Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Pluralismo commerciale"

The government of Salvador Allende a empted to replace the traditional Chilean foreign policy of alignment with one of the blocks of the Cold War and its “ideological borders,” with a new international policy of “ideological pluralism,” aiming to establish new commercial and diplomatic relations between different countries, regardless of their national political regimes. This policy involved the defense of the principles and objectives of the so-called Third World, which included proposals to: reform the international financial order; promote Latin American integration, especially of the Andean countries; improve Chile's relationship with three neighboring countries and negotiate border disputes; and create a judicial entity to face hostility from the U.S. government. The development of this new foreign policy was interrupted by the coup d'état. Nevertheless, four decades later, it gained importance, and this policy became a reference for many Latin American governments. Spanish El gobierno de Salvador Allende intentó reemplazar la tradicional política exterior chilena de alineamiento con uno de los bloques de la Guerra Fría y sus “fronteras ideológicas”, por una nueva política internacional de “pluralismo ideológico”, lo que significa establecer relaciones diplomáticas y comerciales con todos los países del mundo, independientemente del régimen interno que los rija. Tal política implica la defensa de los principios y objetivos del entonces llamado “Tercer Mundo”, la cual incluye proposiciones para reformar el orden financiero internacional; la promoción de la integración latinoamericana, particularmente la de los países andinos; relaciones cuidadosas con tres vecinos negociando los litigios fronterizos; y la búsqueda de una instancia jurídica para afrontar la hostilidad del gobierno estadounidense. Pese a que la mayor parte de esta nueva política internacional quedó sólo en sus inicios pues fue interrumpida por el golpe de Estado, cuatro décadas más tarde ha cobrado actualidad, transformándose en una referencia para varios gobiernos de la región. French Le gouvernement de Salvador Allende a essayé de remplacer l'alignement traditionnel de la politique étrangère du Chili avec l'un des blocs de la guerre froide et de ses «frontières idéologiques», par une nouvelle politique internationale du «pluralisme idéologique». Autrement dit, établir des relations diplomatiques et commerciales avec tous les pays, indépendamment de leurs régimes politiques propres. Une telle politique impliquait la défense des principes et objectifs de ce qu'on appelait alors «Tiers Monde», qui comprend des propositions visant à réformer l'ordre financier international; la promotion de l'intégration latino-américaine, en particulier celle des pays andins ; l'entretien des relations chaleureuses avec ses trois voisins concernant la négociation des différends frontaliers; et l'instauration d'une instance juridique destinée à faire face à l'hostilité du gouvernement des Etats-Unis. Bien que l'essentiel de cette nouvelle politique étrangère fût esseulée à ses débuts puis interrompue par un coup d'Etat, quatre décennies plus tard elle est devenue d'actualité, tout en s'imposant comme une référence pour de nombreux gouvernements de la région.

The rule of law and religion can act as commercial substitutes. Both can create the trust required for material prosperity. The rule of law simplifies social interactions, turning people into formal legal agents and generating a map of society that the state can observe and control, thus credibly committing to the enforcement of the legal rights demanded by impersonal markets. Religion, in contrast, embraces complex social identities. Within these communities, economic actors can monitor and sanction misbehavior. Both approaches have benefits and problems. The rule of law allows for trade among strangers, fostering peaceful pluralism. However, law breeds what Montesquieu called “a certain feeling for exact justice” that crowds out deeper forms of relation. Religious commerce fosters precisely such communities. Religious commerce, however, does not create bridges between strangers as effectively as the formal rule of law. Furthermore, the state tends to be suspicious of tight religious communities, particularly when they are commercially successful.

Women in commercial advertising is needed to strengthen the marketability of a product. Therefore, created an imaging. Imaging Islamic women looks at some of the products Wardah, Citra, and Sunsilk shampoo. This paper describes the interpretation of the iconic, meaning indeksional, and symbols in commercial advertisements. The data were taken form youtube, documented by data transcription, and then analyzed by using theory semiotics Charles Sanders Peirce. The conclusion of this study shows that the Islamic women imaged by Wardah, Citra, and Sunsilk in iconic interpretation is (1) an egalitarian, (2) care, (3) non-discriminatory, (4) sportsmanship, and (3) always grateful. Women islami within the meaning indeksional are (1) more confident, (2) always happy, (3) to inspire, (4) are free to move, (5) clean inwardly and outwardly, (6) reach freedom without violating limits, (7 ) hospitable, (8) has appeal, and (9) have a sense of comfort. Meanwhile, women's Islamic imaged in symbolic meaning is (1) Islamic, both verbal and nonverbal, (2) class high social, (3) a humanist, (4) domiciled equivalent, (5) maintain pluralism, (6) a valuable, and (7) white shine.[Wanita dalam iklan komersial sanagt penting untuk memperkuat pasar suatu produk. Untuk itu, menciptakan cit- ra perempuan dalam suatu produk menjadi signifikan. Citra wanita Islam bisa dilihat pada produk sampo Ward- ah, Citra, dan Sunsilk. Artikel ini menjelaskan interpretasi dari makna ikonik,indeks dan simbolik dalam iklan komersial tersebut. Data diambil dari youtube, ditranskripsikan dan kemudian dianalisis dengan menggunakan teori semiotika Charles Sanders Peirce. Kesimpulan menunjukkan bahwa citra wanita Islam di iklan tersebut dalam penafsiran ikonik adalah (1) egaliter, (2) perhatian, (3) tidak diskriminatif, (4) sportif, dan (5) selalu bersyukur. Sedangkan dalam makna indeks, citra wanita islami digambarkan (1) lebih percaya diri, (2) selalu bahagia, (3) menginspirasi, (4) bebas bergerak, (5) bersih luar dalam, (6) mencapai kebebasan, (7) ramah tamah (8) memiliki daya tarik seksual, dan (9) memiliki rasa nyaman. Sementara itu, citra wanita islami dalam arti simbolis adalah (1) Islami, baik verbal maupun nonverbal, (2) kelas sosial yang tinggi, (3) humanis, (4) berkedudukan setara, (5) menjaga pluralisme, (6) bernilai dan (7) putih bersinar.]

This article employing historical-legal methods presents the relationship between an extra-legal axiology and the norms of commercial law. The standard of morality is presented among several criteria of the good practices clause. Axiological pluralism demands that the criterion of morality be recognized in the light of constitutional values. Freedom of economic trade is a basic value that can only be restricted by law. At the same time, legal norms require justification through the system of moral norms. Non-legal norms incorporated into the system of commercial law make trade more flexible and allow a judge to resolve conflicts in economic trade.

The establishment and development of media pluralism is an important prerequisite for the democratization of media systems. Exposure of the media to various aspects of instrumentalization significantly limits the process of its democratization, which results in the media being inadequately differentiated, politically polarised, and commercially instrumentalized, thus narrowing the space for media organizations to act in a professional and free manner, based on public interest. The aforementioned trends point to the dominant presence and agency of obstructive mechanisms within the process of media and media systems democratization and establishment of media pluralism. Concerning the aforementioned, the paper presents mechanisms or patterns of agency that primarily obstruct the development of internal media pluralism in the media market of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Internal pluralism is especially significant for the process of successful media democratization since it is a common case that external pluralism merely serves the purpose of providing a formal cover for meeting criteria as regards plurality of media companies and their respective editorial policies. To this end, the paper identifies critical issues in media practice and journalism as a profession in Bosnia and Herzegovina, featuring them as primary aspects within the context of effective democratization and orientation towards the successful establishment of differentiation of media content at the level of individual media organizations. The level of criticality of various aspects of the media is examined from the perspective of both journalists and editors employed with respective media organizations in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as of media managers in this media market.

This paper traces the emergence of media policy reform activism in Australia around media content regulations for commercial broadcasting, from 1953 to 1976. Its focus is on processes of participation in public inquiries, and the ways in which these were manifestations of what Anna Yeatman (1998) has termed ‘activism in the policy process’. It finds evidence that such processes facilitated the emergence of more wide-ranging campaigns for media reform in the 1970s, but also finds that the extent to which such trends can be seen as applying a logic of ‘governmentality’ to broadcast media has in practice been limited by the predominantly commercial nature of the Australian broadcasting system, the conduct of regulatory agencies and their proneness to ‘regulatory capture’, and the extent to which the demands of media critics could be translated into implementable policies.

Although legal formalism is commonly regarded as desirable for business transactions because it produces certainty of entitlements, this essay argues that the form of calculability required by businesses in fact consists of the protection of expectations. These expectations are themselves grounded in three competing normative contexts: the business relation, the business deal, and the contract. Legal formalism tends to award priority to the contractual normative framework, and can, therefore, defeat business expectations. The merchants' rejection of legal formalism as an unsatisfactory regulatory tool for business transactions is discovered in the operation of the market for the adjudication of commercial disputes. The possibility that common law reasoning is superior to civil law reasoning in managing to avoid the closure of legal formalism is suggested, though it is acknowledged that the virus of legal formalism has penetrated deeply into the operations of common law reasoning as well. The key feature of new private law regulation of commercial contracts at European level must be the production of the capacity to protect business expectation (or calculability) by creating a legal discourse that can simultaneously evaluate the competing normative frameworks of the business relation, the deal, and the contract. This capacity requires the contextualisation of contractual disputes, an ability to differentiate between contexts in the light of custom and usage and the economic interests of the parties, and the power to reformulate regulation in the light of revisions of normative standards in the market. This capacity may also require a post-national legal structure that respects pluralism in regulation of different industrial sectors.

AbstractMaarten Prak argues that urban citizen associations remained vigorous in the West from the Middle Ages through the Industrial Revolution, and that their support for commercial activity helped bring about that Revolution. That is half correct. During the two thousand years from 300 BC to 1750 AD, numerous societies had similar peaks of urbanization, commercial activity, and per capita income (often approaching, but never exceeding, a “peak pre-industrial income” level of roughly $1,900 in 1990 international dollars.) Vigorous urban societies produced repeated episodes of comparably high incomes, not ever-escalating levels of GDP/capita. What produced the breakthrough of the Industrial Revolution was a particular manifestation of urban citizenship that occurred only in Great Britain – the victory of Parliament over royal authority creating exceptional religious and intellectual freedom and institutionalized pluralism. This was not common to urbanized, commercial societies except in rare periods; only in Britain did urban associations and culture blend with scientific culture, producing a broad surge of scientific and technical activity that overcame the prior limits on organic societies.

Il contributo si inserisce all'interno di quell'ampia famiglia di studi che vuole analizzare e tematizzare la crescente presenza di differenze etniche e culturali all'interno delle società contemporanee a partire dai processi, dalle dinamiche e dai significati di chi è chiamato a produrle e riprodurle quotidianamente. È infatti un dato consolidato che, sotto la spinta dei flussi migratori, la multietnicità sia diventata un fattore strutturalmente incorporato nella vita culturale, sociale ed economica delle comunità (Fabbri, Melacarne, 2020). A livello locale, gli studi empirici che affrontano le trasformazioni in atto negli spazi urbani ad alto tasso di multietnicità restituiscono scenari complessi e spesso contraddittori. Si fa riferimento a quei contributi che descrivono forme di vita dense in cui prospettive, rappresentazioni, norme, routine e pratiche diverse si incontrano e si scontrano. In questo scenario, alcuni luoghi in particolare sono caratterizzati da proprietà specifiche in termini di potenziale relazionale e di apprendimento. Così, gli esercizi commerciali si caratterizzano come spazi in cui l'esperienza dell'incontro diretto con le differenze può essere rilevata generando opportunità di condivisione tra modi diversi, a volte inediti, di strutturare le pratiche di vita e di lavoro. Il contatto all'interno delle pratiche commerciali quotidiane può essere strutturato come fonte di apprendimento informale significativo o meno che, chiamando in causa la prospettiva trasformativa, può generare sia apertura e dialogo sia chiusura e distanziamento. La chiave interpretativa offerta dalla teoria trasformativa ci permette di leggere il pluralismo commerciale, inteso come l'insieme delle diverse pratiche, routine, regole, rappresentazioni commerciali che accomunano un territorio ad alto tasso multietnico, come un dispositivo capace di stimolare l'apprendimento attraverso il contatto. Attraverso le pratiche commerciali, quindi, si possono creare occasioni di conoscenza di nuovi e diversi punti di vista attraverso i quali gli individui possono dare un senso alla loro esperienza, riflettere sui modi in cui interpretano le differenze culturali e di conseguenza orientare le azioni. Quali tipi di apprendimento si verificano nelle città che stanno transitando verso esperienze di pluralismo culturale? Quali sono i significati attribuiti alle differenze dagli individui che condividono spazi e attività? Che ruolo giocano le pratiche commerciali? Come si configurano le relazioni tra commercianti con background etnici e culturali diversi? Queste sono le domande che hanno fatto da sfondo a una ricerca qualitativa in corso che mira a riunire le riflessioni sul fenomeno della multiculturalizzazione nel settore commerciale, sui nuovi scenari urbani che ne derivano e sulle diverse traiettorie di apprendimento legate a queste dinamiche. Oggetto dello studio sono le forme di apprendimento incoraggiate dalle pratiche di contatto che modellano le relazioni, i comportamenti e le interazioni tra i commercianti con background etnico e culturale diversificato, i loro clienti e gli attori organizzativi delle associazioni di categoria. Partendo dal presupposto che favorire le opportunità di contatto tra individui con background etnici e culturali diversi facilita lo sviluppo di un clima positivo di pluralismo e l'acquisizione di nuove prospettive di significato, abbiamo condotto osservazioni etnografiche in un quartiere altamente multietnico di una città dell'Italia centrale e interviste cliniche con commercianti con background etnico-culturali diversificati e con gli attori organizzativi delle associazioni di rappresentanza. Le aggregazioni informali di commercianti, in questo caso, possono essere interpretate come sistemi di esperti portatori di conoscenze esplicite e implicite, rappresentando così un campo privilegiato di rilevazione della conoscenza prodotta.
The contribution is inserted within that broad family of studies that wants to analyze and thematize the increasingly presence of ethnic and cultural differences within contemporary societies starting from the processes, the dynamics, and the meanings of those who are called to produce and reproduce them on a daily basis. In fact, it is a consolidated data that, under the pressure of migratory flows, multiethnicity has become a structurally incorporated factor in the cultural, social, and economic life of communities. At the local level, the empirical studies that deal with the transformations taking place in urban spaces with a high multiethnic rate return complex and often contradictory scenarios. Reference is made to those contributions that describe dense forms of life in which different perspectives, representations, norms, routines, and practices meet and collide. In this scenario, some places in particular are characterized by specific properties in terms of relational and learning potential. Thus, commercial establishments, are characterized as spaces in which the experience of direct encounter with differences can be detected generating sharing opportunities between different, sometimes unprecedented, ways of structuring life and work practices. Contact within daily trade practices can be structured as a source of informal learning significant or not that by calling into question the transformative perspective can generate both openness and dialogue as well as closure and distancing. The interpretative key offered by the transformative theory allows us to read commercial pluralism, understood as the set of different practices, routines, rules, commercial representations that unite a territory with a high multiethnic rate, as a device capable of stimulating learning through contact. Therefore, through commercial practice it may be possible to shape opportunities for the knowledge of new and different points of view through which individuals can give meaning to their experience, reflect on the ways in which they interpret cultural differences and consequently direct actions. What kinds of learning occur in cities that are transitioning towards experiences of cultural pluralism? What are the meanings attributed to differences by individuals who share spaces and activities? What role do commercial practices play? How do the relationships between traders with different ethnic and cultural backgrounds take shape? These are the questions that have formed the background of an in progress qualitative research that aims to bring together the reflections on the phenomenon of multiculturalization in the commercial sector, on the new urban scenarios that derive from it and on the different learning trajectories linked to these dynamics. The study’s object are the forms of learning encouraged by contact practices that shape relationships, behaviors, and interactions between traders with diversified ethnic and cultural backgrounds, their customers and the organizational actors of the trade associations. Starting from the assumption that fostering opportunities for contact between individuals with different ethnic and cultural backgrounds facilitates the development of a positive climate of pluralism and the acquisition of new meaning perspectives, we conducted ethnographic observations in a highly multiethnic neighborhood of a town in Central Italy and clinical interviews with traders with diversified ethnocultural backgrounds and with organizational actors of representative associations. The informal aggregations of traders, in this case, can be interpreted as systems of experts carrying explicit and implicit knowledge, thus representing a privileged field of detection of the knowledge produced.

Les normes privées intéressent le droit international à un double titre : se développant en marge du système interétatique classique, elles constituent l’un des visages d’une régulation privée transnationale émergente et soulèvent la question théorique de leur statut en droit international. Par ailleurs, leurs effets sur le commerce international (et particulièrement le fait qu’elles constituent un obstacle aux exportations des PED vers les marchés occidentaux), conduisent à s’interroger sur l’opportunité et les modalités de leur réglementation par le droit international des échanges. En dépit de leur diversité empirique qui rend difficile toute tentative de systématisation et de qualification juridique, nous considérons que la qualité des produits, qui constitue le fondement téléologique commun des normes privées, permet d’en justifier l’unité théorique et de les considérer comme un phénomène juridique à part entière. Nous démontrerons que les normes privées sont l’une des manifestations d’un droit transnational se développant en parallèle du droit interétatique « classique » et qu’elles jouissent par conséquent d’un statut juridique propre. De ce fait, leurs rapports avec la branche du droit international qu’elles intéressent le plus directement, le droit international des échanges, ne peuvent se limiter à l’approche classique de réglementation (ou approche « répressive », en ce qu’elle a pour seul but d’en limiter les effets restrictifs pour le commerce) mais doivent se concevoir dans une optique de coordination
The recent proliferation of private standards is not only of growing interest to economists who seek to evaluate its impact on trade flows; it is also relevant to international law, particularly to international economic law, in a double perspective. First, from the perspective of legal theory, the legal status of private standards has still to be determined. Second, from an empirical standpoint, private standards have the potential to negatively impact the access of developing countries to the markets of developed countries. This raises the question of the opportunity and modalities of submitting them to the disciplines of the WTO Agreements. This study demonstrates that private standards are one of the expressions of broader ‘transnational law’, a body of law that has been developing in parallel to ‘traditional’ state-centered international law. This implies that international law cannot merely consider private standards as an object to be disciplined; rather, the traditional ‘repressive’ approach should be rejected in favor of a more collaborative approach stressing the interrelations between the two bodies of norms as well as possible forms of coordination

La mondialisation a permis l’instauration de plusieurs institutions d’arbitrage. Cette multitude de choix offerte aux investisseurs pourrait induire les parties à choisir une institution défavorable quant à la résolution de leur litige. L’objectif de la thèse est de présenter un modèle de gestion pour les juristes qui facilite le choix de la juridiction la plus efficace ceci avec la mise en œuvre d’un tableau de notation associant des critères multidimensionnels accordant une notation selon le degré d’importance vue par les parties. A ce sujet, le tableau mis en place regroupe les quatre juridictions les plus connues internationalement qui sont les juridictions étatiques, la CCI, le CIRDI et la CNUDCI. L’arbitrage est composé de plusieurs fondements qui lui accordent sa spécificité. L’analyse multidimensionnelle permettrait donc de faire une analyse arithmétique des valeurs comparatives des composantes juridiques et extra-juridiques de l’arbitrage qui forment le tableau de notation afin de faciliter la prise de décisions des investisseurs. Afin de vérifier l’efficacité du tableau de notation, un questionnaire a été adressé aux investisseurs ainsi que des interviews effectuées avec des juristes ont permis de déceler l’impact de l’expérience sur le choix du centre le plus efficace. L’étude de cas de l’affaire COMMISIMPEX est un exemple de l’effet du choix inefficace sur la résolution du litige et explique comment l’expérience pourrait affecter la décision de l’institution d’arbitrage le plus efficace à la résolution du litige. Pour en conclure qu’il n’y a pas de juridiction intrinsèquement meilleure que les autres. Il faut donc procéder au cas par cas et selon ce que les parties recherchent suite à leur litige, pour en déduire la juridiction ou l’institution qui leur serait la plus favorable afin de leurs garantir le plus de droits lors de la résolution de leur litige
Globalization has established several arbitral institutions. They offer a multiple of choices to the investors that could induce the parties to choose an unfavorable institution.The aim of this thesis is to present a management model for jurist which facilitates the choice of the most efficient jurisdiction in resolving their dispute, with the implementation of a scoring table combining multidimensional criteria, giving a rating according to the degree of importance for the parties. In this regard, the table regroup four of the most well-known internationally jurisdiction, the State court, the ICC, the ICSID and the UNICITRAL. Arbitration is composed of several fundaments that give it its specificity. Multidimensional analysis thus would make an arithmetical analysis of the comparative values of the legal and extra-legal components of arbitration which form the scoring table to facilitate decision making of investors. To verify the effectiveness of the scoring table a questionnaire was sent to investors as well as an interview conducted with lawyers have identifies the impact of the experience on the choice of the most efficient arbitral center. The Case study of COMMISIMPEX is an example of the effect of inefficient choice on the resolution of the dispute and how the experience may affect the decision of the most effective arbitration institution to the resolution of the dispute. To conclude none of the jurisdiction is inherently better than the others. We must proceed case by case and according to what the parties are looking after their dispute, to deduce the court or institution that would be most favorable to them by guarantying more rights in the settlement of their dispute

La transition agraire à Sabah oppose deux systèmes différents de mettre en valeur le territoire. Le premier se caractérise par l’expansion des plantations de monocultures commerciales alors que le deuxième se caractérise par des petites exploitations familiales qui se basent sur la subsistance et sur la diversification des cultures. Face à ce contraste, le modèle de développement rural proposé par le gouvernement cherche à concilier les intérêts macroéconomiques des grandes plantations avec les intérêts microéconomiques des petites exploitations alors que les premiers ont largement pris l’avantage sur les deuxièmes. En même temps, il existe à Sabah un système juridique foncier caractérisé par le pluralisme juridique. D’un côté nous avons le droit étatique centralisé qui se base sur la codification de la loi et sur la promotion de la propriété privée individuelle alors que de l’autre nous avons un droit coutumier qui se base sur la tradition orale et sur la gestion foncière communautaire. Chaque régime foncier présente une manière distincte de gérer l’accès, l’utilisation et la propriété de la terre et de ses ressources. Le droit étatique soutient l’expansion des grandes plantations alors que le droit coutumier régule la gestion des petites exploitations familiales. Les tensions qui existent entre ces systèmes juridiques différents de mise en valeur du territoire sont à l’origine de ce que nous appelons les dynamiques foncières émergentes. Cette thèse a pour but de mettre en évidence que la manière dont ces dynamiques interagissent, divergent et convergent a des répercussions en termes de développement rural dans la mesure où elles impliquent des tensions sociales et légales ainsi que des stratégies agricoles spécifiques ayant des conséquences économiques particulières. Plus spécifiquement, le but ultime est de comprendre comment le droit foncier coutumier se voit affecté par la transition agraire, comment il interagit par le biais des dynamiques foncières émergentes, et quels sont ses espaces et ses possibilités d’adaptation face à l’expansion d’un modèle de développement rural qui se base sur la modernisation et la marchandisation de l’agriculture.

L'enchevêtrement des espaces normatifs au Cameroun et en Afrique, qui se produit en matière de droit économique, de manière verticale ou horizontale, à des vitesses différentes et à des niveaux multiples, nous introduit dans la complexité du droit. Celle-ci peut être source d'incohérence et d'insécurité juridique en l'absence de validité juridique plurielle (formelle, axiologique et empirique) des normes. L'impératif de validation des normes en matière de commerce et de concurrence conduit à prolonger leur nécessaire universalité dans un environnement de globalisation des risques, par leur « diversalité ». Cet universalisme pluriel qu'est la « diversalité» permet d'assurer la validité juridique plurielle des différentes normes à l'égard de tous les acteurs présents aux différentes échelles. Le recours à des concepts régulateurs comme la marge nationale ou régionale d'adaptation, la subsidiarité, les mécanismes de sauvegarde, le traitement spécial et différencié, l'équivalence homéomorphe ou fonctionnelle, autorise l'usage d'une logique de gradation permettant d'aller jusqu'à la coexistence dans un même espace normatif ou géographique de normes parfois contradictoires mais cohérentes. Ainsi, un principe valide à l'OMC, peut tout en conservant cette validité, subir quelques altérations dans les Accords de partenariat économique entre les États ACP et l'UE, dans sa transposition dans l'OHADA, la CEMAC, l'UEMOA ou dans la mise non pas en conformité mais en compatibilité de ces normes à l'échelle nationale. Il peut aussi être substitué par un autre principe plus pertinent dans l'espace ou le temps lorsque les indicateurs de variabilité permettent un meilleur respect de la cohérence et de la complétude du système juridique. L'impératif de flexibilité du droit du commerce et du droit de la concurrence en vue du respect de la validité juridique plurielle des normes à l'égard de l'ensemble des acteurs en présence, conduit à compléter l'universalité postulée du droit, en explorant les apports d'une « diversalité» assumée.

La participation juridique des Etats d’Afrique de l’Ouest au commerce international se traduit par l’instauration d’accords régionaux internes et externes et par leur adhésion au système multilatéral de l’OMC. Les Etats se retrouvent donc confrontés à différents engagements juridiques simultanément et cela pose le problème de leur capacité en tant que pays en développement ou PMA à y faire face. Aujourd’hui le développement de ces Etats est au coeur de toutes les négociations commerciales que ce soit dans la cadre des nouveaux accords de partenariat économique ou celui du cycle de Doha. Mais toutes ces négociations sont dans une impasse et cela favorise le développement des accords régionaux internes. Cette étude porte sur les différents processus d’interaction qui peuvent intervenir entre le régionalisme et le multilatéralisme. L’efficacité des différents accords commerciaux mises en place par les Etats ouest Africains suppose une cohérence et une compatibilité entre eux
The legal participation of the States of West Africa to international trade is reflected by the establishment of internal and external regional agreements and their accession to the WTO multilateral system. States are therefore facing individual legal commitments simultaneously and this raises the problem of their capacity as developing countries or LDCs to cope. Today the development of these States is at the heart of all trade negotiations in the framework of the new agreements economic partnership or one of the Doha round. But all these negotiations are at an impasse and it promotes the development of internal regional agreements. This study focuses on the various processes of interaction that can occur between regionalism and multilateralism. The effectiveness of the various trade agreements put in place by States West Africans assumes coherence and compatibility between them

La problématique conduit à une analyse du droit européen privé des contrats. La première partie recherche les sources de la liberté contractuelle européenne. La multiplicité des règles et des pratiques permet de constater un défaut de définition. Le premier chapitre souligne que l'autonomie de la volonté est relative parce qu’elle est subjective et évolue au gré des équilibres en jeu. Il s'agit d'une liberté intégrée, issue du code civil romano-germanique. Le second chapitre permet de constater que l'autonomie de la volonté est un principe très relatif en droit international privé. Le pluralisme du droit implique que la liberté contractuelle est une notion sans source et ni stable, ni établie. Le droit international privé européen est en construction et fonctionnel.La seconde partie étudie la liberté contractuelle européenne du point de vue du droit positif au sens large du terme. Cette liberté est un principe relatif en symbiose avec les nécessités de protection des cocontractants et du commerce européen. Il s’agit d'un principe subjectif du fait de l'ordre public européen (qui contient l’ordre public économique, les lois de police et l’ordre public international classique), et d’un principe essentiel dans la construction européenne. Le premier chapitre trace le cadre et la structure générale de la liberté contractuelle européenne. Elle participe au commerce et se doit de respecter les principes essentiels de l’Union au sens de droit objectif (liberté d’établissement, juste concurrence, égalité commerciale) ; elle est traduite par l’essor de principes européens et par la pratique commerciale. Le second chapitre note que la liberté est une notion intégrée dans la société européenne. Elle est fonctionnelle et trouve son équilibre en correspondant avec l’ordre public au sens subjectif (protection des parties les plus faibles et des droits fondamentaux)
Problem drives to analyze what is European right of contract. First part searches the sources of European freedom of contract. The multiplicity of rules and practices allows seeing a defect of definition. The first chapter underlines that the autonomy of the will is relative because it is subjective and it evolves according to the balances in contract. It determines that this freedom is joined and is partly the result from the Romano-Germanic civil code. The second chapter allows noticing that the autonomy of the will is henceforth a very relative principle in international private law.Pluralism of the law involves that the contractual freedom is a notion without spring neither stable nor established. The European private international law is under construction and organized in a functional waySecond part studies the European contractual freedom from the point of view of the substantive law. This freedom is a relative principle in symbiosis with the necessities of protection of the parties of contract and necessities of the European business. It is about a subjective principle because of the European law and order (it contains the economic law and order, the lois de police and the classic international law and order), and because of principles in the European construction. The first chapter draws the frame and the general structure of the European contractual freedom. It participates in the business and owes respect the essential principles of the Union in the direction of objective right-law (freedom of establishment, just competition, commercial equality); it is characterized by the European principal development and by the commercial practice. Second chapter notes that the freedom is integrated into the European Union. It is functional and finds balance by corresponding with the law and order to the subjective direction (protection of the weakest parties and the fundamental rights)

La dialectique entre contrats d’Etat et développement durable existe, malgré une antinomie apparente. Elle s’appuie sur une interaction particulière qui s’est construite depuis l’origine, à travers les contrats d’Etat, instruments conventionnels singuliers et autour des nécessités politiques et économiques de l’époque, avec en toile de fond l’impératif de développement.Face aux évolutions sociales successives et l’absence d’arsenal juridique adapté, les contratsd’Etat se sont développés de façon spécifique entre dépendance, indépendance,interdépendance, hétéronomie et autonomie. En droit international des affaires, c’estprécisément à partir du contrat conçu comme un instrument normatif singulier et à travers sesinteractions avec le contexte extracontractuel au sein duquel il est amené à opérer quel’existence d’un droit du développement durable en matière de contrats d’Etat doit êtrefondée. Cela nécessite une autre vision du droit, sans cesse renouvelée et davantageappropriée aux réalités de notre siècle
Common discussion points between sustainable development and State contracts exist, despite many visible contradictions. They are based on a particular interaction, built up from the beginning through State contracts, which are highly specific agreements and around political and economic necessities of the time, with the notion of development merely as a requirement in the background. Confronted with successive social changes and the lack of an appropriate judicial framework, State contracts developed in a particular way between dependence, independence, interdependence, heteronomy and autonomy. In international business law, the existence of a sustainable development law related to State contracts must be based precisely on contracts, seen as instruments able to set norms, and must benefit from contracts’interactions with a non-contractual environment. That requires another vision of law, constantly renewed and more adapted to current realities

Uganda's broadcast media landscape has witnessed tremendous growth in recent years. While the public broadcaster remains the dominant national player - in terms of reach - in both radio and television, commercial broadcasters have introduced a substantial level of diversity in the industry. Public broadcasting faces serious competition from the numerous private and independent broadcasters, especially in and around the capital Kampala and major urban centres. In fact, the private/commercial sector clearly dominates the industry in most respects, notably productivity and profitability. The public broadcaster, which enjoys wider geographical coverage, faces the challenge of trying to fulfill a broad mandate with little funding. This makes it difficult for UBC to compete with the more nimble operators in the commercial/private sector. Overall, there appears to be a healthy degree of pluralism and diversity in terms of ownership.

Indonesia is one of the most legally diverse and complex countries in the world. It practises legal pluralism with three types of contract law in force: adat (customary) contract laws, Islamic contract laws (mostly concerning banking), and the European civil law of contract, transplanted from the Netherlands in 1847, found mainly in the Civil Code (Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Perdata). This chapter focuses on European civil law as it is the law used for the majority of commercial transactions. The civil law of contract is not well developed and there is a paucity of indigenous doctrine and jurisprudence, since most significant commercial disputes are settled by arbitration. The contours of the law are consistent with the French/Dutch legal tradition. In the formation of contracts, the subjective intention of the parties plays a greater role than in the common law. As with most jurisdictions with a Napoleonic tradition, the offer must include all the essential element of the contract, there is no concept of ‘invitations to treat’ or of ‘consideration’, the common law posting rule is rejected, and the contract is formed only when the acceptance is received. There are generally few requirements of form but some contracts must be in writing and some in a notarial deed.

Industry-led technical standardization is often cited as an example for private governance. And the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) Project is often presented as a particularly successful case of such governance without government. The successes of the industry-led DVB Project have often been cited as evidence for the superior governance capacity of private industry. While the commercial and engineering success of the DVB Project is unequivocal, this chapter raises the question whether it has been equally successful in governing a complex sector that is confronted by a range of market failures, with direct implications for important public policy objectives such as media pluralism and diversity.

Industry-led technical standardization is often cited as an example for private governance. And the Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) Project is often presented as a particularly successful case of such governance without government. The successes of the industry-led DVB Project have often been cited as evidence for the superior governance capacity of private industry. While the commercial and engineering success of the DVB Project is unequivocal, this chapter raises the question whether it has been equally successful in governing a complex sector that is confronted by a range of market failures, with direct implications for important public policy objectives such as media pluralism and diversity.

This chapter discusses the reign of Askia Muḥammad. Originally affixed to clerical and commercial interests, the askia's arrogation of power would encourage a review of those relations, leading to a series of challenges to Timbuktu and Jenne's self-promotion as bastions of autonomy and self-regulation. The askia's policies are therefore not unlike those of Mansā Mūsā, who paired internationalism with indigenization. These challenges would endure throughout Songhay's existence, and require rethinking Timbuktu exceptionality. Notwithstanding difficulties, Songhay's cosmopolitanism reached a height of sophistication never before witnessed in the region. More specifically, it is with Songhay that a variety of ethnicities undergo a process through which their allegiance to the state begins to supersede group loyalties, resulting in the formation of a new political identity. As an experiment in pluralism, it was unprecedented. Like Mansā Mūsā, Askia Muḥammad would also embark upon a campaign of significant territorial expansion, extending well into the northern Sahel, while evincing substantial interest in the Hausa city-states to the east. Notwithstanding his accomplishments, Songhay would be slowly circumscribed by breathtaking transformations on a global scale.

Planning takes place not only within governmental processes but also in a myriad of political activities affected by pressure groups and lobbies. The planning profession is itself part of this world of pressure politics as are other related professions. The range of pressure groups is surveyed, including the world of think tanks relevant to planning. It is argued that there is also a “dark side” of pressure politics which seeks to influence the planning system, like all public policy areas. Study of this murky and hardly regulated field of commercial lobbying firms is presented. The chapter then considers how far this problematic lobbying system may be impacting on planning at central and local levels. It is concluded that there is nothing like a pluralist level playing field in planning in England, with moneyed interests likely to have a strong influence on policy making and local decision making.

Religious economies are a novel idea with potential application in a free market economy. They bring the idea of the existence of the supernatural and concern with ultimate meanings, so ubiquitous to religions, in touch with the multiplicity of paths available to us. In Islamic Sufism, there are as many paths to God as there are individuals. A situation in which people could compare and evaluate religions, regarding them as a matter of choice, can best described as a religious economy. Just as commercial economies consist of a market in which different firms compete, religious economies consist of a market (the aggregate demand for religion) and firms (different religious organizations) seeking to attract and hold clienteles. Just as commercial economies must deal with state regulations, religious economies' key issue is the degree to which they are regulated by the state. From Stark's viewpoint, the natural state of a religious economy is religious pluralism, wherein many religious “firms” exist because of their special appeal to certain segments of the market or the population. However, just as there is incentive for a commercial organization to monopolize the market to maximize its profit, it is always in the interest of any particular religious organization to secure a monopoly, maintain its followers, and expand into new interest groups. This can be achieved, (and even then to a very limited extent) only if the state forcibly excludes competing faiths (Stark, 2001). The building blocks of Stark's ideas are the assumption of a free market, a market economy, and the key issue of rational choice theory, hand in hand with American Pragmatism. As with the history of religions, which are not and have not been free from contest and cooperation, similarities, and differences, so religious economies have not been and are not easily shaped without considering forces from within and among different economies. Religious actions, reactions, and interactions in monotheism, diversity of textual interpretations, the growth of intellectualism or counter-intellectualism, human perception of transcendence and the sacred, as well as the realities of everyday life, all imply that the idea of religious economies needs more exploration. Christianity and Islam, one dominating the West and the other the East and Africa, offer the instances of two massive markets. Each religion has more than a billion adherents and a history of sharing the monotheistic market. Both religions, in spite of Islamophobia in the West, have formed and will participate in the decline, incline, or stability of the market. This subject is timely in light of the political movements in the Middle East and monolithic misconception of Islam.

Religious economies are a novel idea with potential application in a free market economy. They bring the idea of the existence of the supernatural and concern with ultimate meanings, so ubiquitous to religions, in touch with the multiplicity of paths available to us. In Islamic Sufism, there are as many paths to God as there are individuals. A situation in which people could compare and evaluate religions, regarding them as a matter of choice, can best described as a religious economy. Just as commercial economies consist of a market in which different firms compete, religious economies consist of a market (the aggregate demand for religion) and firms (different religious organizations) seeking to attract and hold clienteles. Just as commercial economies must deal with state regulations, religious economies' key issue is the degree to which they are regulated by the state. From Stark's viewpoint, the natural state of a religious economy is religious pluralism, wherein many religious “firms” exist because of their special appeal to certain segments of the market or the population. However, just as there is incentive for a commercial organization to monopolize the market to maximize its profit, it is always in the interest of any particular religious organization to secure a monopoly, maintain its followers, and expand into new interest groups. This can be achieved, (and even then to a very limited extent) only if the state forcibly excludes competing faiths (Stark, 2001). The building blocks of Stark's ideas are the assumption of a free market, a market economy, and the key issue of rational choice theory, hand in hand with American Pragmatism. As with the history of religions, which are not and have not been free from contest and cooperation, similarities, and differences, so religious economies have not been and are not easily shaped without considering forces from within and among different economies. Religious actions, reactions, and interactions in monotheism, diversity of textual interpretations, the growth of intellectualism or counter-intellectualism, human perception of transcendence and the sacred, as well as the realities of everyday life, all imply that the idea of religious economies needs more exploration. Christianity and Islam, one dominating the West and the other the East and Africa, offer the instances of two massive markets. Each religion has more than a billion adherents and a history of sharing the monotheistic market. Both religions, in spite of Islamophobia in the West, have formed and will participate in the decline, incline, or stability of the market. This subject is timely in light of the political movements in the Middle East and monolithic misconception of Islam.