Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Prebiotic organic matter"

AbstractA significant number of molecules that are used in contemporary biochemistry on Earth are found in interstellar and circumstellar regions as well as solar system environments. In particular small solar system bodies hold clues to processes that formed our solar system. Comets, asteroids, and meteorite delivered extraterrestrial material during the heavy bombardment phase ~3.9 billion years ago to the young planets, a process that made carbonaceous material available to the early Earth. In-depth understanding of the organic reservoir in different space environments as well as data on the stability of organic and prebiotic material in solar system environments are vital to assess and quantify the extraterrestrial contribution of prebiotic sources available to the young Earth.

The inner Solar System—including the planet Earth—was heavily bombarded by comets, asteroids, and their fragments (i.e., meteorites, micrometeorites, and interplanetary dust particles) from 4.56 to about 3.5 billion years ago. This bombardment resulted in a rich assortment of organics delivered to the Earth, as comets and many asteroids contain carbonaceous material. These organic compounds were likely further processed on the early Earth (e.g., by impact-shock reactions), providing a feedstock of prebiotic molecules to the crust and oceans. In this chapter, we review the mechanisms of organic matter delivery to the primitive Earth, further reactions and processing, and the importance of exogenous material in the evolution of our planet and life.

Carbon, and molecules made from it, have already been observed in the early Universe. During cosmic time, many galaxies undergo intense periods of star formation, during which heavy elements like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, silicon and iron are produced. Also, many complex molecules, from carbon monoxide to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, are detected in these systems, like they are for our own Galaxy. Interstellar molecular clouds and circumstellar envelopes are factories of complex molecular synthesis. A surprisingly high number of molecules that are used in contemporary biochemistry on the Earth are found in the interstellar medium, planetary atmospheres and surfaces, comets, asteroids and meteorites and interplanetary dust particles. Large quantities of extra-terrestrial material were delivered via comets and asteroids to young planetary surfaces during the heavy bombardment phase. Monitoring the formation and evolution of organic matter in space is crucial in order to determine the prebiotic reservoirs available to the early Earth. It is equally important to reveal abiotic routes to prebiotic molecules in the Earth environments. Materials from both carbon sources (extra-terrestrial and endogenous) may have contributed to biochemical pathways on the Earth leading to life’s origin. The research avenues discussed also guide us to extend our knowledge to other habitable worlds.

The unique rarefied flow and flash heating in meteors creates physical conditions that can change exogenous organic matter into unique prebiotic molecules. with the exception of rare giant comet impacts, most infalling matter at the time of the origin of life was deposited in the atmosphere during the meteor phase. Much new data has been obtained from observations in the Leonid Multi-Instrument Aircraft Campaign; a series of NASA and USAF sponsored Astrobiology missions that explored the 1998–2002 Leonid meteor storms. Here, we provide an overview of some of this recent insight, which provides a framework in which the prebiotic chemistry can be studied.

Carbonaceous meteorites are fragments of ancient asteroids that have remained relatively unprocessed since the formation of the Solar System. These carbon-rich objects provide a record of prebiotic chemical evolution and a window on the early Solar System. Many compound classes are present reflecting a rich organic chemical environment during the formation of the planets. Recent theories suggest that similar extraterrestrial organic mixtures may have acted as the starting materials for life on Earth.

Public awareness of healthy food is currently getting stronger. Food should be free from antibiotics. As consequence the use of antibiotics as feed additives should be prohibited because it has the potential to produce residues in livestock products and indirectly impact consumers. An alternative substitute for antibiotics that has been widely developed is the administration of synbiotics. Synbiotics are a combination of probiotics and prebiotics. The purpose of this study is to investigate Pediococcus pentosaceus strain N6 isolate as a probiotic and cassava peel as a prebiotic. The research design used was a non-factorial Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 4 treatments and 5 replications. Each replication consisted of 5 chickens with treatments; P0: Basal ration without additive feed (control), P1: Basal ration + additive feed 150 ml/kg ration, P2: Basal ration + additive feed 300 ml/kg ration and P3: Basal ration + additive feed 450 ml/kg ration. The best digestibility of dry matter and organic matter of super native chicken was obtained in treatment the addition of feed additives of 450 ml/kg ration. In conclusion feed additives of 450 ml/kg ration give good effect on digestibility as well as on feed consumption, dry matter consumption and organic matter consumption

The advanced version of the author’s inversion concept of the origin of terrestrial life and its application for life in the Universe has been substantiated. A key step in the transition to life consists in the thermodynamic inversion of non-living prebiotic microsystems when the contributions of free energy (F) and information (I) become prevalent over the contribution of entropy (S). It is based the thermodynamic corridor that is mandatory for all chemical scenarios for the origin of life: F + I < S (prebiotic microsystem) → F + I ≈ S (intermediate stage, inversion moment) → F + I > S (primary living unit). A prebiotic organic microsystem can reach the intermediate state between non-life and life only under high-frequency and multilevel oscillations of physic-chemical parameters in hydrothermal environments. The oscillations are considered the fourth required condition for the origin of life, in addition to the three well-known ones: the availability of organic matter, an aqueous medium, and a source of energy. The emergence of initial life sparks in nonequilibrium prebiotic microsystems (being at the intermediate state) proceeds through the continuous response (counteraction) of prebiotic microsystems to incessant physic-chemical oscillations (stress). The next step of laboratory simulations on the origin of life directed to the exploration of the microsystems’ response to high-frequency oscillations (>10−10 s–<30 min) is proposed. Finally, some fragments of the general scenario of the origin of life in the Universe based on the whole four required conditions have been outlined.

The paper is a synthesis of the information collected so far on the origin and evolution of life on Earth. The life appearance and its evolution is correlated to matter evolution in univers: Big Bang, inorganic, organic, prebiotic, unicellular and multicellular stages. Concerning prebiotic stage in life evolution we present our theory based on syntone chemistry. Three syntones-methylene, nitrene and carbon monoxid carried by molecular nitrogen at law temperature could furnish the prebiotic bricks (sugars, lipids, proteins) at the contact to primary atmosphere components. Also, we think that these syntones could be considered as sources of great number of organic molecules. All organisms on Earth descend from a last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Two branches were derived from LUCA: one led to bacteria and the other to archaea and eukaryotes. The appearance of photosynthesis determined a transition from the oxygen-free atmosphere to the oxic atmosphere. Due to a series of endosymbioses, Eukaryotes emerged as organisms with nucleated cells and aerobic metabolism (which significantly increased the efficiency of cellular energy production). At about the same time appeared the first multicellular organisms. The paper also presents other important moments in the evolution of life on Earth, including the major biological crises in certain periods, resulting in the mass extinction of some groups of organisms. The evolution of the living world on Earth culminated with the emergence of man, the most complex being with language, superior thinking, emotions, creativity, etc.

La matière extraterrestre dite primitive se caractérise par sa faible évolution chimique depuis sa formation. Elle se retrouve notamment comme un des constituants des fragments de petits corps du système Solaire, tels que les astéroïdes. L'étude d'échantillons en provenance de ces corps peut ainsi permettre de mieux comprendre son origine et son évolution.Dans cette thèse, mon travail s'est orienté autour de l'analyse de la matière primitive et plus particulièrement sur l'étude des chondrites carbonées ayant subi de l'altération aqueuse. La première partie de ma thèse s'oriente sur l'analyse des phases minérales et organiques au sein de chondrites CM de type pétrologique 2 grâce à des techniques de spectroscopie infrarouge et Raman ainsi que de la spectrométrie de masse à ionisation secondaire par temps de vol (TOF-SIMS). Ces techniques bénéficient d'une bonne complémentarité dans la caractérisation des différentes phases qui nous intéressent. Elles sont également couplées à l'imagerie, ce qui permet d'étudier le lien qu'il peut exister entre les différentes phases minérales et organiques. J'ai utilisé un nouveau processus non supervisé d'analyse des données hyperspectrales infrarouge, ce qui a permis de déterminer des paramètres spectraux caractérisant l'état d'avancement de l'altération aqueuse des échantillons, notamment de leur phase minérale, tout en les reliant à leur évolution chimique. La spectroscopie Raman a permis de mettre en évidence des différences de structure de la matière organique poly-aromatique au sein des différents échantillons. Enfin, le TOF-SIMS a également mis en évidence une différence de structure de la matière organique tout en confirmant et précisant les différences de co-localisation entre matière organique et phase minérale observées par l'imagerie hyperspectrale entre les échantillons.La seconde partie de ma thèse s'est orientée sur l'étude d'efficacité d'un nouvel accélérateur linéaire - Andromede (IJCLab) - comme source primaire pour le TOF-SIMS sur des analogues à la matière primitive des chondrites. J'ai produit ces analogues organiques en laboratoire afin de simuler la matière organique insoluble, la part majoritaire de la matière organique des chondrites. J'ai contrôlé les caractéristiques de ces analogues par des spectroscopies infrarouges, à rayon X et par TOF-SIMS. Ils demeurent différents de la matière organique des CM en termes de structure poly-aromatique, mais similaires en termes de composition élémentaire et caractère insoluble. J'ai produit des analogues minéraux à partir de roches terrestres similaires aux minéraux rencontrés dans les CM. Les mesures que j'ai réalisées sur ces analogues et sur des chondrites montrent à la fois le potentiel et les limites actuelles du TOF-SIMS couplé à Andromède, et suggèrent des pistes d'amélioration en vue d'en augmenter, notamment, la résolution en masse
So-called primitive extraterrestrial matter is characterized by its low chemical evolution since its formation. It is found in particular as one of the constituents of the fragments of small bodies of the Solar system, such as asteroids. The study of samples from these bodies can thus make it possible to better understand its origin and its evolution.In this thesis, my work focused on the analysis of primitive matter and more particularly on the study of carbonaceous chondrites having undergone aqueous alteration. The first part of my thesis focuses on the analysis of mineral and organic phases within petrological type 2 CM chondrites using infrared and Raman spectroscopy techniques as well as time-of-flight secondary ionization mass spectrometry. (TOF-SIMS). These techniques benefit from a good complementarity in the characterization of the different phases that interest us. They are also coupled with imagery, which makes it possible to study the link that may exist between the different mineral and organic phases. I used a new unsupervised process for analyzing infrared hyperspectral data, which made it possible to determine spectral parameters characterizing the state of progress of the aqueous alteration of the samples, in particular of their mineral phase, while relating to their chemical evolution. Raman spectroscopy made it possible to highlight differences in the structure of the polyaromatic organic matter within the different samples. Finally, the TOF-SIMS also highlighted a difference in the structure of the organic matter while confirming and clarifying the differences in co-localization between organic matter and mineral phase observed by hyperspectral imaging between the samples.The second part of my thesis focused on the study of the effectiveness of a new linear accelerator - Andromeda (IJCLab) - as a primary source for TOF-SIMS on analogues of primitive chondrite matter. I produced these organic analogues in the laboratory to simulate insoluble organic matter, the majority of organic matter in chondrites. I checked the characteristics of these analogues by infrared spectroscopy, X-ray spectroscopy and TOF-SIMS. They remain different from CM organic matter in terms of poly-aromatic structure, but similar in terms of elemental composition and insoluble character. I have produced mineral analogues from earth rocks similar to minerals found in CM chondrite. The measurements that I carried out on these analogues and on chondrites show both the potential and the current limits of TOF-SIMS coupled to Andromede, and suggest areas for improvement with a view to increasing, in particular, the masse resolution

Bones are multifunctional passive organs of movement that supports soft tissue and directly attached muscles. They also protect internal organs and are a reserve of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. Each bone is covered with periosteum, and the adjacent bone surfaces are covered by articular cartilage. Histologically, the bone is an organ composed of many different tissues. The main component is bone tissue (cortical and spongy) composed of a set of bone cells and intercellular substance (mineral and organic), it also contains fat, hematopoietic (bone marrow) and cartilaginous tissue. Bones are a tissue that even in adult life retains the ability to change shape and structure depending on changes in their mechanical and hormonal environment, as well as self-renewal and repair capabilities. This process is called bone turnover. The basic processes of bone turnover are: • bone modeling (incessantly changes in bone shape during individual growth) following resorption and tissue formation at various locations (e.g. bone marrow formation) to increase mass and skeletal morphology. This process occurs in the bones of growing individuals and stops after reaching puberty • bone remodeling (processes involve in maintaining bone tissue by resorbing and replacing old bone tissue with new tissue in the same place, e.g. repairing micro fractures). It is a process involving the removal and internal remodeling of existing bone and is responsible for maintaining tissue mass and architecture of mature bones. Bone turnover is regulated by two types of transformation: • osteoclastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone resorption • osteoblastogenesis, i.e. formation of cells responsible for bone formation (bone matrix synthesis and mineralization) Bone maturity can be defined as the completion of basic structural development and mineralization leading to maximum mass and optimal mechanical strength. The highest rate of increase in pig bone mass is observed in the first twelve weeks after birth. This period of growth is considered crucial for optimizing the growth of the skeleton of pigs, because the degree of bone mineralization in later life stages (adulthood) depends largely on the amount of bone minerals accumulated in the early stages of their growth. The development of the technique allows to determine the condition of the skeletal system (or individual bones) in living animals by methods used in human medicine, or after their slaughter. For in vivo determination of bone properties, Abstract 10 double energy X-ray absorptiometry or computed tomography scanning techniques are used. Both methods allow the quantification of mineral content and bone mineral density. The most important property from a practical point of view is the bone’s bending strength, which is directly determined by the maximum bending force. The most important factors affecting bone strength are: • age (growth period), • gender and the associated hormonal balance, • genotype and modification of genes responsible for bone growth • chemical composition of the body (protein and fat content, and the proportion between these components), • physical activity and related bone load, • nutritional factors: – protein intake influencing synthesis of organic matrix of bone, – content of minerals in the feed (CA, P, Zn, Ca/P, Mg, Mn, Na, Cl, K, Cu ratio) influencing synthesis of the inorganic matrix of bone, – mineral/protein ratio in the diet (Ca/protein, P/protein, Zn/protein) – feed energy concentration, – energy source (content of saturated fatty acids - SFA, content of polyun saturated fatty acids - PUFA, in particular ALA, EPA, DPA, DHA), – feed additives, in particular: enzymes (e.g. phytase releasing of minerals bounded in phytin complexes), probiotics and prebiotics (e.g. inulin improving the function of the digestive tract by increasing absorption of nutrients), – vitamin content that regulate metabolism and biochemical changes occurring in bone tissue (e.g. vitamin D3, B6, C and K). This study was based on the results of research experiments from available literature, and studies on growing pigs carried out at the Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences. The tests were performed in total on 300 pigs of Duroc, Pietrain, Puławska breeds, line 990 and hybrids (Great White × Duroc, Great White × Landrace), PIC pigs, slaughtered at different body weight during the growth period from 15 to 130 kg. Bones for biomechanical tests were collected after slaughter from each pig. Their length, mass and volume were determined. Based on these measurements, the specific weight (density, g/cm3) was calculated. Then each bone was cut in the middle of the shaft and the outer and inner diameters were measured both horizontally and vertically. Based on these measurements, the following indicators were calculated: • cortical thickness, • cortical surface, • cortical index. Abstract 11 Bone strength was tested by a three-point bending test. The obtained data enabled the determination of: • bending force (the magnitude of the maximum force at which disintegration and disruption of bone structure occurs), • strength (the amount of maximum force needed to break/crack of bone), • stiffness (quotient of the force acting on the bone and the amount of displacement occurring under the influence of this force). Investigation of changes in physical and biomechanical features of bones during growth was performed on pigs of the synthetic 990 line growing from 15 to 130 kg body weight. The animals were slaughtered successively at a body weight of 15, 30, 40, 50, 70, 90, 110 and 130 kg. After slaughter, the following bones were separated from the right half-carcass: humerus, 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone, femur, tibia and fibula as well as 3rd and 4th metatarsal bone. The features of bones were determined using methods described in the methodology. Describing bone growth with the Gompertz equation, it was found that the earliest slowdown of bone growth curve was observed for metacarpal and metatarsal bones. This means that these bones matured the most quickly. The established data also indicate that the rib is the slowest maturing bone. The femur, humerus, tibia and fibula were between the values of these features for the metatarsal, metacarpal and rib bones. The rate of increase in bone mass and length differed significantly between the examined bones, but in all cases it was lower (coefficient b <1) than the growth rate of the whole body of the animal. The fastest growth rate was estimated for the rib mass (coefficient b = 0.93). Among the long bones, the humerus (coefficient b = 0.81) was characterized by the fastest rate of weight gain, however femur the smallest (coefficient b = 0.71). The lowest rate of bone mass increase was observed in the foot bones, with the metacarpal bones having a slightly higher value of coefficient b than the metatarsal bones (0.67 vs 0.62). The third bone had a lower growth rate than the fourth bone, regardless of whether they were metatarsal or metacarpal. The value of the bending force increased as the animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. The rate of change in the value of this indicator increased at a similar rate as the body weight changes of the animals in the case of the fibula and the fourth metacarpal bone (b value = 0.98), and more slowly in the case of the metatarsal bone, the third metacarpal bone, and the tibia bone (values of the b ratio 0.81–0.85), and the slowest femur, humerus and rib (value of b = 0.60–0.66). Bone stiffness increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, the highest values were observed for the humerus, tibia and femur, smaller for the metatarsal and metacarpal bone, and the lowest for the fibula and rib. Abstract 12 The rate of change in the value of this indicator changed at a faster rate than the increase in weight of pigs in the case of metacarpal and metatarsal bones (coefficient b = 1.01–1.22), slightly slower in the case of fibula (coefficient b = 0.92), definitely slower in the case of the tibia (b = 0.73), ribs (b = 0.66), femur (b = 0.59) and humerus (b = 0.50). Bone strength increased as animals grew. Regardless of the growth point tested, bone strength was as follows femur > tibia > humerus > 4 metacarpal> 3 metacarpal> 3 metatarsal > 4 metatarsal > rib> fibula. The rate of increase in strength of all examined bones was greater than the rate of weight gain of pigs (value of the coefficient b = 2.04–3.26). As the animals grew, the bone density increased. However, the growth rate of this indicator for the majority of bones was slower than the rate of weight gain (the value of the coefficient b ranged from 0.37 – humerus to 0.84 – fibula). The exception was the rib, whose density increased at a similar pace increasing the body weight of animals (value of the coefficient b = 0.97). The study on the influence of the breed and the feeding intensity on bone characteristics (physical and biomechanical) was performed on pigs of the breeds Duroc, Pietrain, and synthetic 990 during a growth period of 15 to 70 kg body weight. Animals were fed ad libitum or dosed system. After slaughter at a body weight of 70 kg, three bones were taken from the right half-carcass: femur, three metatarsal, and three metacarpal and subjected to the determinations described in the methodology. The weight of bones of animals fed aa libitum was significantly lower than in pigs fed restrictively All bones of Duroc breed were significantly heavier and longer than Pietrain and 990 pig bones. The average values of bending force for the examined bones took the following order: III metatarsal bone (63.5 kg) <III metacarpal bone (77.9 kg) <femur (271.5 kg). The feeding system and breed of pigs had no significant effect on the value of this indicator. The average values of the bones strength took the following order: III metatarsal bone (92.6 kg) <III metacarpal (107.2 kg) <femur (353.1 kg). Feeding intensity and breed of animals had no significant effect on the value of this feature of the bones tested. The average bone density took the following order: femur (1.23 g/cm3) <III metatarsal bone (1.26 g/cm3) <III metacarpal bone (1.34 g / cm3). The density of bones of animals fed aa libitum was higher (P<0.01) than in animals fed with a dosing system. The density of examined bones within the breeds took the following order: Pietrain race> line 990> Duroc race. The differences between the “extreme” breeds were: 7.2% (III metatarsal bone), 8.3% (III metacarpal bone), 8.4% (femur). Abstract 13 The average bone stiffness took the following order: III metatarsal bone (35.1 kg/mm) <III metacarpus (41.5 kg/mm) <femur (60.5 kg/mm). This indicator did not differ between the groups of pigs fed at different intensity, except for the metacarpal bone, which was more stiffer in pigs fed aa libitum (P<0.05). The femur of animals fed ad libitum showed a tendency (P<0.09) to be more stiffer and a force of 4.5 kg required for its displacement by 1 mm. Breed differences in stiffness were found for the femur (P <0.05) and III metacarpal bone (P <0.05). For femur, the highest value of this indicator was found in Pietrain pigs (64.5 kg/mm), lower in pigs of 990 line (61.6 kg/mm) and the lowest in Duroc pigs (55.3 kg/mm). In turn, the 3rd metacarpal bone of Duroc and Pietrain pigs had similar stiffness (39.0 and 40.0 kg/mm respectively) and was smaller than that of line 990 pigs (45.4 kg/mm). The thickness of the cortical bone layer took the following order: III metatarsal bone (2.25 mm) <III metacarpal bone (2.41 mm) <femur (5.12 mm). The feeding system did not affect this indicator. Breed differences (P <0.05) for this trait were found only for the femur bone: Duroc (5.42 mm)> line 990 (5.13 mm)> Pietrain (4.81 mm). The cross sectional area of the examined bones was arranged in the following order: III metatarsal bone (84 mm2) <III metacarpal bone (90 mm2) <femur (286 mm2). The feeding system had no effect on the value of this bone trait, with the exception of the femur, which in animals fed the dosing system was 4.7% higher (P<0.05) than in pigs fed ad libitum. Breed differences (P<0.01) in the coross sectional area were found only in femur and III metatarsal bone. The value of this indicator was the highest in Duroc pigs, lower in 990 animals and the lowest in Pietrain pigs. The cortical index of individual bones was in the following order: III metatarsal bone (31.86) <III metacarpal bone (33.86) <femur (44.75). However, its value did not significantly depend on the intensity of feeding or the breed of pigs.

Abstract The initial combination of matter was then fixed largely by thermodynamic physicochemical selection (Chapters 2 and 3). However, after rapid cooling and when planets formed, phase separations occurred due to fields of gravity and in these cold bodies some compounds were produced in the presence of others with which they should react but they could not because the temperature was too low. It was then necessary to define many chemicals as components in compartments, not in equilibrated phase systems, in an operational manner. Physical restriction in phases and kinetic chemical control of selection, generating components, in this third step (Chapters 4-7), had taken over from thermodynamic chemical selection. At the same time, these inorganic compounds were now and then subjected to volcanic action (Figs 8.6 and 15.2) as well as weathering, which forced energised compartmental and chemical separation upon them. Some inorganic and small organic compounds on the surfaces of planets were also made to react and to be elevated in energy, giving new components, through the action of solar radiation. Of course, the new compounds produced were unstable and decayed (slowly) since they were energised. There began, therefore, a constant cycle of prebiotic activation and deactivation of matter on the surface of our planet-the Earth (Fig. 15.1, cycling stage I). In this cycling, new element selection in kinetic traps was possible and, at some stage, copying began as a special kinetic trap. This development generated an organic self-assembling system for the natural selection, self-selection, of elements utilising external energy sources and, eventually, a living system. Like all other excited and self assembling conditions, life must decay and cycle (Fig. 15. l) but, as we saw in Chapters l 0-12, it also became self-developing in complexity-a Darwinian natural selection that included further element selection.

Abstract We have described the basic principles of chemical binding at equilibrium in Chapters 2-6 after looking at the history of the development of ideas on the constitution of matter and energy in Chapter 1. This allowed us to consider the manner of the eventual appearance of the chemical elements as structured compounds and co-operative, condensed phases on the Earth. Simultaneously, in this process, energy was lost locally from the planet on cooling, but the pathways of energy loss often led also to a variety of chemical systems trapped out of equilibrium (Chapters 7-9). The processes are not difficult to follow. The facts that the materials in the crust of Earth were often out of equilibrium ( Chapter 8) and that the Earth was far out of equilibrium with the sun then allowed new compounds, often organic, to be formed in solution or in the gas phase by the capture of energy. These compounds entered new (higher) energy traps, and acquired potential for further reactions, and so prebiotic organic chemistry developed (Chapter 9). In order to understand the underlying drive toward equilibrium, that is, toward the most stable state, we discussed in Chapters 3 and 6 the evolving forms of energy in the context of the evolving materials, both at equilibrium and in trapped states. We have also described the basic ideas of dynamic organisation of energised material as opposed to rigid structure in Chapter 1 and again in Chapter 7. It was necessary to clarify the nature of the development of all these aspects of materials, of energy and of kinetic traps and to include feedback controls over flow (organisation including structure) in Chapter 7 before turning to biological chemistry. Biological systems are self-organising, self-reproducing, energised, material traps in feedback flow, while they undergo evolution forced upon them in part by competition but equally by the necessary conditions for long-term survival, requiring protection in a changing environment (see below). In effect, they have become more and more longlasting and sophisticated chemical processes in kinetic traps (see Chapter 12). All biological progression involves a selection of chemical elements for ‘use’ to these ends and it is this fact that we shall follow in our further study of the natural selection of the functional capability of the elements.

Given the general trend of energy consumption, which leads to an increase in the amount of energy consumed worldwide, the cost of this energy is constantly increasing and its deficit is growing. Therefore, it is important to solve the problem of creating and large-scale implementation of modern energy-efficient heat technologies that reduce energy. This is especially true for providing the population to food, as an additional complication is that the production and processing of agricultural raw materials occurs in conditions of increased consumption of gas and other energy sources with low coefficient of performance and high losses of raw materials during processing. Food and nutrition play a leading role in everyone's life, no matter how we treat it. Nutrition is a key moment in the life of every living organism. Functional foods have evolved as a separate category and are not always considered as dietary supplements. Functional food products (FFP) are the products influencing a functional condition of an organism for the purpose of its increase - resistance, working capacity, prolongation of life. Although the definitions of functional products are different, they are basically ordinary foods and beverages, but enriched with a functional component - a nutrient that plays a special physiological role in the body, has a positive effect on human health. The purpose of the paper is a theoretical and experimental substantiation of complex and efficient processing of vegetable raw materials, creation of energy-efficient heat technology of agricultural raw materials processing in order to obtain functional products with maximum preservation of biologically active substances. In this work, 4 groups of functional foods were studied (according to the classification of the main plant functional ingredients of Doctor of Technical Sciences Petrova Zh.O.) - these are antioxidants, phytoestrogens, folates, prebiotics. An important point is to increase energy efficiency with maximum preservation of functional ingredients of raw materials. Preliminary preparation of raw materials for drying was developed and researched, optimal dehydration regime parameters were selected, which allow to reduce energy consumption for the process and to keep BAS for each group of functional raw materials at a high level. Since the increase in energy costs for drying is associated with the difficulty of removing moisture from plant material, it was important to investigate changes in the specific heat of evaporation of water from functional compositions. The conducted experimental researches confirmed the theoretical assumption of dependence of specific heat of evaporation of water from parenchymal fabrics of plants on composite components of raw materials. The obtained results allow to state that at correctly picked up compositions they not only stabilize components of native raw materials, but also there is an intensification of drying process with reduction of energy consumption on process. The duration of the drying process of functional raw materials on the experimental convective stand was calculated by the method of Krasnikov V.V. The estimated drying durations of functional raw materials and drying rates are determined. The kinetics of heat exchange was studied with the determination of the specific heat flux density and the Rebinder number, which proves the efficiency of the introduction of step drying regimes.