years ( M = 14.10, SD = 1.15). Findings suggested that both reactive aggression and proactive aggression significantly and positively predicted delinquency (after controlling for proactive aggression and reactive aggression, respectively), with proactive aggression being a stronger predictor. Friends’ gang membership was found to moderate the relationship between reactive aggression and delinquency, and proactive aggression and delinquency, with stronger moderator effects for the latter. Those who were aggressive proactively and who had friends in a gang appear to be impacted most negatively with respect to delinquency. Parent criminality did not moderate these relationships. These findings highlight the need to effectively address the issues of child and adolescent aggression. Also, developing positive peer relations early is crucial for delinquency prevention.

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Wrangham, Richard W. "Two types of aggression in human evolution." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 115, no. 2 (December 26, 2017): 245–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1713611115.

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Two major types of aggression, proactive and reactive, are associated with contrasting expression, eliciting factors, neural pathways, development, and function. The distinction is useful for understanding the nature and evolution of human aggression. Compared with many primates, humans have a high propensity for proactive aggression, a trait shared with chimpanzees but not bonobos. By contrast, humans have a low propensity for reactive aggression compared with chimpanzees, and in this respect humans are more bonobo-like. The bimodal classification of human aggression helps solve two important puzzles. First, a long-standing debate about the significance of aggression in human nature is misconceived, because both positions are partly correct. The Hobbes–Huxley position rightly recognizes the high potential for proactive violence, while the Rousseau–Kropotkin position correctly notes the low frequency of reactive aggression. Second, the occurrence of two major types of human aggression solves the execution paradox, concerned with the hypothesized effects of capital punishment on self-domestication in the Pleistocene. The puzzle is that the propensity for aggressive behavior was supposedly reduced as a result of being selected against by capital punishment, but capital punishment is itself an aggressive behavior. Since the aggression used by executioners is proactive, the execution paradox is solved to the extent that the aggressive behavior of which victims were accused was frequently reactive, as has been reported. Both types of killing are important in humans, although proactive killing appears to be typically more frequent in war. The biology of proactive aggression is less well known and merits increased attention.

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Lokithasan, Komathi, Ai Fie Chua, Kwan Hui Ting Joanna, Raksshana Subramanian, Wirawahida Kamarul Zaman, and Sanggari Krishnan. "The Correlation between Aggression, Self-esteem and Cyberbullying among Undergraduates in Malaysia." Sains Insani 5, no. 1 (July 13, 2020): 205–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.33102/sainsinsani.vol5no1.189.

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The prevalence of cyberbullying cases has been increasing over the years and it causes detrimental effects on one's mental health and psychological well-being. This cross-sectional research aims to determine the significant relationship between proactive aggression, reactive aggression and self-esteem on cyberbullying among undergraduates in Malaysia. 255 participants were recruited through purposive sampling. Questionnaires were distributed online via social media platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, WhatsApp, and Twitter. Three validated and reliable self-report measures were used to gather responses for this including Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ), Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (RSES) and Cyberbullying Test (CT). RPQ consists of 23 items followed by RSES with 10 items and lastly, CT consists of 45 items. All measures yielded a high reliability ranging from .84 to .95. The present study has found that proactive and reactive aggressions have a significant positive relationship with cyberbullying perpetration. However, proactive aggression has a stronger relationship as compared to reactive ones. Those with high proactive aggressions tend to involve more in cyberbullying as compared to reactive aggression. Moreover, it also found a negative but non-significant relationship between self-esteem and cyberbullying perpetration among undergraduates in Malaysia. It shows that those with high self-esteem tend to be cyberbullying victims but not perpetrators due to their frequent usage of social media. This study implies that it could be useful to tackle those involved in proactive aggressions as compared to reactive aggression and those with high self-esteem. Healthy ways to channel proactive aggression in which perpetrator seeks reward or dominance should be identified rather than focusing on those who reacts aggressively to a threat or provocation.

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Gini, Gianluca, Robert Thornberg, Kay Bussey, Federica Angelini, and Tiziana Pozzoli. "Longitudinal Links of Individual and Collective Morality with Adolescents’ Peer Aggression." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 51, no. 3 (October 18, 2021): 524–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-021-01518-9.

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AbstractAdolescents’ aggressive behavior has been often linked to biases in morality. However, limited knowledge is available regarding the relative strength of different moral correlates, both at the individual and class-level, in predicting different types of aggressive behavior over time. To address this gap, the present study tested the prospective associations of moral identity and moral disengagement with reactive and proactive aggression in a short-term longitudinal study. The sample consisted of 1158 Italian adolescents (48.7% females; Mage = 13.6 years, SD = 1.1). Participants completed self-report measures of moral identity, moral disengagement, perceived collective moral disengagement in the fall, and reactive and proactive aggression in the fall and in the spring. Multivariate multilevel analysis indicated that, at the individual level, after controlling for the stability of aggressive behavior, T2 (Time 2) reactive aggression was higher for students who reported lower moral identity and higher moral disengagement at T1 (Time 1). For proactive aggression, a significant interaction effect indicated that the negative association between T1 moral identity and T2 aggression was apparent only at high levels of T1 moral disengagement. Moreover, proactive aggression was significantly predicted by higher perceived collective moral disengagement. At the class-level, T1 collective moral disengagement helped explain between-class variability of T2 reactive and proactive aggressive behavior. How these results expand previous research on morality and aggressive behavior and their potential implications for prevention and intervention programs is discussed.

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Card, Noel A., and Todd D. Little. "Proactive and reactive aggression in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analysis of differential relations with psychosocial adjustment." International Journal of Behavioral Development 30, no. 5 (September 2006): 466–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025406071904.

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Aggressive behavior in childhood has long been separated into that which is proactively motivated and that which is reactive. We report a meta-analytic review of the existing empirical literature that examines the associations of each type of aggression with six indices of psychosocial adjustment: internalizing problems, emotional dysregulation and ADHD-type symptoms, delinquent behaviors, prosocial behavior, sociometric status, and peer victimization. Even though not detectable in most single studies, meta-analytic combination revealed that reactive aggression was more strongly related to most of the indices of adjustment than was proactive aggression. This difference was small, however, and we argue that the difficulty in detecting differential correlates is due to the high intercorrelation between the functions of aggression, which appears to be an artifact of traditional measurement procedures. It is recommended that future research use measures that provide distinct assessment of the functions in order to more clearly distinguish the correlates of proactive and reactive aggression.

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Calvete, Esther, and Izaskun Orue. "Cognitive Schemas and Aggressive Behavior in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Social Information Processing." Spanish journal of psychology 13, no. 1 (May 2010): 190–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1138741600003772.

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This study assesses the association between cognitive schemas of justification of violence, grandiosity and abuse, and reactive and proactive aggressive behavior, and whether this association is mediated by social information processing (SIP). For this purpose, a sample of 1371 adolescents (638 girls and 580 boys) completed measures of cognitive schemas, SIP, and Reactive-Proactive Aggression. The results showed that the cognitive schemas of justification of violence and narcissism are more relevant for proactive aggression, whereas the abuse schema is more relevant for reactive aggression. SIP mediated particularly the association between cognitive schemas and reactive aggression. Each cognitive schema was shown to be associated with some particular SIP component: justification of violence and abuse with the component of interpretation, and narcissism with the experience of anger. Moreover, the abuse schema was negatively associated with the selection of aggressive responses. Lastly, a general model of paths between schemas, SIP, and aggression was found to be quite similar for boys and girls, although the former scored higher in proactive aggression, partly because of their higher scores in the justification of violence and narcissism schemas.

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Petruccelli, Filippo, Pierluigi Diotaiuti, Valeria Verrastro, Irene Petruccelli, Roberta Federico, Giovanni Martinotti, Andrea Fossati, Massimo Di Giannantonio, and Luigi Janiri. "Affective Dependence and Aggression: An Exploratory Study." BioMed Research International 2014 (2014): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2014/805469.

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Introduction.Emotionally dependent subjects may engage in controlling, restrictive, and aggressive behaviours, which limit their partner’s autonomy. The underlying causes of such behaviours are not solely based on levels of aggression, but act as a mean of maintaining the subject’s own sense of self-worth, identity, and general functioning.Objective.The aim of the paper is to explore the correlation between affective dependency and reactive/proactive aggression and to evaluate individual differences as predisposing factors for aggressive behaviour and emotional dependency.Methods.TheSpouse-Specific Dependency Scale(SSDS) and theReactive Proactive Questionnaire(RPQ) were administered to a sample of 3375 subjects.Results.In the whole sample, a positive correlation between emotional dependency and proactive aggression was identified. Differences with regard to sex, age group, and geographical distribution were evidenced for the scores of the different scales.Conclusion. A fundamental distinction between reactive and proactive aggression was observed, anchoring proactive aggression more strictly to emotional dependency. Sociocultural and demographical variables, together with the previous structuring of attachment styles, help to determine the scope, frequency, and intensity of the demands made to the partner, as well as to feed the fears of loss, abandonment, or betrayal.

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Banny, Adrienne M., Wan-Ling Tseng, Dianna Murray-Close, Clio E. Pitula, and Nicki R. Crick. "Borderline personality features as a predictor of forms and functions of aggression during middle childhood: Examining the roles of gender and physiological reactivity." Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 3 (July 22, 2014): 789–804. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s095457941400039x.

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AbstractThe present longitudinal investigation examined borderline personality features as a predictor of aggression 1 year later. Moderation by physiological reactivity and gender was also explored. One hundred ninety-six children (M = 10.11 years, SD = 0.64) participated in a laboratory stress protocol in which their systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and skin conductance reactivity to recounting a relational stressor (e.g., threats to relationships or exclusion) were assessed. Teachers provided reports on subtypes of aggressive behavior (i.e., reactive relational, proactive relational, reactive physical, and proactive physical), and children completed a self-report measure of borderline personality features. Path analyses indicated that borderline personality features predicted increases in reactive relational aggression and proactive relational aggression among girls who evinced heightened physiological reactivity to interpersonal stress. In contrast, borderline personality features predicted decreases in proactive physical aggression in girls. Findings suggest that borderline personality features promote engagement in relationally aggressive behaviors among girls, particularly in the context of emotional dysregulation.

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Rojas Zegarra, María Elena, Walter Lizandro Arias Gallegos, Renzo Rivera, Jenny Adelí Geldres García, Marlene Alejandra Starke Moscoso, and Evert Nazaret Apaza Bejarano. "Propiedades psicométricas de los cuestionarios Reactive/Proactive Questionnaire (RPQ) y How I Think Questionaire (HIT) en estudiantes peruanos." Revista de Psicopatología y Psicología Clínica 25, no. 1 (May 26, 2020): 59. http://dx.doi.org/10.5944/rppc.24426.

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Abstract: The present study aimed to value the relationships between reactive/proactive aggression and cognitive distortion among adolescents from Arequipa City in Peru, for which it was necessary to realize a psychometric analysis of the tests used. Evaluated were 2,830 high school students (48.9% female and 51.1% male) aged between 13 and 19 years old, with the Reactive/Proactive Aggression Questionnaire and the How I Think Questionnaire. A psychometric analysis was performed to evaluate the validity and reliability of the instruments applied, as well as a correlation analysis to determine the relation between the variables. The psychometric results show a construct validity and reliability of the questionnaires, with adequate fit values and internal consistency; while the correlation analysis reveals that the reactive aggression is weakly related with cognitive distortions, and proactive aggression is moderately related to cognitive distortions. Propiedades psicométricas de los cuestionarios Reactive/Proactive Questionnaire (RPQ) y How I Think Questionaire (HIT) en estudiantes peruanos Key words: Reactive aggression; proactive aggression; cognitive distortion; psychometrics.Resumen: La presente investigación tiene por finalidad valorar las relaciones entre la agresión reactiva/proactiva y las distorsiones cognitivas de adolescentes de la ciudad de Arequipa (Perú), para ello ha sido necesario realizar un análisis psicométrico de los instrumentos utilizados. En ese sentido se evaluó a 2830 estudiantes nivel secundario (48.9% mujeres y 51.1% varones) entre 13 y 19 años de edad, a través del Cuestionario de Agresión Reactiva/Proactiva y el Cuestionario How I Think. Se realizó un procesamiento psicométrico para valorar la validez y la confiabilidad de los instrumentos, así como un análisis de correlación para determinar el grado de relación entre las variables. Los resultados psicométricos dan cuenta de la validez de constructo y la confiabilidad de los instrumentos, que tienen índices adecuados de ajuste y consistencia interna; mientras que el análisis de correlación reveló que la agresión reactiva se relaciona de manera débil con las distorsiones cognitivas, y la agresión proactiva se relaciona de manera moderada con las distorsiones cognitivas.

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Malonda-Vidal, Elisabeth, Paula Samper-García, Anna Llorca-Mestre, Roger Muñoz-Navarro, and Vicenta Mestre-Escrivá. "Traditional Masculinity and Aggression in Adolescence: Its Relationship with Emotional Processes." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 18 (September 17, 2021): 9802. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189802.

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Traditional masculinity includes norms that encourage many of the aggressive behaviors whereas traditional femininity emphasizes aggression very little. In addition, the lack of emotional regulation as well as a poor impulse control have been related to aggression and, in particular, with reactive and proactive aggression. The objective of this study is to examine the role of gender stereotypes (masculinity/femininity) in reactive and proactive aggression, through regulatory emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation. A total of 390 adolescents participated in a longitudinal study in Valencia, Spain. Structural equations modeling (SEM) was employed to explore a two-wave longitudinal model. The results show that femininity relates to reactive aggression through regulatory emotional self-efficacy and emotion regulation. This way, both emotional self-efficacy and emotional regulation mediate the relation between femininity and reactive aggression. Furthermore, reactive and proactive aggression relate positively and directly to masculinity and negatively to femininity. Therefore, violence prevention programs with adolescents should incorporate information to break down gender stereotypes and promote strategies to manage emotions. Such efforts may be helpful to reduce aggressive behaviors and violence.

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Ross, Veerle, Nora Reinolsmann, Jill Lobbestael, Chantal Timmermans, Tom Brijs, Wael Alhajyaseen, and Kris Brijs. "Relating Reactive and Proactive Aggression to Trait Driving Anger in Young and Adult Males: A Pilot Study Using Explicit and Implicit Measures." Sustainability 13, no. 4 (February 8, 2021): 1850. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su13041850.

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Driving anger and aggressive driving are main contributors to crashes, especially among young males. Trait driving anger is context-specific and unique from other forms of anger. It is necessary to understand the mechanisms of trait driving anger to develop targeted interventions. Although literature conceptually distinguished reactive and proactive aggression, this distinction is uncommon in driving research. Similar, cognitive biases related to driving anger, measured by a combination of explicit and implicit measures, received little attention. This pilot study related explicit and implicit measures associated with reactive and proactive aggression to trait driving anger, while considering age. The sample consisted of 42 male drivers. The implicit measures included a self-aggression association (i.e., Single-Target Implicit Association Test) and an attentional aggression bias (i.e., Emotional Stroop Task). Reactive aggression related positively with trait driving anger. Moreover, a self-aggression association negatively related to trait driving anger. Finally, an interaction effect for age suggested that only in young male drivers, higher proactive aggression related to lower trait driving anger. These preliminary results motivate further attention to the combination of explicit and implicit measures related to reactive and proactive aggression in trait driving anger research.

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del Puerto-Golzarri, Nora, Aitziber Azurmendi, María Rosario Carreras, José Manuel Muñoz, Paloma Braza, Oscar Vegas, and Eider Pascual-Sagastizabal. "The Moderating Role of Surgency, Behavioral Inhibition, Negative Emotionality and Effortful Control in the Relationship between Parenting Style and Children’s Reactive and Proactive Aggression." Children 9, no. 1 (January 13, 2022): 104. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/children9010104.

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The principal aim of this study is to explore the moderating role of temperament in the relationship between parenting style and the reactive and proactive aggressive behavior of 8-year-old children. The participants are 279 children (154 boys and 125 girls). To measure reactive and proactive aggression, children completed the reactive and proactive questionnaire (RPQ). Child temperament and parenting styles were evaluated by both parents using the temperament in middle childhood questionnaire (TMCQ) and the parenting styles and dimensions questionnaire (PSDQ). The results revealed that boys with high surgency levels and authoritarian fathers displayed more reactive aggression, whereas behaviorally inhibited boys with mothers who scored low for authoritarian parenting displayed less reactive aggression. Finally, girls with high levels of effortful control and mothers who scored low for authoritative parenting displayed more proactive aggression. The results highlight the value of studying the moderating role of temperament in the relationship between children’s aggressive behavior and both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles, and underscores the importance of doing so separately for boys and girls.

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Persson, Gun E. B. "Developmental perspectives on prosocial and aggressive motives in preschoolers’ peer interactions." International Journal of Behavioral Development 29, no. 1 (January 2005): 80–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000423.

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Preschoolers’ prosocial and aggressive behaviours were explored longitudinally, with a focus on the inferred underlying motives of these behaviours. Forty-four children (initially 22–40 months of age) were observed in naturalistic interactions with peers, during a 2-month period, for each of three consecutive years. Three categories of prosocial behaviour (requested, altruistic, and nonaltruistic) and three categories of aggressive behaviour (reactive, proactive instrumental, and proactive hostile aggression) were explored for: (1) internal consistency; (2) developmental changes; (3) individual stability; (4) gender differences; and (5) interrelations. Internal consistency was moderately high for aggression and low for prosocial behaviour. All types of prosocial behaviour were enacted with increasing frequency as children grew older, whereas no developmental changes were revealed for the enactment of aggressive behaviour. Individual stability was found for aggression and for prosocial altruistic behaviour. A single gender difference was found: Girls outperformed boys on altruistic behaviour at the end of the preschool period. Patterns of intercorrelations indicated that (1) prosocial requested behaviour was unrelated to aggression; (2) prosocial altruistic behaviour was negatively related to aggression, in particular to proactive hostile aggression; (3) prosocial nonaltruistic behaviour was sometimes positively related to aggression. The theoretical significance of focusing on underlying motives rather than on behavioural forms is discussed.

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Jung, Janis, Barbara Krahé, and Robert Busching. "Differential Risk Profiles for Reactive and Proactive Aggression." Social Psychology 48, no. 2 (March 2017): 71–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000298.

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Abstract. This two-wave longitudinal study identified configurations of social rejection, affiliation with aggressive peers, and academic failure and examined their predictivity for reactive and proactive aggression in a sample of 1,479 children and adolescents aged between 9 and 19 years. Latent profile analysis yielded three configurations of risk factors, made up of a non-risk group, a risk group scoring high on measures of social rejection (SR), and a risk group scoring high on measures of affiliation with aggressive peers and academic failure (APAF). Latent path analysis revealed that, as predicted, only membership in the SR group at T1 predicted reactive aggression at T2 17 months later. By contrast, only membership in the APAF group at T1 predicted proactive aggression at T2.

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Chester, David S. "The Role of Positive Affect in Aggression." Current Directions in Psychological Science 26, no. 4 (August 2017): 366–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721417700457.

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Aggressive behavior hurts us all and is studied across psychology’s subdisciplines. Classical theories discuss the causes of aggression in the context of negative affect (e.g., frustration, pain). However, more recent research implicates positive affect as an important correlate and cause of aggression. Such aggressive pleasure likely evolved from ancient predatory tendencies that later yielded reproductive benefits, holds across reactive and proactive forms of aggression, and is used strategically as an item in many people’s emotion-regulation toolkit. Findings from psychological and neural sciences have converged to detail aggression’s hedonically pleasant qualities and the motivational and biological mechanisms through which they occur. This new approach generates novel hypotheses and might lead to effective interventions that mollify mankind’s aggressive tendencies.

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Muñoz Centifanti, Luna C., Eva R. Kimonis, Paul J. Frick, and Katherine J. Aucoin. "Emotional reactivity and the association between psychopathy-linked narcissism and aggression in detained adolescent boys." Development and Psychopathology 25, no. 2 (April 30, 2013): 473–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579412001186.

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AbstractDifferent patterns of emotional reactivity characterize proactive and reactive functions of aggressive behavior, and theory also suggests a link of both types with narcissism. How people with narcissistic traits respond emotionally to competitive scenarios could influence their aggressiveness. Participants were 85 adolescent boys from a detention center. Several indices of emotional functioning were assessed, including attentional bias to negative emotional stimuli and psychophysiological responding. In addition, we included self-report and laboratory measures of aggression and measures of psychopathy-linked narcissism, callous–unemotional traits, and impulsivity. Psychopathy-linked narcissism was uniquely related to unprovoked aggression (i.e., proactive aggression) and to heightened attention to pictures depicting others’ distress. Compared with those scoring low on narcissism, those high on narcissism, who were the least physiologically reactive group, evinced greater proactive aggression, whereas those showing a pattern of coactivation (i.e., sympathetic and parasympathetic autonomic reactivity) evinced greater reactive aggression. Results are consistent with descriptions of narcissistic individuals as being hypervigilant to negative cues and exhibiting poor emotion regulation. These characteristics may lead to aggressive and violent behavior aimed at maintaining dominance over others.

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Raine, Adrian, Kenneth Dodge, Rolf Loeber, Lisa Gatzke-Kopp, Don Lynam, Chandra Reynolds, Magda Stouthamer-Loeber, and Jianghong Liu. "The reactive–proactive aggression questionnaire: differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescent boys." Aggressive Behavior 32, no. 2 (2006): 159–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ab.20115.

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Lobbestael, Jill, and Maaike J. Cima. "Virtual Reality for Aggression Assessment: The Development and Preliminary Results of Two Virtual Reality Tasks to Assess Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Males." Brain Sciences 11, no. 12 (December 17, 2021): 1653. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11121653.

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Validly measuring aggression is challenging because self-reports are plagued with biased answer tendencies and behavioral measures with ethical concerns and low ecological validity. The current study, therefore, introduces a novel virtual reality (VR) aggression assessment tool, differentially assessing reactive and proactive aggression. Two VR tasks were developed, one in an alley environment (N = 24, all male, Mage = 23.88, 83.3% students) and an improved second one in a bar (N = 50, all male, Mage = 22.54, 90% students). In this bar VR task, participants were randomly assigned to either the reactive condition where they were triggered by a cheating and insulting dart-player or to the proactive condition where they could earn extra money by aggressing. Participants’ level of self-reported aggression and psychopathy was assessed, after which they engaged in either the reactive or proactive VR task. Changes in affect and blood pressure were also measured. Aggression in the reactive VR task was evidenced to mostly display convergent validity because it positively correlated with self-reported aggression and total and fearless dominance factor scores of psychopathy, and there was a trend relationship with increased systolic blood pressure. The validity of the proactive aggression variant of our VR bar paradigm received less support, and needs more refinement. It can be concluded that VR is a potentially promising tool to experimentally induce and assess (reactive) aggression, which has the potential to provide aggression researchers and clinicians with a realistic and modifiable aggression assessment environment.

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Fung, Annis Lai-Chu. "Sex Differences in the Relationships between Forms of Peer Victimization and Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Schoolchildren." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 10 (May 19, 2021): 5443. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105443.

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The original study investigated sex differences in the relationships between multiple forms of peer victimization (physical victimization, verbal victimization, and social exclusion) and subtypes of aggression (reactive aggression and proactive aggression) in schoolchildren. A self-report questionnaire assessing levels of peer victimization and aggression was administered to 3790 schoolchildren (1916 males and 1874 females) aged 11 to 17 (M = 13.19; SD = 1.17) from 10 middle schools in Hong Kong. The pure effect of each subtype of aggression were evaluated by statistically controlling for another subtype of aggression in analyses. Furthermore, participants were classified as non-aggressors, reactive aggressors, proactive aggressors, and reactive–proactive aggressors to investigate their differences in specific forms of peer victimization. Data were analyzed by hierarchical linear regression and ANOVA. The results showed: (1) Sex significantly moderated the relationship between specific forms of peer victimization and subtypes of aggression; (2) In males, reactive aggression was positively predicted by verbal victimization; proactive aggression was positively predicted by physical victimization and social exclusion, and negatively predicted by verbal victimization; (3) In females, reactive aggression was positively predicted by physical victimization and social exclusion; proactive aggression was negatively predicted by social exclusion; and (4) Reactive–proactive aggressors reported more physical victimization than other types of aggressors. The findings have significant implications for distinctive functions of reactive and proactive aggression and the need to develop differentiated interventions for male and female schoolchildren.

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van den Boogert, Frank, Bram Sizoo, Pascalle Spaan, Sharon Tolstra, Yvonne H. A. Bouman, Witte J. G. Hoogendijk, and Sabine J. Roza. "Sensory Processing and Aggressive Behavior in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder." Brain Sciences 11, no. 1 (January 14, 2021): 95. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11010095.

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Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may be accompanied by aggressive behavior and is associated with sensory processing difficulties. The present study aims to investigate the direct association between sensory processing and aggressive behavior in adults with ASD. A total of 101 Dutch adult participants with ASD, treated in outpatient or inpatient facilities, completed the Adolescent/Adult Sensory Profile (AASP), the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ), and the Aggression Questionnaire—Short Form (AQ-SF). Results revealed that sensory processing difficulties are associated with more aggressive behavior (f2=0.25), more proactive (f2=0.19) and reactive aggression (f2=0.27), more physical (f2=0.08) and verbal aggression (f2=0.13), and more anger (f2=0.20) and hostility (f2=0.12). Evidence was found for an interaction of the neurological threshold and behavioral response on total aggression and hostility. Participants with higher scores in comparison to the norm group in sensory sensitivity had the highest risk of aggressive behavior. In conclusion, clinical practice may benefit from applying detailed diagnostics on sensory processing difficulties when treating aggressive behavior in adults with ASD.

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Fakhry, Karim, Helal ., and Bouchra Hussein Aboud. "Proactive Aggression in Middle School Students." Social Sciences 15, no. 1 (March 21, 2020): 38–44. http://dx.doi.org/10.36478/sscience.2020.38.44.

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Nesdale, Drew, Melanie Killen, and Amanda Duffy. "Children’s social cognition about proactive aggression." Journal of Experimental Child Psychology 116, no. 3 (November 2013): 674–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2013.07.003.

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van Dijk, Anouk, Julie A. Hubbard, Peter K. H. Deschamps, Wieteke Hiemstra, and Hanneke Polman. "Do Distinct Groups of Reactively and Proactively Aggressive Children Exist? A Confirmatory Latent Profile Approach." Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 49, no. 10 (April 21, 2021): 1303–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00813-0.

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AbstractThe present study examined whether there are distinct groups of children with reactive versus proactive motives for their aggressive behavior. We extended previous research by using a person-based analytical approach on data from a questionnaire assessing children’s motives independently from the severity of their aggression. Two competing hypotheses were tested. The both subtypes hypothesis holds that both reactive and proactive subtypes exist, as well as a mixed subtype. The reactive only hypothesis holds that only reactive and mixed subtypes exist. Hypotheses were tested on existing data from a community sample of children displaying aggression (Study 1: n = 228, ages 10–13, 54% boys), and two clinical samples of children with aggressive behavior problems (Study 2: n = 115, ages 8–13, 100% boys; Study 3: n = 123, ages 6–8, 78% boys). Teachers reported on children’s reactive and proactive motives. We selected measures available from peers, parents, teachers, and children themselves to compare the supported subtypes on variables that previous literature suggests uniquely correlate with reactive versus proactive aggression. Confirmatory latent profile analyses revealed that the both subtypes hypothesis best fit the data of all three samples. Most children were classified as reactive (55.7–61.8% across samples), with smaller percentages classified as proactive (10.4–24.1%) and mixed (18.0–33.9%). However, these subtypes only differed in expected directions on 7 out of 34 measures. Overall, results support the existence of both reactive and proactive subtypes of aggressive children, but the distinctiveness of these subtypes in terms of social-emotional characteristics warrants further study.

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Juujärvi, Petri, Jukka Kaartinen, Lea Pulkkinen, Esko Vanninen, and Tomi Laitinen. "Controlling reactive aggression through cognitive evaluation of proactive aggression cues." Cognition & Emotion 20, no. 6 (September 2006): 759–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02699930500368022.

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Thomson, Nicholas D., and Theodore P. Beauchaine. "Respiratory Sinus Arrhythmia Mediates Links Between Borderline Personality Disorder Symptoms and Both Aggressive and Violent Behavior." Journal of Personality Disorders 33, no. 4 (August 2019): 544–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1521/pedi_2018_32_358.

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Although emotion dysregulation (ED) is a core symptom of borderline personality disorder (BPD), tests of associations between ED and aggression and violence—which are common to BPD—are sparse. The authors evaluated mediating effects of an autonomic vulnerability to ED on links between BPD symptoms and (a) reactive aggression, (b) proactive aggression, and (c) histories of interpersonal violence in a sample of young adults (N = 104), ages 18–22 years. Low baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) mediated the association between BPD symptoms and reactive aggression. In contrast, although BPD symptoms were correlated with proactive aggression, no mediational effect was found. In addition, low RSA mediated the association between BPD symptoms and histories of interpersonal violence. Collectively, these findings add evidence that neurobiological vulnerability to ED contributes to aggressive and violent behavior among those with BPD.

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Fite, Paula J., Adrian Raine, Magda Stouthamer-Loeber, Rolf Loeber, and Dustin A. Pardini. "Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Adolescent Males." Criminal Justice and Behavior 37, no. 2 (November 19, 2009): 141–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0093854809353051.

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There is limited knowledge about the unique relations between adolescent reactive and proactive aggression and later psychosocial adjustment in early adulthood. Accordingly, this study prospectively examined associations between adolescent (mean age = 16) reactive and proactive aggression and psychopathic features, antisocial behavior, negative emotionality, and substance use measured 10 years later in early adulthood (mean age = 26). Study questions were examined in a longitudinal sample of 335 adolescent males. Path analyses indicate that after controlling for the stability of the outcome and the overlap between the two subtypes of aggression, reactive aggression is uniquely associated with negative emotionality, specifically anxiety, in adulthood. In contrast, proactive aggression is uniquely associated with measures of adult psychopathic features and antisocial behavior in adulthood. Both reactive and proactive aggression uniquely predicted substance use in adulthood, but the substances varied by subtype of aggression. Implications for findings are discussed.

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Lee, Hyun-Soo, Arthur Cantos, Jami Mach, and Jennifer Wolff. "Proactive Versus Reactive Perpetrators: Aggression and Intimate Partner Violence." Partner Abuse 9, no. 2 (April 2018): 103–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/1946-6560.9.2.103.

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The relationship between proactive and reactive aggression could have significant implications for the conceptualization of intimate partner violence. In this study, victim statements found in police reports involving 299 unique adult male perpetrators were coded for proactive or reactive aggression content and analyzed in relation to existing measures of treatment outcomes. Family-only violent perpetrators were hypothesized to be rated as having used reactive aggression, and generally violent perpetrators were expected to have used proactive aggression. It was further predicted that proactive aggression would be more strongly associated with higher recidivism rates and lower intervention completion rates. Perpetrators were coded as 73.8% reactive and 26.2% proactive contrary to the assumptions of some sociocultural models of intimate partner violence, for example, the Duluth model. Chi square analysis was used to assess the relationship between type of aggression and typology. Reactive perpetrators who completed their intervention had significantly lower recidivism rates than reactive perpetrators who did not. Intervention completion was unrelated to recidivism rates for proactive perpetrators. In fact, no statistically significant difference was found between type of aggression and recidivism when controlling for intervention completion. Binary logistic regression was used to assess the relationship between type of aggression used, intervention completion, and recidivism with no significant associations found. These findings further clarify the relevance of reactive aggression in intimate partner violence perpetrators due to its relative frequency and potential intervention effects.

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Marsee, Monica A., Paul J. Frick, Christopher T. Barry, Eva R. Kimonis, Luna C. Muñoz Centifanti, and Katherine J. Aucoin. "Profiles of the forms and functions of self-reported aggression in three adolescent samples." Development and Psychopathology 26, no. 3 (July 22, 2014): 705–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579414000339.

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AbstractIn the current study, we addressed several issues related to the forms (physical and relational) and functions (reactive and proactive) of aggression in community (n = 307), voluntary residential (n = 1,917), and involuntarily detained (n = 659) adolescents (ages 11–19 years). Across samples, boys self-reported more physical aggression and girls reported more relational aggression, with the exception of higher levels of both forms of aggression in detained girls. Further, few boys showed high rates of relational aggression without also showing high rates of physical aggression. In contrast, it was not uncommon for girls to show high rates of relational aggression alone, and these girls tended to also have high levels of problem behavior (e.g., delinquency) and mental health problems (e.g., emotional dysregulation and callous–unemotional traits). Finally, for physical aggression in both boys and girls, and for relational aggression in girls, there was a clear pattern of aggressive behavior that emerged from cluster analyses across samples. Two aggression clusters emerged, with one group showing moderately high reactive aggression and a second group showing both high reactive and high proactive aggression (combined group). On measures of severity (e.g., self-reported delinquency and arrests) and etiologically important variables (e.g., emotional regulation and callous–unemotional traits), the reactive aggression group was more severe than a nonaggressive cluster but less severe than the combined aggressive cluster.

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Wall Myers, Tina D., Abigail Salcedo, Paul J. Frick, James V. Ray, Laura C. Thornton, Laurence Steinberg, and Elizabeth Cauffman. "Understanding the link between exposure to violence and aggression in justice-involved adolescents." Development and Psychopathology 30, no. 2 (April 25, 2018): 593–603. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0954579417001134.

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AbstractThe current study advanced research on the link between community violence exposure and aggression by comparing the effects of violence exposure on different functions of aggression and by testing four potential (i.e., callous–unemotional traits, consideration of others, impulse control, and anxiety) mediators of this relationship. Analyses were conducted in an ethnically/racially diverse sample of 1,216 male first-time juvenile offenders (M= 15.30 years,SD= 1.29). Our results indicated that violence exposure had direct effects on both proactive and reactive aggression 18 months later. The predictive link of violence exposure to proactive aggression was no longer significant after controlling for proactive aggression at baseline and the overlap with reactive aggression. In contrast, violence exposure predicted later reactive aggression even after controlling for baseline reactive aggression and the overlap with proactive aggression. Mediation analyses of the association between violence exposure and reactive aggression indicated indirect effects through all potential mediators, but the strongest indirect effect was through impulse control. The findings help to advance knowledge on the consequences of community violence exposure on justice-involved youth.

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Broekhof, Evelien, Marieke G. N. Bos, and Carolien Rieffe. "The Roles of Shame and Guilt in the Development of Aggression in Adolescents With and Without Hearing Loss." Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology 49, no. 7 (February 24, 2021): 891–904. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00769-1.

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AbstractThis longitudinal study examined how shame and guilt contribute to the development of reactive and proactive aggression in adolescents with and without hearing loss. Adolescents between 9 and 16 years old (adolescents with hearing loss (n = 80; Mage = 11.91) and without hearing loss (n = 227; Mage = 11.63)) completed self-reports on three occasions with an interval of 9 months. Mixed model analyses revealed that both reactive aggression and proactive aggression decreased with age, whereas shame and guilt peaked in early adolescence. Adolescents with hearing loss reported higher levels of proactive aggression, lower levels of shame and guilt, and showed protracted development for guilt compared to their hearing peers. In both groups, shame contributed to an increase in reactive aggression, whereas guilt contributed to a decrease in proactive aggression. These longitudinal associations highlight the unique role that shame and guilt play in the development of adolescent aggression.

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McCreery, Michael P., S. Kathleen Krach, Catherine A. Bacos, Jeffrey R. Laferriere, and Danielle L. Head. "Can Video Games Be Used as a Stealth Assessment of Aggression?" International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations 11, no. 2 (April 2019): 40–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/ijgcms.2019040103.

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The current pilot study examined how well a reflective moral-choice video game predicted the rating scale scores of aggression types. To begin, the authors used a coding system to examine in-game proactive and reactive behaviors. This analysis resulted in a tallied score for each construct. These game-based scores were then included in regression models, examining how well within-game behaviors predict scores on a pre-existing rating scale of both proactive and reactive aggression. Findings indicated that game-based proactive scores were not predictive of proactive aggression ratings; however, reactive game-based scores were predictive of reactive aggression ratings. Implications for these findings are discussed.

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Murray, Aja Louise, Ingrid Obsuth, Jan Zirk-Sadowski, Denis Ribeaud, and Manuel Eisner. "Developmental Relations Between ADHD Symptoms and Reactive Versus Proactive Aggression Across Childhood and Adolescence." Journal of Attention Disorders 24, no. 12 (September 1, 2016): 1701–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1087054716666323.

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Objective: Past research has provided some preliminary evidence that ADHD and reactive aggression have overlapping neurocognitive bases. Based on this, we tested the hypothesis that ADHD symptoms are closely coupled in developmental terms with reactive aggression, more so than with proactive aggression with which it has been postulated to be only indirectly linked. Method: We used latent growth curve analysis to estimate the developmental relations between ADHD symptoms and subtypes of aggressive behavior in a normative sample of 1,571 youth (761 female, 810 male) measured from ages 7 to 15. Results: Individual ADHD trajectories were significantly and substantially correlated with individual trajectories in both aggressive subtypes; however, consistent with our hypothesis, the relation with reactive aggression was significantly stronger. Conclusion: Our study provides some of the first evidence for a differential relation between ADHD symptoms and aggression subtypes not only cross-sectionally but also in terms of their longitudinal developmental trajectories.

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Fandrem, Hildegunn, Brit Oppedal, and Thormod Idsoe. "Reactive and Proactive Aggression among Immigrant and Non-Immigrant Early Adolescents in Norway: The Relations to Emotional and Conduct Problems." Adolescent Psychiatry 10, no. 3 (December 21, 2020): 219–30. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/2210676610666200327165927.

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Objective: This study explores the differences in the association between three different types of aggression (reactive aggression, power-related proactive aggression and affiliation- related proactive aggression) and emotional and conduct problems between early adolescents with immigrant and non-immigrant backgrounds in Norway. Methods: The sample comprised 1759 early adolescents in fifth to eighth grade (10- to 15- year-olds). The proportion of early adolescent immigrants with two foreign-born parents was 862, and 897 participants were adolescents with two Norwegian-born parents. The gender distribution was similar in the immigrant and non-immigrant samples, 48.2% boys and 49.5% girls. The mean age was 11.6 years (SD 1.25) for immigrant boys, 11.7 (SD 1.29) for non-immigrant boys, 11.6 (SD = 1.25) for immigrant girls, and 11.8 (SD = 1.27) for nonimmigrant girls. Data were collected via self-report assessments. Results: A multigroup structural equation model revealed that the effects of reactive and proactive aggression were different for conduct and emotional problems. Only reactive and power-related proactive aggression was significantly associated with conduct problems, and effect sizes were independent of immigrant status. The effects of reactive and power-related proactive aggression on emotional problems were stronger for non-immigrant early adolescents, while the effects of affiliation-related proactive aggression were stronger for immigrant- background early adolescents. Conclusion: A better understanding of the underlying mechanisms of the associations between aggression and emotional problems and the variation between immigrant and nonimmigrant early adolescents can shed light on the etiology of mental health and behavioral problems. The importance of such knowledge in designing interventions targeting aggression among early adolescents in multicultural contexts is discussed.

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Miller, Joshua D., and Donald R. Lynam. "Reactive and proactive aggression: Similarities and differences." Personality and Individual Differences 41, no. 8 (December 2006): 1469–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2006.06.004.

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Fite, Paula J., and Craig R. Colder. "Proactive and Reactive Aggression and Peer Delinquency." Journal of Early Adolescence 27, no. 2 (May 2007): 223–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0272431606294838.

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Murray-Close, Dianna, Leigh Ann Holterman, Nicole L. Breslend, and Alexandra Sullivan. "Psychophysiology of proactive and reactive relational aggression." Biological Psychology 130 (December 2017): 77–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2017.10.005.

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Fite, Paula J., and Michael Vitulano. "Proactive and Reactive Aggression and Physical Activity." Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment 33, no. 1 (June 10, 2010): 11–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10862-010-9193-6.

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Tucker, Corinna Jenkins, Genevieve Cox, Erin Hiley Sharp, Karen T. Van Gundy, Cesar Rebellon, and Nena F. Stracuzzi. "Sibling Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Adolescence." Journal of Family Violence 28, no. 3 (October 26, 2012): 299–310. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10896-012-9483-8.

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39

Zhu, Wenfeng, Li He, and Ling-Xiang Xia. "The brain correlates of state proactive aggression." Neuropsychology 36, no. 3 (March 2022): 231–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/neu0000791.

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McAdams, Charles R., and Christopher D. Schmidt. "How to Help a Bully: Recommendations for Counseling the Proactive Aggressor." Professional School Counseling 11, no. 2 (December 2007): 2156759X0701100. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2156759x0701100207.

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Initiatives to stop school bullying often prescribe counseling for the bullies. However, specific strategies for the counseling of bullies are not well defined. To succeed in stopping the aggressive behavior of bullies, school counselors must first understand the needs and motivations behind the behavior. This article distinguishes the characteristic type of aggression displayed by bullies–proactive aggression. Type-specific recommendations are presented for maximizing school counselors' effectiveness in their direct efforts to help bullies change.

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Uz Baş, Aslı, and İrfan Yurdabakan. "The relationship between reactive and proactive Aggression and emotional and behavioral difficulties: Criterion validity of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) among preadolescents." Journal of Human Sciences 14, no. 3 (September 5, 2017): 2553. http://dx.doi.org/10.14687/jhs.v14i3.4494.

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The present study aimed to assess the criterion validity of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) in a Turkish sample of preadolescents. Participants consisted of 379 middle school students (190 boys and 189 girls) aged 11 to 15 years. In this study, the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was used as the criterion instrument. Findings from stepwise regression analysis revealed that conduct problems were the strongest predictor of both reactive and proactive aggression. Additionally, reactive aggression was uniquely predicted by emotional symptoms and hyperactivity, whereas proactive aggression was uniquely predicted by prosocial behavior. Our results indicate that the RPQ has acceptable criterion validity for use in Turkish preadolescents.

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Farrell, Albert D., Sarah Pittman, Amie F. Bettencourt, Krista R. Mehari, Courtney Dunn, and Terri N. Sullivan. "Beliefs as Mediators of Relations Between Exposure to Violence and Physical Aggression During Early Adolescence." Journal of Early Adolescence 42, no. 3 (November 12, 2021): 297–326. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/02724316211036747.

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This study examined beliefs about aggression and self-efficacy for nonviolent responses as mediators of longitudinal relations between exposure to violence and physical aggression. Participants were a predominantly African American (79%) sample of 2705 early adolescents from three middle schools within urban neighborhoods with high rates of violence. Participants completed measures across four waves (fall, winter, spring, and summer) within a school year. Beliefs supporting proactive aggression, beliefs against fighting, and self-efficacy for nonviolence partially mediated relations between witnessing violence and physical aggression. Indirect effects for beliefs supporting proactive aggression and self-efficacy were maintained after controlling for victimization and negative life events. Beliefs supporting proactive aggression mediated the effects of violent victimization on physical aggression, but these effects were not significant after controlling for witnessing violence and negative life events. The findings underscore the importance of examining the unique pathways from witnessing community violence versus violent victimization to physical aggression.

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Morrow, Michael T., Julie A. Hubbard, Meghan D. McAuliffe, Ronnie M. Rubin, and Karen F. Dearing. "Childhood aggression, depressive symptoms, and peer rejection: The mediational model revisited." International Journal of Behavioral Development 30, no. 3 (May 2006): 240–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0165025406066757.

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The goals of the current study were to investigate whether peer rejection mediated the relation between aggression and depressive symptoms in childhood, and if so, whether this mediational pathway was specific to the reactive subtype of aggression. Participants were 57 second-grade children (22 girls and 35 boys). Data on reactive aggression, proactive aggression, depressive symptoms, and peer rejection were collected from four sources (parents, teachers, peers, and self). Results revealed that reactive aggression, but not proactive aggression, was positively related to depressive symptoms. Furthermore, peer rejection partially mediated the relation between reactive aggression and depressive symptoms.

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Dickson, Daniel J., Ashley D. Richmond, Mara Brendgen, Frank Vitaro, Brett Laursen, Ginette Dionne, and Michel Boivin. "Aggression can be contagious: Longitudinal associations between proactive aggression and reactive aggression among young twins." Aggressive Behavior 41, no. 5 (February 12, 2015): 455–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ab.21582.

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45

Wong, Keri Ka-Yee, and Adrian Raine. "Peer Problems and Low Self-esteem Mediate the Suspicious and Non-suspicious Schizotypy–Reactive Aggression Relationship in Children and Adolescents." Journal of Youth and Adolescence 48, no. 11 (September 13, 2019): 2241–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01125-9.

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Abstract The relationship between schizophrenia and violence has been well-established. Yet very little prior research exists on the factors that might explain the nature of this relationship and even fewer studies seek to clarify the etiology of aggressive behavior in adolescents with specific features of schizotypal personality that might help improve the specificity of intervention. The current study tested whether one dimension of schizotypy alone (i.e., the ‘suspicious’ feature) or the other 8 dimensions (i.e., the ‘non-suspicious’ features) were particularly associated with aggressive behaviors (reactive and proactive aggression), and if peer problems and low self-esteem mediated these relationships. A serial multiple mediation model testing the hypothesized flow from suspicious and non-suspicious schizotypy to peer problems to low self-esteem and to increased aggression was tested in Hong Kong schoolchildren aged 8- to 14-years (N = 1412; Mage = 11.47, SD = 1.67 years, female = 47.6%). Increased suspicious and non-suspicious schizotypal features were found to be independently associated with increased reactive aggression, but not proactive aggression. Children with high levels of suspicious schizotypy and non-suspicious schizotypy were more likely to have poor peer problems and low self-esteem concurrently, which in turn was associated with reactive aggression only. This explanatory model suggests that future longitudinal intervention studies that enhance self-esteem in schizotypal adolescents may potentially reduce co-morbid reactive aggressive behaviors too.

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Smithmyer, Catherine M., Julie A. Hubbard, and Robert F. Simons. "Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Delinquent Adolescents: Relations to Aggression Outcome Expectancies." Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29, no. 1 (February 2000): 86–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp2901_9.

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García-Vázquez, Fernanda Inéz, Angel Alberto Valdés-Cuervo, and Lizeth Guadalupe Parra-Pérez. "The Effects of Forgiveness, Gratitude, and Self-Control on Reactive and Proactive Aggression in Bullying." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 17, no. 16 (August 10, 2020): 5760. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17165760.

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The social cognitive approach to moral development posits that moral self-schemas encourage character strengths and reduce adolescents’ aggression. However, limited research has examined the influence of positive personal characteristics on proactive behaviors and reactive aggression in bullying. This study examined direct and mediational relationships between forgiveness, gratitude, self-control, and both proactive and reactive aggression in bullying. The extent to which the structural relations of this model were invariant by gender and stage of adolescence were also evaluated. Participants in this study were 1000 Mexican students, 500 early adolescents (M age = 12.36, SD = 0.77 years) and 500 middle adolescents (M age = 16.64, SD = 0.89 years), between 12 and 17 years old. Structural equation and multi-group invariance analysis were performed. Results indicate that gratitude and forgiveness are positively related to self-control. Gratitude, forgiveness, and self-control are also negatively related to reactive and proactive aggression. Forgiveness and gratitude had an indirect relationship by decreasing both proactive and reactive aggression through their positive effects on self-control. Additionally, gender moderated the relationships between variables proposed in the model, whereas stage of adolescence did not. Overall findings suggest that moral self-schemas and strengths explained both types of aggression in bullying.

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CAO, Cong, Mei-Ping WANG, Wen-Xin ZHANG, and Guang-Hui CHEN. "The Genetic Underpinning of Proactive and Reactive Aggression." Advances in Psychological Science 20, no. 12 (June 17, 2013): 2001–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.3724/sp.j.1042.2012.02001.

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Xu, Yiyuan, and Zengxiu Zhang. "Distinguishing Proactive and Reactive Aggression in Chinese Children." Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 36, no. 4 (December 13, 2007): 539–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9198-0.

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Dambacher, Franziska, Teresa Schuhmann, Jill Lobbestael, Arnoud Arntz, Suzanne Brugman, and Alexander T. Sack. "Reducing proactive aggression through non-invasive brain stimulation." Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10, no. 10 (February 12, 2015): 1303–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv018.

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