Дисертації з теми "Pipelines Welding"

Three duplex stainless steels (Avesta 2205, Sandvik SAF2507 and Zeron 100) were successfully welded automatically at a range of pressures from 1 to 32bar. The gas tungsten arc (GTA) welding process was chosen as it allows a high degree of control to be exercised during welding. Initial autogenous bead on plate welds established the effects of pressure on the welding process and allowed the process parameters to be determined for subsequent experiments. Analysis of the effects of pressure on the weld thermal cycle showed that at higher pressures the precipitation of phases deleterious to the weld quality was less likely than at ambient pressure. It was also found that the arc melting efficiency increased as the pressure increased, which was taken into account when the process parameters for the joints were selected. A V-butt design with a 'land' on each side was chosen for the joints to counteract any tendency for the welding arc to wander at higher welding pressures. The root welds were performed using pulsed current welding techniques to overcome the difficulties in achieving consistent penetration that were encountered when welding at lower pressures. It was found that by employing standard welding consumables commonly used for welding duplex steels at ambient pressure satisfactory austenite-ferrite phase balances could be achieved in the weld metal at all pressures. Metallographic examination of the welds showed that the joints did not have any microstructural complications that were related to pressure and mechanical testing revealed that, in terms of impact toughness, the weld metal and heat affected zone (HAZ) performed as well as, if not better than, the parent plate material. This work shows that welding of duplex stainless steels using the hyperbaric welding method is a viable option for subsea operations up to a depth of at least 320m, automated hyperbaric welding being advantageous at depths greater than 40m.

The research presented in this thesis covers two critical problems regarding lined pipes: dynamic impact and welding. A lined pipe consists of an inner layer (the liner) made of corrosion resistant alloy (CRA), e.g. AISI304 stainless steel, and an outer layer made of low carbon steel, e.g. carbon-manganese steel, C-Mn. To manufacture the lined pipe, a special heat treatment, known as tight fit pipe (TFP), based on cooling the liner to -200°C, heating the backing pipe to +500°C and inserting the liner inside the outer pipe, was used in this work. Both welding and impact with external objects are responsible for accumulating high levels of plastic strains and residual stresses which could lead to failure in the pipe sometime after the impact or the welding. The special welding process used in lined pipes typically consists of the overlay welding (inner welding) of the liner with the C-Mn steel pipe for each segment and the girth welding (outer welding) of the two segments. To simulate this welding process using the ABAQUS code, nonlinear heat-transfer and mechanical finite-element (FE) analyses have been conducted. A distributed power density of the moving welding torch and a non-linear heat transfer coefficient accounting for both radiation and convection have been used in the analysis and implemented in ABAQUS user-subroutines. The modelling procedure has been validated first against previously published experimental results for stainless steel and carbon steel pipe welding separately. The model has been then used to determine the isotherms induced by the one-pass weld overlay and the one-pass girth welding and to clarify their influence on the transient temperature field and residual stress in the lined pipe. Furthermore, the influence of the cooling time between weld overlay and girth welding and of the welding speed have been examined thermally and mechanically as they are key factors that can affect the quality of lined pipe welding. The same FE numerical procedure to analyse line pipe welding is then applied to simulate six cases experimentally tested in the lab within this project. Furthermore, two cases have been analysed first, namely a reference case, in which the effect of the TFP pre-heat treatment is neglected, and a second one where the pre-heat treatment has been taken into consideration. During welding, the FE thermal history and mechanical strain results for both cases correlate well with the experimental ones in the region with the highest residual stresses, because the effect of initial residual stresses is cancelled in the regions subject to very high temperatures. After welding, the numerical and experimental results have proved that the initial residual stresses due to the TFP pre-heat treatment are reasonably important in the liner whereas they are practically negligible in the C-Mn pipe. The same reference case is then compared numerically and experimentally with further five parametric cases to study the effect of welding properties (weld overlay and girth welding materials), geometric parameters (using weld overlay and liner) and welding process parameters (heat input). The numerical temperature fields and residual stresses are in good agreement with their experimental counterparts for all cases. The dynamic impact problem is a crucial one for lined pipes because of the reduction in the thickness of the outer pipe ensured by the internal protection from corrosion given by a thinner liner. In this case, the lined pipe is more affected by potential impact with external objects (so-called 'third party interference' in the Oil and Gas industry). In general, a dent produced by a freely dropped weight is responsible to a large extent of catastrophic failure in pipelines. Therefore, in this work, 3D FE models have been developed to simulate the mechanism of vertical free drop of a weight from different heights resulting in damage in the pipe. Models have been executed using a three-dimensional non-linear explicit-dynamics FE code, ABAQUS/EXPLICIT. In order to precisely simulate the response of the pipe to subsequent impacts and spring back, an elastic-plastic constitutive law is adopted using the isotropic Hooke's law and a Von Mises yield criterion, with work hardening based on an isotropic hardening rule associated with the equivalent plastic strain rate. Strain-rate dependent properties are specified for both materials, C-Mn and AISI304, to take into account the change in velocities during impact. The numerical strain results are reasonably consistent with the experimental ones recorded by four strain gauge rosettes positioned symmetrically around the dent centre. Numerical and experimental results are comprehensively analysed and discussed also in terms of practical implications in the industry.

The J-laying technique for the construction of offshore pipelines requires a fast welding process that can produce sound welds in the horizontal-vertical position. The suitability of narrow gap gas metal arc welding (NG-GMA W) process for this application was previously demonstrated. The present programme studied the influence of process parameters on the fusion characteristics of NG-GMA welding in a range of different shielding gas compositions and welding positions. Statistical techniques were employed for both designing the experimental programme and to process the data generated. A partial factorial design scheme was used to investigate the influence of input variables and their interaction in determining weld bead shape. Modelling equations were developed by multiple linear regression to represent different characteristics of the weld bead. Transformation of the response variable based on the Cox-Box method was commonly used to simplify the model format. Modelling results were analysed by graphical techniques including surface plots and a multiplot approach was developed in order to graphically assess the influence of up to four input variables on the bead shape. Conditions for acceptable bead formation were determined and the process sensitivity to minor changes in input parameters assessed. Asymmetrical base metal fusion in horizontalvertical welding is discussed and techniques to improve fusion presented. At the same time, the interaction between the power supply output characteristic and the bead geometry was studied for narrow gap joints and the effect of shielding gas composition on both process stability and fusion of the base metal was assessed. An arc instability mode that is strongly influenced by arc length, power supply characteristic and shielding gas composition was demonstrated and its properties investigated. An optimized shielding gas composition for narrow gap process was suggested.

Ambitions in exploration of oil and gas fields at deeper water depth require continuous investigation and maintenance. The transportation pipelines laid in deep waters are both subjected to corrosion and buckling due to environmental phenomena. They may also often undergo branching (namely hot tapping) to redirect (or add to) the transportation paths. Mechanical joints and welding are both considered as available alternatives when sectioning and replacement of the pipes at shallow waters is necessary, yet, welding is more promising for deep waters where remote operation is central. Fusion welding on the other hand comprises several technological detractions for sound operations under high ambient pressures disregarding its low cost and flexibility. The foremost detracting phenomenon in the arc welding is called ‘arc root constriction’, which is defined as arc geometry shrinkage under the increased pressure. Consequently, the power delivery to the weld pool at different pressure levels is a major worry. Effects of ionization and dissociation energies of different gases and mixtures, partial pressure of environmental gases including hydrogen and oxygen, gasification and degasification of the weld metal, inclusions that affect the phase transformation, absorption and desorption kinetics, oxidation and deoxidation reactions and many more are the phenomena that can possibly be altered by the gas type and ambient pressure level. Spattering and fume generation is a problematic issue since the arc is rather unstable under high pressure. Thus, seeking the effect of different chamber gas mixtures on welding parameters, final microstructure and mechanical properties is the main objective of this work. Statistical analysis of the collected voltage and current waveforms is carried out to identify the source of arc misbehavior and instability (discussed in Paper I). The stochastic parameters is related to the electrical stability and resolved into a number of varying welding parameters. The datasets are representing the effects of using pure argon under 14 incrementally increased pressure levels. Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) is used to characterize the frequency domain of the waveforms. Auto-correlation Function (AF) and Power Spectral Density (PSD) were calculated assuming the Wiener-Khinchin theorem. Considering the AF, it is possible to visualize the deteriorating stability of the arc. The rate of stability degradation is quite gentle after 20 bar, though, huge differences were observed from 1 to 20 bar. The characteristic frequencies of 100-150 Hz and 350-400 Hz were observed. The first range can be associated with the mass transfer or molten droplet launch frequency and the latter range is representative of the rectified mains. The spread of large low-frequency peaks at higher pressures is illustrating the mass transfer deterioration. The aforementioned peaks were found above 125 bar where the range of the characteristic frequency peaks in voltage and current waveforms started to deviate. The calculated arc power is higher at high-pressure range while the weld bead geometry was barely varied. It implies that the arc efficiency factor decreases at high pressures. The heat source dimensions and heat efficiency factor are two major inputs for finite element (FE) simulations of the weld. However, a systematic classification of these factors was hardly available prior to this work. Additionally, to the best of author’s knowledge, the direct high-speed observation of the arc inside the hyperbaric welding chamber has not been investigated in detail by far due to several technological issues. The varying bead-on-plate welds including the end crater appearance can possibly be good candidates to categorize the FE heat source dimensions. Double-ellipsoidal heat source (Goldak’s Model) was implemented in WeldSimS® FE code that is used in this study. Since the model incorporates two superimposed reference heat sources, the amount of dissipated heat from each source should be differentiated. An intermediate heat source model was employed for this purpose. The latter model is after Myhr and Grong that is called distributed point heat sources. This model can be accurately fit to the weld cross section geometry if calibrated accurately. The calibrated parameters were found to be very close to the ones required by Double-ellipsoidal heat source model. By using this approach, not only the effect of welding parameters on weld bead geometry can be categorized, but also the spent time for double-ellipsoidal heat source adjustments will be cut by 90%. A Gaussian heat source was also employed for welding thermal cycle simulations. Accompanying experiments suggested that the thermal gradients hardly change as pressure elevates. However, it was found that the increased pressure level might not necessarily result in higher or lower cooling rates despite the geometrical changes. In a parallel investigation, the metallurgical effect of different shielding environments on phase transformation and mechanical properties of the bead-onplate weld samples was studies. Electron backscattered diffraction (EBSD) and orientation imaging microscopy (OIM) techniques were used to identify the effect of five different shielding environments on the phase transformation. Argon and Helium chamber gases offer the conditions that facilitate the highest amount of acicular ferrite transformation, yet, they show some differences in a number of crystallographic details. CO2 gas provided conditions for a lot of porosity in addition to the dominant polygonal ferrite/bainite transformation. He+½CO2 mixture resulted in bainite transformation that was found to follow the maximum heat flow direction in terms of crystallographic orientations. Very small sized tensile and single-edged notch bending (SENB) samples were machined from the weld metal material. The tests revealed that the best mechanical properties are associated with the He chamber gas and the poorest properties were presented by the samples welded in He+½CO2 shielding environment. It was also observed that there is a good correlation between the acquired acoustic signals and the fracture properties of the weld samples

Orientador: João Batista Fogagnolo
Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecânica
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Resumo: A grande expansão da malha de duto terrestre que vem ocorrendo nos últimos anos no Brasil, principalmente com a construção de linhas únicas para o escoamento de gás natural, representa um novo desafio às equipes de manutenção. A interrupção do fornecimento de gás, devido à parada para manutenção pode representar o colapso de muitas cidades. Situações programadas de paradas operacionais são muito comuns porem envolve recursos humanos e financeiros vultosos, nem sempre disponíveis. Os riscos envolvidos no preparo e condicionamento para a retirada de operação de um gasoduto ou oleoduto, alem dos mesmos cuidados ao retorno normal às atividades requer planejamento minucioso. Nas aplicações envolvendo processos de soldagem sobre o duto em operação, isto é , com fluxo interno na forma gás ou liquido, é necessário garantir a ausência de vazamento de produto, ou seja, onde se tenha o produto totalmente confinado no interior da linha, viabilizando a execução de soldagem e, portanto, não ocorrendo à possibilidade de ignição do produto nela contido. Em uma soldagem executada diretamente sobre uma tubulação com fluxo interno é necessário considerar-se dois tipos de riscos de origem antagônica: Perfuração e trincas a frio. O objetivo deste trabalho é discutir a aplicação do processo de soldagem MAG mecanizado com transferência metálica por curto-circuito com controle de corrente, alternativo ao comumente utilizado, eletrodo revestido, com intuito de obtenção de maior segurança nas aplicações para baixas espessuras na parede do duto, além de almejar maior produtividade e qualidade das soldagens
Abstract: The great expansion of the onshore pipeline grid that has been occurring in recent years in Brazil, especially with the construction of single lines for the flow of natural gas, represents a new challenge to the maintenance teams. The interruption of gas supply due to maintenance downtime can represent the collapse of many cities. Scheduled stops operating situations are very common however involve financial and human resources heavily, not always available. The risks involved in the preparation and conditioning for the withdrawal of operation of a pipeline or pipeline, besides the same care to return to normal activities require careful planning. In applications involving welding process on the pipe in operation, ie, internal flow with the gas or liquid form, it is necessary to ensure no leakage of product, ie, where the product has completely confined within the line, allowing performing welding and therefore not occurring the possibility of ignition of the product contained therein. In welding performed directly on a pipe with internal flow is necessary to consider two types of risks antagonistic source: Drilling and cracking cold. The objective of this study and discuss the application of mechanized MAG welding process with metal transfer short-circuit with current control, alternative to the commonly used electrode coated with the aim of achieving greater safety in applications for low thicknesses in the duct wall , and aim for higher productivity and quality of the welds
Mestrado
Materiais e Processos de Fabricação
Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

O objetivo deste trabalho é viabilizar o uso conjunto, em um mesmo sistema de tubulação, na indústria de óleo e gás, dos aços inoxidáveis superduplex UNS S32750 e UNS S32760. Atualmente as especificações de projeto limitam o uso de um ou outro para um dado sistema, implicando em menor flexibilidade de fornecimento e maiores custos. Adicionalmente será avaliado o processo de soldagem automatizado com arame tubular com matriz metálica (metal cored) e com proteção gasosa. Este processo de soldagem possui grande produtividade e rendimento. Foram estudadas a resistência à corrosão, a resistência mecânica e possíveis danos causados à microestrutura do metal de solda e das zonas afetadas pelo calor (ZAC) dos aços inoxidáveis superduplex UNS S32750 e UNS S32760. A junta foi realizada com chanfro em meio \"V\", com geometria de 300 mm por 200 mm por 6,35 mm e com os seguintes parâmetros de soldagem: tensão de 25 V, corrente de 150 A, velocidade de soldagem de 6,35 mm/s, velocidade de alimentação do arame de 135 mm/s e distância de trabalho de 20 mm. As juntas foram caracterizadas por microscopia óptica, eletrônica de varredura, ensaio de tração, ensaio de dobramento, ensaio Charpy V a - 46 °C e ensaio de corrosão segundo a norma ASTM G48. A base para os critérios de aprovação será o disposto normativo da Norsok Standard M-601, Welding and inspection of piping, na sua mais recente edição (2008). Os resultados mostraram que não existem diferenças significativas entre as soldagens similares e dissimilares com relação às propriedades testadas.
The objective of this work is to enable the use in the same piping system, used in the oil and gas industry, of UNS S32750 and UNS S32760 superduplex stainless steels. Currently, the design specifications limit the use of one or the other for a given system, resulting in less flexibility in supply and higher costs. Additionally, it will be evaluated automated welding process with metal cored using a shielding gas. This welding process has high productivity and efficiency. It was studied corrosion resistance, mechanical strength and possible damage to the weld metal microstructure and heat affected zones (HAZ) of stainless steels superduplex UNS S32750 and UNS S32760. The joint was welded using a half \"V\" bevel geometry, with 300 mm by 200 mm by 6.35 mm and the following welding parameters: voltage 25 V, current 150 A, welding speed of 6.35 mm/s, wire feed speed of 135 mm/s and 20 mm working distance. The joints were characterized by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, tensile test, bending test, Charpy V test at - 46 °C and corrosion test according to ASTM G48. The basis for the criteria for approval is the normative provisions of Norsok Standard M-601, Welding and inspection of piping in its latest edition (2008). The results showed that there are no significant differences between similar and dissimilar welds with respect to the tested properties.

Energy consumption has grown by 2% per year worldwide over the past ten years. In 2005 worldwide 900,000 barrels of oil and 7.6 billion cubic metre of natural gas were produced daily. The exploitation of fields to meet the increased demands in energy requires the presence of adequate infrastructures. High strength pipeline steels(X100) have been developed to operate at higher pressures allowing a greater volume of fuel to be transported. Additional advantages arising from the reduction in wall thickness contribute to reduction in construction costs and steel volume.

Cette étude porte sur la caractérisation des matériaux constituant le revêtement isolant de pipeline offshore ainsi que la soudure réalisée entre les deux polymères semi-cristallins du revêtement au niveau de la jonction entre deux tubes successifs.L’épaisseur très importante du revêtement induit, au cours du procédé de soudage, des vitesses hétérogènes de chauffe et de refroidissement des matériaux. Ces dernières ont été caractérisées grâce à une instrumentation du procédé en site industriel. Une modélisation numérique intégrant les phases successives du procédé est en bon accord avec les résultats expérimentaux. Cette modélisation permet de dresser une cartographie complète des champs de température dans l’ensemble du pipeline et plus précisément dans la zone de soudage.Cette étude nous a amené à réaliser une caractérisation des deux matériaux soudés au cours de leurs fusions et cristallisations qui représentent deux étapes cruciales lors du soudage. Une attention particulière a été portée au comportement rhéologique dans la zone de transition entre l’état fondu et l’état solide et inversement. Les données en refroidissement à différentes vitesses ont été corrélées avec le taux de transformation des matériaux.Les propriétés mécaniques des isolants ont été testées ainsi que celles des soudures en prélevant des éprouvettes sur les essais effectués en site industriel. Le peu de flexibilité du procédé industriel rend difficile une investigation de l’influence des paramètres de soudage. Une expérience « image », représentative des grandeurs industrielles, a donc été développée à l’échelle du laboratoire permettant de faire varier les paramètres de soudage. Il a été montré que le point de faiblesse de l’assemblage ne se situe pas au niveau de la soudure mais dans l’un des matériaux du revêtement
This PhD focuses on the characterization of the materials of the insulating coating of offshore pipelines as well as the welding made between the two semi-crystalline polymers of the coating at the junction of two consecutives pipes.The important thickness of the coating induces heterogeneous heating and cooling rates during the welding process. Those rates have been characterized through the implementation of thermal sensors during the industrial process. A simulation model of the different steps of the welding process is consistent with the experimental results. This simulation gives access to the thermal fields in the entire pipe and especially in the welding zone.This study allows us to characterize the two welded materials during their melting and crystallization which represent the two crucial steps during the welding. A particular attention has been drawn to their rheological behavior in the transition zone from the molten to the solid state and vice versa. The cooling data at different rates have been correlated with the transformation fraction of the materials.The mechanical properties of the insulating materials have been tested especially in the welding zone via the industrial process. However, the imposing infrastructure of the industrial process does not allow the study of the influence of welding parameters. To do so, a “mirror” experiment, representative of the industrial one, has been developed at a laboratory scale. Both the welding made via the industrial process and the “mirror” experiment have shown that the weak point of the structure is not the welding itself but one of the materials of the coating

This thesis is focused on a crudeoil pipeline repair technology at the dead plate. The thesis is devided into 4 basic parts (chapters). The openning chapter describes reasons for performing regular pipeline inspections regarding pipeline's defects and technology of defects repair. The second chapter is devoted to the particular repair technology - cut out of a damaged pipeline part and its replacement by a new pipeline piece - with a detail description of preliminary and consenquential assembly activities (safety and environmental aspects). This chapter also comprises a list of documents confirming technical qualification and readiness for repairs execution. The third chapter is aimed at proposition and verification of the welding method by means of non-destructive and destructive testing of a test circumferential weld according to the proposed weld procedure specification – WPS. There are presented the results of particular tests and complex evaluation of the welding process design by the inspection organization. The last, fourth chapter deals with a calculation of general costs of repair execution which is an important part of a final pricing.

This research is aimed at understanding the effect of thermal cycles on the metallurgical and microstructural characteristics of the heat affected zone of a multi-pass pipeline weld. Continuous Cooling Transformation (CCT) diagrams of the pipeline steel grades studied (X65, X70 and X100) were generated using a thermo mechanical simulator (Gleeble 3500) and 10 mm diameter by 100 mm length samples. The volume change during phase transformation was studied by a dilatometer, this is to understand the thermodynamics and kinetics of phase formation when subjected to such varying cooling rates. Samples were heated rapidly at a rate of 400°C/s and the cooling rates were varied between t8/5 of 5.34°C/s to 1000°C/s. The transformation lines were identified using the dilatometric data, metallographic analysis and the micro hardness of the heat treated samples. Two welding processes, submerged arc welding (SAW) and tandem Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding, with vastly different heat inputs were studied. An API-5L grades X65, X70 and X100 pipeline steels with a narrow groove bevel were experimented with both welding processes. The welding thermal cycles during multi-pass welding were recorded using thermocouples. The microstructural characteristics and metallurgical phase formation was studied and correlated with the fracture toughness behaviour as determined through the Crack Tip Opening Displacement (CTOD) tests on the welded specimens. It was observed that SAW process is more susceptible to generate undesirable martensite-austenite (M-A) phase which induce formation of localised brittle zones (LBZ) which can adversely affect the CTOD performance. Superimposition of the multiple thermal cycles, measured in-situ from the different welding processes on the derived CCTs, helped in understanding the mechanism of formation of localised brittle zones. Charpy impact samples were machined from the two X65 and X70 grades, for use in thermal simulation experiments using thermo mechanical simulator (Gleeble). The real thermal cycles recorded from the HAZ of the SAW were used for the thermal simulations, in terms of heating and cooling rates. This is to reproduce the microstructures of the welds HAZ in bulk on a charpy impact sample which was used for impact toughness testing, hardness and metallurgical characterisation. The three materials used were showing different response in terms of the applied thermal cycles and the corresponding toughness behaviours. The X65 (a) i.e. the seamless pipe was showing a complete loss of toughness when subjected to the single, double and triple thermal cycles, while the X65 (b), which is a TMCP material was showing excellent toughness in most cases when subjected to the same thermal cycles at different test temperatures. The X70 TMCP as well was showing a loss of toughness as compared to the X65 (b). From the continuous cooling transformation diagrams and the thermally simulated samples results it could be established that different materials subjected to similar thermal cycle can produce different metallurgical phases depending on the composition, processing route and the starting microstructure.

With the growth in pipeline installations all over the world, there is a great demand for highly productive and robust welding systems. Mechanised pipe welding has been developed over the last 50 years and the present focus is towards development of automated pipeline welding systems. Pipeline welding automation is aimed at reducing costs and improving the installation quality. To attain fully automated pipe welding systems there is a need to rely on sensors and controls systems to mimic human like capabilities, such as visual inspection, in real time. The key aim of this work is to develop and evaluate methods of automatic assessment of weld bead shape and quality during narrow gap GMAW of transmission pipelines. This implies that the measured bead profile will be assessed to determine whether the bead shape will cause defects when the subsequent pass is deposited. Different approaches have been used to conquer the challenge that is emulating human reasoning, all with different objectives in mind. In spite of extensive literature research performed, very little information was found concerning the real time determination and assessment of bead shape quality and none of it was reported to be applied successfully to the pipeline industry. Despite the continuous development of laboratory laser vision systems commercial ones have been on the market for decades, some specifically developed for the welding application. Laser vision sensor systems provide surface profile information, and are the only sensors which can satisfactorily measure bead profile on a narrow groove. In order to be able to use them to automatically assess weld bead shape and quality, a deep understanding of their characteristics and limitations needs to be achieved. Once that knowledge was attained it was then applied to determine the best sensor configuration for this purpose. After that the development of human like judgment algorithms were developed to accomplish the aim that was set. Empirical rules were obtained from an experienced welder regarding the acceptability of bead shapes and were then applied in the developed system with good results. To scientifically evaluate and determine the rules to use in this system, further experiments would be required. The output of the system developed showed very accurate, reliable and consistent results that were true to the external measurements and comparisons performed. The developed system has numerous applications in the pipeline industry and it could easily be implemented on commercial systems.

A inspeção de defeitos de soldagem em imagens radiográficas de tubulações é bastante subjetiva e está sujeita a erros de interpretação por parte do inspetor laudista. Dentro desse contexto, nos últimos anos tem-se visto um grande esforço no desenvolvimento de métodos automáticos e semiautomáticos de detecção de defeitos em juntas soldadas. Este trabalho apresenta um método automatizado para detecção e classificação de defeitos em imagens radiográficas de juntas soldadas de tubulações obtidas pela técnica de exposição radiográfica parede dupla vista dupla (PDVD), obtidas em reais situações de campo e que, geralmente, têm uma qualidade mais baixa do que as imagens usadas em outros estudos. O método proposto identifica na imagem a região do cordão de solda, detecta as descontinuidades e classifica as mesmas em defeitos e não defeitos, destacando na imagem o resultado. São avaliados classificadores a partir de métodos de classificação por redes neurais Multilayer Perceptron (MLP), redes neurais Extreme Learning Machines (ELM) e classificador estatístico Support Vector Machines (SVM). O método proposto para identificação da região de interesse atingiu 100% de precisão na segmentação do cordão de solda. O classificador SVM apresentou um desempenho melhor que os classificadores MLP e ELM em todos os cenários testados. Com a utilização de ensembles de ELMs obteve-se um F-score de 85,7% para o banco de padrões de teste, resultados satisfatórios quando comprados com trabalhos semelhantes. O uso de ensembles de ELMs representa um ganho de apenas 0,5% no F-score em comparação com o melhor resultado de rede treinada individualmente, entretanto, com o uso de faixas de limiares de decisão do ensemble, o uso do método permite mostrar as descontinuidades sobre as quais o ensemble não tem certeza, destacando na imagem estas descontinuidades. A imagem resultate da aplicação do método serve como auxílio ao especialista na elaboração de laudos.
The inspection of radiographic images of welded joints is very subjective and is subject to errors of interpretation by the inspector. In this context, a great effort has been made in the last years to develop automatic and semiautomatic methods for detecting defects in welded joints. This research work presents an automated method for the detection and classification of defects in radiographic images of welded joints of pipes obtained by the double wall double image (DWDI) exposure technique obtained in real field situations and which generally have a lower quality than the images used in other studies. The proposed methos identifies the region of the weld bead, detects the discontinuities and classifies them as defects and non-defects, highlighting in the image the result. Classifiers are evalueted using methods of classification by multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural networks, extreme learning machines (ELM) neural networks, and Support Vector Machines (SVM). The proposed method for identifying the region of interest reached 100% precision in the segmentation od the weld bead. The SVM classifier performed better than the MLP and ELM classifiers in all scenarios tested. Using ELM ensembles, an F_score of 85,7% was obtained for a test patterns database, satisfactoryresults when compared to similar works. The use of ensembles of ELMs represents a gain of only 0,5% in the F-score compared to the best result of the individually trained network, however, with the use of ensemble decision threshold ranges, the presented method allows to show the discontinuities about which the ensemble is not sure, highlighting in the image these discontinuities as a region of uncertainty, leaving to the specialist the final evaluation of these discontinuities. The image resulting from the application of the method serves as an aid to the expert in the elaboration of reports.

Os aços para tubos API 5L X80 são aços de alta resistência e baixa liga (ARBL) usados na fabricação de tubos para o transporte de gás e petróleo conduzidos através de dutos. Os tubos API 5L X80 se caracterizam por terem excelentes propriedades mecânicas como resistência à tração, tenacidade, ductilidade e resistência à corrosão, além de boa soldabilidade. Estes tubos trazem muitos benefícios como, por exemplo, o fator econômico já que ao ter boa resistência mecânica estes tubos podem ser fabricados com espessuras de parede menores. Estas reduções nas espessuras diminuem os custos de transporte, construção, soldagem e instalação. Além disso, estes tubos podem ser fabricados com grandes diâmetros, permitindo o transporte de grandes quantidades de fluidos a elevadas pressões e vazões. A tenacidade confere ao material a propriedade de ser resistente à fratura frágil, uma vez que estes tubos em sua maioria trabalham em condições ambientais severas. O objetivo deste trabalho é simular fisicamente e estudar as propriedades mecânicas de regiões da zona afetada pelo calor (ZAC) produzidas por diferentes ciclos térmicos, que ocorrem quando o tubo é fabricado e o duto montado. A ideia foi estudar a ZAC produzida no tubo fabricado pelo processo UOE (solda longitudinal) e a solda feita no campo quando o tubo é montado (solda circunferencial) além da ZAC na intersecção entre a soldagem longitudinal e circunferencial. Foram usinados corpos-de-prova nas orientações L-T e T-L e com o cordão de solda longitudinal do tubo no centro. Estes corpos-de-prova foram submetidos a quatro ciclos térmicos únicos com temperaturas máximas de 650, 800, 950 e 1300 °C e ciclos térmicos multipasse 950-800 e 950-800- 650 °C. Estes corpos-de-prova foram submetidos a diferentes ensaios e caracterizações. Foram feitos ensaios de impacto a 0 °C, as superfícies fraturadas foram analisadas no MEV e mediu-se a expansão lateral produzida pelo ensaio de impacto. Mediu-se a dureza da microestrutura por meio do ensaio Vickers com 300g de carga. A microestrutura da ZAC foi caracterizada por microscopia óptica, com ataque convencional e ataque colorido Klemm, e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Metalografia quantitativa foi usada para obter a quantidade de perlita na matriz dos corpos-de-prova. A trajetória da fratura na microestrutura dos corpos-de-prova simulados, provocada pelo ensaio Charpy, foi analisada com microscopia óptica e eletrônica de varredura. Os resultados mostraram que as energias absorvidas no ensaio de impacto pelos corpos-de-prova simulados cumprem com os requisitos exigidos pela norma API 5L para o metal base sem simulação e que as microestruturas observadas variam segundo o tipo de ciclo térmico aplicado a cada posição do tubo.
API 5L Grade X80 steel are high strength low alloy steels (HSLA) used in the manufacture of pipes for transporting oil and gas by pipelines. API 5L X80 pipes are characterized by having excellent mechanical properties such as tensile strength, toughness, ductility, corrosion resistance, and good weldability. These pipes bring many benefits, for example, the economic factor related to the good mechanical strength of these tubes which can be produced with smaller wall thicknesses. This reduction in thickness lowers costs for transportation, construction, welding and installation. In addition, these tubes can be fabricated with large diameters, allowing the transport of large amounts of fluids at high pressures and flow rates. The toughness gives, to this material, the characteristic of being resistant to brittle fracture, since these tubes mostly work in aggressive environmental conditions. The objective of this work is to physically simulate and study the mechanical properties of regions of the heat affected zone (HAZ) produced by different thermal cycles, which occur when the duct pipe is manufactured and assembled. The idea was to study the HAZ produced in the pipe manufactured by the UOE process (longitudinal weld) and the welding done in the field when the tube is mounted (HAZ beyond the intersection between the longitudinal and circumferential welding). Charpy V samples were machined in the L-T and T-L orientations and in the longitudinal weld in the center of the tube. These samples were subjected to single thermal cycles with maximum temperatures of 650, 800, 950 and 1300°C and multipass thermal cycling with maximum temperatures of 950-800 and 950-800-650°C. The samples were subjected to different tests and characterizations. Impact tests were made at 0°C, measured the lateral expansion produced and the surface fracture were examined under SEM. Vickers 300g microhardness was also measured in the simulated HAZ region. The microstructure of the HAZ was characterized by optical microscopy with conventional etching and Klemm colorful etching, and scanning electron microscopy. Quantitative metallography was used to obtain the amount of pearlite in the matrix of samples. The Charpy V fracture propagation path trajectory in the simulated microstructure was analyzed with optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The results showed that the Charpy V absorbed energy by the simulated samples complies with the requirements of the API 5L standard for the base metal without simulation and the HAZ observed microstructures vary according to the thermal cycle type applied to each tube position.

Дисертацію присвячено розвиткові розрахунково-експериментального методу визначення залишкових напружень в зонах багатошарових кільцевих швів трубопроводів і оцінці їх впливу на довговічність зварних з’єднань за наявності гострокінцевих дефектів при дії повторно-змінних навантажень. В рамках теорії оболонок побудовано математичну модель для визначення компонентів напруженого стану з урахуванням двовимірного розподілу залишкових несумісних деформацій локалізованих біля шва, та структурно-фазових змін в зоні термічного впливу. Вона грунтується на розв’язанні обернених задач теорії оболонок з власними напруженнями і використанні експериментальної інформації, отриманої неруйнівними методами. Використавши математичну модель закриття тріщини і концепцію ефективного розмаху коефіцієнта інтенсивності напружень, отримано розрахункову модель для врахування впливу залишкових напружень на втомне руйнування при циклічному навантаженні. Оцінено вплив залишкових напружень на довговічність трубопроводу з осьовим поверхневим дефектом в зоні зварного з’єднання під дією експлуатаційного навантаження.
Диссертация посвящена развитию расчетно-экспериментального метода определения остаточных напряжений в зонах многослойных кольцевых швов трубопроводов и оценке их влияния на долговечность сварных соединений при наличии остроконечных дефектов под действием переменных нагрузок. В рамках теории оболочек разработана математическая модель для определения компонентов тензора технологических остаточных напряжений с учетом двумерного распределения несовместных остаточных деформаций, локализированных возле шва и структурно-фазовых изменений в зоне термического влияния. Модель базируется на решении обратных задач теории оболочек с остаточными деформациями и использовании экспериментальной информации об усредненных характеристиках напряженного состояния, которую можна получить физическими методами. Получены выражения для окружных и осевых напряжений в трубопроводе с учетом локальных остаточных деформаций в зоне сварного шва, распределение которых аппроксимировано тензорными полиномиальными функциями с определенным количеством произвольных параметров. На основании решения прямой задачи проанализировано влияние ширины зоны сварочных деформаций и их градиентов вдоль и по толщине трубы на напряженное состояние в зоне сварного соединения. Установлено, что увеличение перепада окружных деформаций по толщине трубы обусловливает незначительное увеличение окружных напряжений на ее внешней поверхности и приводит к существенному уменьшению растягивающих окружных и осевых напряжений на внутренней и сжимающих на внешней поверхностях трубы. С увеличением окружных остаточных деформаций и их градиентов вдоль трубы максимальные растягивающие окружные напряжения и осевые напряжения - на ее внутренней поверхности возрастают почти пропорционально приращениям максимальных деформаций. Уменьшение ширины зоны осевых деформаций, при фиксированной ширине зоны окружных, несущественно влияет на величину и распределение окружных остаточных напряжений на поверхностях трубы и может обусловить значительное возростание осевых напряжений на внутренней поверхности трубы в зоне сварного шва. Для определения неизвестных параметров построен функционал, выражающий сумму квадратов отклонений усредненных величин разности окружных и осевых напряжений, которіе определяют электромагнитным или ультразвуковым методами, от аналогичных величин, полученных расчетным способом. Электромагнитным методом, с использованием измерительного прибора ’’MESTR-411” с четырехполюсным электромагнитным преобразователем трансформаторного типа, определены значения усредненной разности главных напряжений на поверхности трубы в зоне кольцевого сварного шва магистрального газопровода (0 1420 х 22,5 мм, материал Х70). Приведены соотношения для аналогичных усредненных характеристик, полученных расчетным способом и построен соответствующий функционал, с помощью которого найдены неизвестные параметры, а затем рассчитаны кольцевые и осевые остаточные напряжения на внешней и внутренней поверхностях трубы в зоне сварного шва. С использованием математической модели закрытия трещины и концепции эффективного размаха коэффициента интенсивности напряжений разработана расчетная модель для учета влияния остаточных напряжений на скорость распространения осевой поверхностной трещины в трубе в зоне сварного соединения при циклическом нагружении. Определены характеристики циклической трещиностойкости сварного соединения. Оценено влияние остоточных напряжений на долговечность трубопровода с осевой полуэллиптической трещиной в зоне сварного шва под воздействием пульсирующего внутреннего давления.
The dissertation develops calculation-experimental method of determining residual stresses in zone of multi-layer circumferential welding beads of pipelines and estimation of their influences on the durability of welding joints with cracks under cyclic loads. Within the shell theory, a mathematic model for determining components of stress state with taking into account the two-dimensional plastic deformation distribution localized near the welding bead and structural-phases changes in the thermal influence zone is created. The model is based on solving inverse problems of shell theory with own stresses on using experimental information obtained by non-distructive method. Having used crack closure mathematical model and the concept of effective amplitude of stress intensity factor, a calculational model for taking into account the influence of residual stresses on fatigue fracture under cyclic load is obtained. The influence of residual stresses on welding joint durability of a pipeline with an axial surface defect under workload is estimated.

"1st February 2002"
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 265-273)
xi, 273 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates (col.) ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Concerns the specialized requirements of welding procedures used on operational gas pipelines.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 2004?

"1st February 2002"
Includes bibliographical references (leaves 265-273)
xi, 273 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates (col.) ; 30 cm.
Concerns the specialized requirements of welding procedures used on operational gas pipelines.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, 2004?

"February, 2004."
Bibliography: leaves 231-249.
xxvii, 261 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates, photos (col.) ; 30 cm.
Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library.
Examines ways of reducing the risk of hydrogen assisted cold cracking in pipeline construction by modifying the construction procedure to reduce residual stress and hydrogen concentration. A numerical model of the pipeline construction procedure capable of modelling the process in a transient sense was created. Experimental validation of the model involved using the "blind hole drilling" strain gauge method of residual stress measurement. The diffusion of hydrogen during welding was modelled using a scheme based on Fick's Second Law of Diffusion, finding that the parameters which dominate the rate of diffusion are the timing of the weldment process, joint geometry, pre-heating and post-heating.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2004

"February, 2004."
Bibliography: leaves 231-249.
xxvii, 261 leaves : ill. (some col.), plates, photos (col.) ; 30 cm.
Examines ways of reducing the risk of hydrogen assisted cold cracking in pipeline construction by modifying the construction procedure to reduce residual stress and hydrogen concentration. A numerical model of the pipeline construction procedure capable of modelling the process in a transient sense was created. Experimental validation of the model involved using the "blind hole drilling" strain gauge method of residual stress measurement. The diffusion of hydrogen during welding was modelled using a scheme based on Fick's Second Law of Diffusion, finding that the parameters which dominate the rate of diffusion are the timing of the weldment process, joint geometry, pre-heating and post-heating.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2004

In the field of apparatus engineering and pipeline construction wall thicknesses of 100 mm are processed and joined with heated tool butt welding. The welding procedure is regarded as well-understood. However, there are no systematic experimental investigations into the wall thicknesses above 30 mm published. The welding parameters for high wall thicknesses of PE (polyethylene) and PP (polypropylene) are extrapolated as it is given in the guidelines of DVS (Deutscher Verband für Schweißen und verwandte Verfahren e.V.). However, cases of damage to welded pipelines show that not enough understanding of the process management and the weld properties is available for the welding of large pipe dimensions. The present study investigates the welding behaviour of semi- finished products (plates and pipes) with wall thicknesses up to 100 mm. The mechanical properties are tested in short-term tests and in long-term tensile creep tests. The results relating to the fusion behaviour basically show a curved melt profile which influences the mechanical behaviour of the welded components. The tensile creep tests establish a tendency towards the premature failure of the peripheral regions.

The thermal field induced by arc welding has been the subject of numerous experimental, analytical and numerical studies in the past. However, few studies have focused on the effects of the local geometry and pipeline welding procedure on the transient thermal field at or near the vicinity of the weldline. The local geometry and welding procedures are often simplified in computational or analytical studies and normally disregarded in quantitative assessments. The objective of this thesis is to evaluate the significance of these effects in order to understand their possible influence on the weld quality, pipeline integrity and weldability. In this thesis, simplified analytical models are developed, compared against outcomes from previous investigations, and validated with data obtained from a full-scale experimental study completed by the candidate. The conducted research indicates that the effects of the weld preparatory geometry (which is within the industry acceptable variations) and pipeline welding procedures might have a significant impact on the thermal history, specifically at low heat inputs and no preheats, which are characteristic for pipeline girth welding. Therefore, the account of these effects is very important for the adequate evaluation of the weld quality and, potentially, the pipe integrity. The results presented in this thesis can be utilised in the quality control, advanced modelling procedures and other activities directed towards the further improvement of pipeline construction procedures.
Thesis (M.Phil.) -- University of Adelaide, School of Mechanical Engineering, 2015.

碩士
國立虎尾科技大學
機械與電腦輔助工程系碩士班在職專班
102
Burn-through by the wall angle simulated weld diameter 4 "SS304 stainless steel pipe thickness 3mm 10s level to normal pressure , air pressure ( air, nitrogen ) , hydraulic ( water ) to simulate the pressure inside the pipe , with the group using the SMAW welding current variables and GTAW welding , each current value of the group from 10A to weld of burn through the wall , as measured by normal pressure test weld heat-input is 1.13KJ/mm for burn-through the wall, and the welding current at 120A, the pipe inside wall welding surface is oxidation and darkly .Air pressure test welding heat-input is 1.41KJ/mm for burn-through the wall, when welding currwhen at 150A, the pipe inside wall welding surface is oxidation and darkly. Hydraulic test weld heat-input at 2.36KJ/mm, hydraulic welding current and wear due to the volume filled with water under pipe conditions , oxidation of the inner wall of no obvious wear at 270A welding pipe . penetration of heat from the welding data understanding , cooling capacity is greater than the hydraulic pressure in the under the same conditions of heat input , heat capacity and rapid hydraulic tube , resulting in a lower pressure relative to the inner wall temperature , so the welding heat input welding wear than when the hydraulic pressure to come high, so get penetration weld heat regulatory limit values as under the revised security control heat input welding , and draw with pressure welding heat input into the control table to ensure the implementation of security while online with pressure pipeline repair and operations personnel , through the study of this article is available to pipeline owners and managers, welders , engineers, provide the basis for a reference value

碩士
義守大學
工業工程與管理學系
92
ABSTRACT From the years supervision experience on the pipeline Submerged Arc Welding (SAW), the author found that even utilized the similar welding equipment it doesn’t mean a same high quality SAW product level could be achieved. The reasons can be due to the technique issues and engineering management issues. Traditional pipeline SAW processes, the engineering management applied is loose, hence, the variation in quality is significantly. There have no means to raising the yield rate and then to decreasing the welding cost systematically. Upon this observation, a prevention management model for pipeline SAW welding was proposed on this study to improve the quality of SAW. The methodology of Analytic Hierarchic Process (AHP) was used to analyze the four management factors of welding operations of the case study company. Through the calculation of the weighting for management factors, the ranking of management performance can exposure the poorest management section of the target case company. This weighting will be also a cross reference for defect analysis of SAW product later. On the other hand, through the literature review and the experiences in SAW operation supervision, the key factors and event frequency of major defects of SAW welding were summarized. Consequently, two key concepts that (1) Reasonableness of the management process to prevent the occurrence of defect and, (2) Tracing the reasons of defects quickly and applying the solutions immediately are implemented to develop a defect prevention management model with the weighting of engineering management performance. The study indicated that the smallest weighting in AHP analysis could exposure the poorest management section. The superviser should request the company to correct the faults and improve the performance immediately. Otherwise, once the welding defect occurs, the causes due to this management section will take high probability.Consequently the engineer can trace the caures easily and provide the solut quickly. The case study shows well consistency with this finding. At similar situation, the occurrence frequency of defect type that summarized via the literature review and supervision experiences is also consistency with the case well. It is conclused that introduces a well construction defect prevention management model to undertake welding process management can lower the total welding defect counts, therefore, the management performance is remarkable. However, the ratio of the defect types are still kept the same trend as the very beginning, the defect type ratio cannot be changed significantly due to the defect type is determined by the technique characteristics that adopted.

The repair welding of main steam pipelines, which involves the welding of new material onto service-exposed material, are investigated. This paper investigates the literature and experimental work surrounding this subject. The introduction provides a background to the applicable welding technology. In section two the heat-affected zone is discussed with emphasis on the residual stresses that develop in this zone. The mechanical properties of the heat-affected zone are also investigated. This includes the tensile, toughness and hardness properties as well as inspecting the relevant microstructures. The effect of post weld heat treatment on these properties is also investigated. Section three investigates the phenomenon of creep. Not only is this important due to the high temperatures at which these pipelines operate, but creep is also associated with some failures of these weld during post weld heat treatment. The creep properties of the heat-affected zone are investigated in detail with the use of weld simulation. Sections four and five detail reasons for weld failure after welding due to hydrogen and reheat cracking. Hydrogen cracking is investigated with the use of slow strain rate tensile tests during cathodical charging the specimen with hydrogen. The phenomenon of reheat cracking is investigated with the use of high temperature tensile tests as well as a novel approach in which the stress relief of a welded joint is simulated while measuring crack growth and stress relieved.
Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2014.
gm2014
Materials Science and Metallurgical Engineering
Unrestricted