Статті в журналах: "Piezo Force Microscopy"

1

Xiao, Bailong. "Levering Mechanically Activated Piezo Channels for Potential Pharmacological Intervention." Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology 60, no. 1 (January 6, 2020): 195–218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-010919-023703.

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The mechanically activated Piezo channels, including Piezo1 and Piezo2 in mammals, function as key mechanotransducers for converting mechanical force into electrochemical signals. This review highlights key evidence for the potential of Piezo channel drug discovery. First, both mouse and human genetic studies have unequivocally demonstrated the prominent role of Piezo channels in various mammalian physiologies and pathophysiologies, validating their potential as novel therapeutic targets. Second, the cryo-electron microscopy structure of the 2,547-residue mouse Piezo1 trimer has been determined, providing a solid foundation for studying its structure-function relationship and drug action mechanisms and conducting virtual drug screening. Third, Piezo1 chemical activators, named Yoda1 and Jedi1/2, have been identified through high-throughput screening assays, demonstrating the drugability of Piezo channels. However, the pharmacology of Piezo channels is in its infancy. By establishing an integrated drug discovery platform, we may hopefully discover and develop a fleet of Jedi masters for battling Piezo-related human diseases.

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2

Moreland, John. "Tunneling stabilized magnetic-force microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 51 (August 1, 1993): 1034–35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0424820100151003.

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Magnetic force microscopy (MFM) can be done by making a simple change in conventional scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) where the usual rigid STM tip is replaced with a flexible magnetic tip. STM images acquired this way show both the topography and the magnetic forces acting on the flexible tip. The z-motion of the STM piezo tube scanner flexes the tip to balance the magnetic force so that the end of the tip remains a fixed tunneling distance from the sample surface. We present a review of some “tunneling-stabilized” MFM (TSMFM) images showing magnetic bit tracks on a hard disk, Bloch wall domains in garnet films, and flux patterns in high-Tc superconductor films. The image resolution of TSMFM is routinely 0.1 μm using Au coated magnetic tips cut from Ni or Fe films. Recent results show that a TSMFM resolution of less than 40 nm is possible with micromachined cantilevers coated with a very thin Au-Fe bilayer.

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3

Fried, G., K. Balss, and P. W. Bohn. "Imaging Electrochemical Controlled Chemical Gradients Using Pulsed Force Mode Atomic Force Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 6, S2 (August 2000): 726–27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600036126.

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The electrochemical formation of gradients in self assembled monolayers has been demonstrated recently [1]. The capacity to image these gradients provides useful information on the physical chemistry of electrochemical striping.Imaging chemical gradients requires the ability to sense the chemical moiety on the top of the self-assembled monolayer. This has been accomplished by derivatizing an atomic force microscope (AFM) tip with molecules selected to have specific interactions with the sample in a technique known as chemical force microscopy [2]. Typical tapping mode AFM is then used to image the sample; the tip is oscillated vertically above the sample and the tip-sample interaction modulates the amplitude of the tip.The sample adhesion, sample stiffness, and sample topography all influence the oscillation amplitude of the tip. Pulsed Force Mode (PFM) [3] is an extension for atomic force microscopes. The PFM electronics introduces a sinusoidal modulation to the z-piezo of the AFM with an amplitude between 10 to 500 nm at a user selectable frequency between 100 Hz and 2 kHz.

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4

Wei, Yaocheng, Xuejun Zheng, Liang Chu, and Hui Dong. "Piezo-Phototronic Enhancement of Vertical Structure Photodetectors Based on 2D CsPbBr₃ Nanosheets." Journal of Nanoelectronics and Optoelectronics 17, no. 5 (May 1, 2022): 769–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jno.2022.3250.

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Two-dimensional (2D) CsPbBr3 have received great interest in flexible photoelectric devices due to their excellent carrier mobility and tunable optical bandgap. However, it is unknown if the piezo-phototronic effects of a vertically structured 2D CsPbBr3 photodetector affect its photoelectric performance. Herein, we fabricated a vertical structure device based on 2D CsPbBr3 by using conductive atomic force microscopy and then probed its photoelectric performances under different forces. The photocurrent and on/off ratio under 450 nm laser illumination rise by up to 2.1 and 5.3 times, respectively, when the applied force is 30 nN as compared with that under 10 nN. To investigate the mechanism underlying the enhancement of photoelectric performance, piezoelectric force microscopy measurement and density functional theory calculation were used to estimate the vertical piezoelectric coefficient of 2D CsPbBr3, which were found to be 7.3 pm/V and 3.8 pm/V, respectively. The enhancement of performances can be attributed to the piezo-phototronic effect of 2D CsPbBr3, which increases the separation of photogenerated holes at the interface. These findings propose a comprehensive strategy for enhancing photoelectric performance through piezo-phototronic effects in piezoelectric-based photoelectric devices with vertical structures.

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5

Graça, Sergio, Rogerio Colaço, and Rui Vilar. "Using Atomic Force Microscopy to Retrieve Nanomechanical Surface Properties of Materials." Materials Science Forum 514-516 (May 2006): 1598–602. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.514-516.1598.

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When atomic force microscopy is used to retrieve nanomechanical surface properties of materials, unsuspected measurement and instrumentation errors may occur. In this work, some error sources are investigated and operating and correction procedures are proposed in order to maximize the accuracy of the measurements. Experiments were performed on sapphire, Ni, Co and Ni-30%Co samples. A triangular pyramidal diamond tip was used to perform indentation and scratch tests, as well as for surface visualization. It was found that nonlinearities of the z-piezo scanner, in particular the creep of the z-piezo, and errors in the determination of the real dimensions of tested areas, are critical parameters to be considered. However, it was observed that there is a critical load application rate, above which the influence of the creep of the z-piezo can be neglected. Also, it was observed that deconvolution of the tip geometry from the image of the tested area is essential to obtain accurate values of the dimensions of indentations and scratches. The application of these procedures enables minimizing the errors in nanomechanical property measurements using atomic force microscopy techniques.

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6

Miller, Nathaniel C., Haley M. Grimm, W. Seth Horne, and Geoffrey R. Hutchison. "Accurate electromechanical characterization of soft molecular monolayers using piezo force microscopy." Nanoscale Advances 1, no. 12 (2019): 4834–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c9na00638a.

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We report a new methodology for the electromechanical characterization of organic monolayers based on the implementation of dual AC resonance tracking piezo force microscopy (DART-PFM) combined with a sweep of an applied DC field under a fixed AC field.

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7

Calahorra, Yonatan, Michael Smith, Anuja Datta, Hadas Benisty, and Sohini Kar-Narayan. "Mapping piezoelectric response in nanomaterials using a dedicated non-destructive scanning probe technique." Nanoscale 9, no. 48 (2017): 19290–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c7nr06714c.

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8

Sasaki, Michiko, and Masahiro Goto. "Piezoelectric effect of crystal nanodomains on the friction force." Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B 40, no. 5 (September 2022): 052803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1116/6.0001881.

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Reduction and control of the friction force are important from the viewpoint of energy conservation, and novel approaches for achieving this are desirable. The friction force of the boron-doped zinc oxide (B-ZnO) coating on a stainless-steel type-440C substrate was moderated by controlling the B-ZnO crystal nanodomains' piezoelectric effect. The nanoscale and macroscale friction forces, as well as the B-ZnO coating's piezoelectric effect, were measured using lateral force microscopy, friction and wear meter, and piezo response microscopy devices, respectively. The distribution of the friction force's magnitude agreed well with that of the piezoelectric effect. The present study suggests that the friction force can be moderated by controlling the piezoelectric effect in the coating's nanodomains, which constitutes one method for controlling the friction force.

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9

Zhang, Guitao, Xi Chen, Weihe Xu, Wei-Dong Yao, and Yong Shi. "Piezoelectric property of PZT nanofibers characterized by resonant piezo-force microscopy." AIP Advances 12, no. 3 (March 1, 2022): 035203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0081109.

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Nano-piezoelectric materials have drawn tremendous research interest. However, characterization of their piezoelectric properties, especially measuring the piezoelectric strain coefficients, remains a challenge. Normally, researchers use an AFM-based method to directly measure nano-materials’ piezoelectric strain coefficients. But, the extremely small piezoelectric deformation, the influence from the parasitic electrostatic force, and the environmental noise make the measurement results questionable. In this paper, a resonant piezo-force microscopy method was used to accurately measure the piezoelectric deformation from 1D piezoelectric nanofibers. During the experiment, the AFM tip was brought into contact with the piezoelectric sample and set to work at close to its first resonant frequency. A lock-in amplifier was used to pick up the sample’s deformation signal at the testing frequency. By using this technique, the piezoelectric strain constant d33 of the Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT) nanofiber with a diameter of 76 nm was measured. The result showed that d33 of this PZT nanofiber was around 387 pm/V. Meanwhile, by tracking the piezoelectric deformation phase image, domain structures inside PZT nanofibers were identified.

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10

Mangamma, G., B. Ramachandran, T. N. Sairam, M. S. R. Rao, S. Dash, and A. K. Tyagi. "Imaging of Nanometric Ferroelectric Domains in BaTiO₃ Using Atomic Force Acoustic Microscopy and Piezo Force Microscopy." Journal of Advanced Microscopy Research 6, no. 1 (February 1, 2011): 29–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jamr.2011.1056.

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11

Franck, Christian, Guruswami Ravichandran, and Kaushik Bhattacharya. "Characterization of domain walls in BaTiO3 using simultaneous atomic force and piezo response force microscopy." Applied Physics Letters 88, no. 10 (March 6, 2006): 102907. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.2185640.

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12

Calahorra, Yonatan, Xin Guan, Nripendra N. Halder, Michael Smith, Shimon Cohen, Dan Ritter, Jose Penuelas, and Sohini Kar-Narayan. "Exploring piezoelectric properties of III–V nanowires using piezo-response force microscopy." Semiconductor Science and Technology 32, no. 7 (June 30, 2017): 074006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6641/aa6c85.

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13

Huey, B. D., R. Nath, R. E. Garcia, and J. E. Blendell. "Challenges and Results for Quantitative Piezoelectric Hysteresis Measurements by Piezo Force Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 11, S03 (December 2005): 6–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927605050762.

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Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has become a ubiquitous tool for analyzing the topography of a wide variety of materials, especially as nanoscale features become more significant for both understanding as well as determining materials properties [1]. Many AFM variations have also been developed for measuring surface properties beyond straightforward cartography. In many of these cases, the contrast mechanisms are often either extremely complex, or not well understood, even though the principles are simple. For example, Piezo-Force Microscopy (PFM) is relatively easy to understand and use in a standard lab for measuring electromechanical properties of materials, but care must be taken in order to obtain quantitative results as described below.

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14

Huey, Bryan D., Chandra Ramanujan, Musuvathi Bobji, John Blendell, Grady White, Robert Szoszkiewicz, and Andrzej Kulik. "The Importance of Distributed Loading and Cantilever Angle in Piezo-Force Microscopy." Journal of Electroceramics 13, no. 1-3 (July 2004): 287–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10832-004-5114-y.

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15

Kiracofe, Daniel, and Arvind Raman. "Quantitative force and dissipation measurements in liquids using piezo-excited atomic force microscopy: a unifying theory." Nanotechnology 22, no. 48 (November 9, 2011): 485502. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/22/48/485502.

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16

Xu, Xin, Marisol Koslowski, and Arvind Raman. "Dynamics of surface-coupled microcantilevers in force modulation atomic force microscopy – magnetic vs. dither piezo excitation." Journal of Applied Physics 111, no. 5 (March 2012): 054303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.3689815.

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17

Roy, S. K., and W. K. Hiebert. "Effect of Bulk Acoustic Wave in Piezo Driven Nanomechanical Motion." Journal of Scientific Research 14, no. 1 (January 1, 2022): 269–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.3329/jsr.v14i1.56046.

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Piezo actuation of mechanical resonators is widely adapted because of its simplicity and versatility. Piezo-driven atomic force microscopy cantilevers in air or liquid have a substantial drawback in that they produce spurious resonances that conceal the cantilever resonance peak. Bulk acoustic wave propagation via the piezo-shaker and device substrate causes these undesired peaks. Such restrictions of piezo actuation are rarely reported in nanomechanical resonant sensing. Because most NEMS (nanoelectromechanical systems) experiments are carried out at low pressure to achieve a higher quality factor ) and hence increased sensitivity, spurious resonances are frequently overlooked due to their insignificance. However, this piezo-driven issue may affect NEMS responses at higher pressures (lower Q) and must be addressed carefully. This study reveals spurious resonances from high vacuum to the atmosphere while investigating piezo-driven nanoscale doubly clamped beam responses. At all pressures, spurious peaks with a characteristic frequency span independent of air damping exist, and at higher pressures, they squeeze the mechanical peak. Such squeezing provides a larger derived from the driven phase responses by order of magnitude than the mechanical computed from the measured thermal noise spectra. Interestingly, the characteristic frequency span, not air damping, is revealed to dominate driven .

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18

Satoh, Nobuo, Eika Tsunemi, Kei Kobayashi, Kazumi Matsushige, and Hirofumi Yamada. "Multi-Probe Atomic Force Microscopy Using Piezo-Resistive Cantilevers and Interaction between Probes." e-Journal of Surface Science and Nanotechnology 11 (2013): 13–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1380/ejssnt.2013.13.

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19

Tsuji, Toshihiro, Hisato Ogiso, Jun Akedo, Shigeru Saito, Kenji Fukuda, and Kazushi Yamanaka. "Evaluation of Domain Boundary of Piezo/Ferroelectric Material by Ultrasonic Atomic Force Microscopy." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 43, no. 5B (May 28, 2004): 2907–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1143/jjap.43.2907.

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20

McGilly, L., D. Byrne, C. Harnagea, A. Schilling, and J. M. Gregg. "Imaging domains in BaTiO3 single crystal nanostructures: comparing information from transmission electron microscopy and piezo-force microscopy." Journal of Materials Science 44, no. 19 (October 2009): 5197–204. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10853-009-3626-1.

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21

Yin, Bo Hua, Dai Xie Chen, Yun Sheng Lin, Ying Ying Gao, Han Li, and Dong Han. "Large Scanning Range and Rapid AFM for Biological Cell Topography Imaging." Key Engineering Materials 562-565 (July 2013): 697–700. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/kem.562-565.697.

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The small spatial displacement of the piezo tube scanner limits the AFM(Atomic Force Microscopy) scanning range, especially when facing up to cell topography scanning. And the low dynamic property of normal AFM tube scanner tube restricts the imaging speed. In order to achieve large scanning range and rapid scanning motion simultaneously, a special atomic force microscopy is designed. The 100um scanning range is obtained by the new scanner which is composed of the flexure guide structure instead of peizo tube. Furthermore, a new acquiring image method is used to eliminating AFM nonlinearity error. Using this scanning system, some large biological cells are imaged in liquid environments with 30 lines per second.

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22

Kizuka, Tokushi. "Atomistic Visualization of Mechanical Interaction in Gold Crystalline Boundaries by Time-Resolved High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy." Surface Review and Letters 05, no. 03n04 (June 1998): 739–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s0218625x98001110.

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The atomic processes in mechanical interaction were visualized by time-resolved high resolution transmission electron microscopy at a spatial resolution of 0.2 nm and a time resolution of 1/60 s. Nanometer-sized tips of gold were approached, contacted, bonded, deformed and fractured inside a 200 kV electron microscope using a piezo-driving specimen holder. The crystallographic boundary formed after the contact. A few layers near the surfaces and bonding boundaries were responsible for the approach, contact and bonding processes. Atomic scale mechanical tests, such as the friction test, compressing, tensile and shear deformation tests, were proposed. A new type of mechanical processing at one-atomic-layer resolution was demonstrated. Atomic scale contact or noncontact type surface scanning similar to that in atomic force microscopy was also performed with the gold tips.

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23

Rafiq, Muhammad Asif, Maria Elisabete Costa, Paula Maria Vilarinho, and Ian M. Reaney. "Ferroelectric Domain Studies of KNN Single Crystals by Piezo-force and Transmission Electron Microscopy." Microscopy and Microanalysis 18, S5 (August 2012): 113–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927612013220.

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Piezoelectric materials find important applications in micro- and nano-electromechanical systems (MEMS/NEMS). Pb(Zrx,Ti1-x)O3 (PZT) is currently the most widely used composition for such applications but due to environmental concerns over the toxicity of lead, lead free alternative materials are required. K0.5Na0.5NbO3 (KNN) is considered as a potential lead free piezoelectric but the current generation of monolithic ceramics has inferior electromechanical properties as compared to PZT. Consequently, there is great interest in improving the piezoelectric properties of KNN ceramics and various methods such as doping, hot-pressing and texturing are currently being studied. KNN single crystals like lead based single crystals have shown better electromechanical properties as compared to their ceramic counterparts. In addition, the behavior of a ferroelectric is largely dependent on its local domain response to an applied electrical or mechanical loading. Therefore, to understand better the material’s macroscopic properties, it is essential to access local ferroelectric domains behavior which collectively determines the electromechanical performance.

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24

Ravi Sankar, M. S., K. Pramod, and Ramesh Babu Gangineni. "Local ferroelectric studies on interconnected PVDF nano-dot thin films using piezo force microscopy." Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 30, no. 23 (November 13, 2019): 20716–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10854-019-02464-w.

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25

Liu, Xiaochen, Lihao Wang, Yinfang Zhu, Junyuan Zhao, Jinying Zhang, Jinling Yang, and Fuhua Yang. "A novel scanning force microscopy probe with thermal-electrical actuation and piezo-resistive sensing." Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 28, no. 11 (August 29, 2018): 115003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6439/aad927.

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26

Nebalueva, Anna S., Alexandra A. Timralieva, Roman V. Sadovnichii, Alexander S. Novikov, Mikhail V. Zhukov, Aleksandr S. Aglikov, Anton A. Muravev, et al. "Piezo-Responsive Hydrogen-Bonded Frameworks Based on Vanillin-Barbiturate Conjugates." Molecules 27, no. 17 (September 2, 2022): 5659. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27175659.

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A concept of piezo-responsive hydrogen-bonded π-π-stacked organic frameworks made from Knoevenagel-condensed vanillin–barbiturate conjugates was proposed. Replacement of the substituent at the ether oxygen atom of the vanillin moiety from methyl (compound 3a) to ethyl (compound 3b) changed the appearance of the products from rigid rods to porous structures according to optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and led to a decrease in the degree of crystallinity of corresponding powders according to X-ray diffractometry (XRD). Quantum chemical calculations of possible dimer models of vanillin–barbiturate conjugates using density functional theory (DFT) revealed that π-π stacking between aryl rings of the vanillin moiety stabilized the dimer to a greater extent than hydrogen bonding between carbonyl oxygen atoms and amide hydrogen atoms. According to piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM), there was a notable decrease in the vertical piezo-coefficient upon transition from rigid rods of compound 3a to irregular-shaped aggregates of compound 3b (average values of d33 coefficient corresponded to 2.74 ± 0.54 pm/V and 0.57 ± 0.11 pm/V), which is comparable to that of lithium niobate (d33 coefficient was 7 pm/V).

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27

Ivanov M. S., Buryakov A. M., and Silibin M. V. "Investigation of Local Piezo- and Ferroelectric Properties in a Single-Ion Zn/Dy Molecular Complex." Technical Physics Letters 48, no. 10 (2022): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.21883/tpl.2022.10.54801.19247.

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In this work, the piezoelectric and ferroelectric properties in the Zn/Dy single-ion molecular complex have been studied by local piezoresponse force microscopy and switching spectroscopy. It is demonstrated that the chosen strategy for the synthesis of integrated magnetoelectric molecular systems makes it possible to grow molecular single crystals in the polar group. Switching of the intrinsic domain structure in Zn/Dy single crystal at a bias voltage of +15 V and the possibility of changing the induced domain structure at a bias voltage of -20 V were demonstrated. The effective piezoelectric coefficient d33 was attained of about 14 pm/V at a bias voltage of 50 V. Keywords: Integrated magnetoelectric molecular systems, magnetoelectric interaction, single-ion molecular chiral complex, piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM).

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28

Schwenzfeier, Kai A., and Markus Valtiner. "Design and testing of drift free force probe experiments with absolute distance control." Review of Scientific Instruments 93, no. 7 (July 1, 2022): 073705. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0083834.

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After almost 35 years of truly successful and transformative advancements, Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and, in general, scanning probe microscopy still have a fundamental limitation. This is constant drift and uncontrolled motion of probe and tested surface structures with respect to each other. This is inherently linked to the currently accepted design principle—only forces are measured, and distances are inferred from force measurements and piezo motions. Here, we demonstrate and test a new setup, which combines advantages of AFM and the surface forces apparatus, where absolute distances are measured by Multiple Beam White Light Interferometry (MBI). The novel and unique aspect of this apparatus consists of a synergistic combination of white light interferometric measurement of the absolute distance by direct reflection from an AFM cantilever and a fast distance clamping and drift correction using an IR-laser Fabry–Pérot interferometry-based approach (FPI). We demonstrate the capabilities of the system by force/distance measurements, benchmarking of distance control by direct comparison of MBI and FPI, and discuss potential applications of the system. This novel setup has the potential to form, monitor, and stress a single molecule or ligand/receptor bond on the molecular hook with sub-nanometer control of molecular distances over in principle infinite times.

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29

Pariy, Igor O., Anna A. Ivanova, Vladimir V. Shvartsman, Doru C. Lupascu, Gleb B. Sukhorukov, Tim Ludwig, Ausrine Bartasyte, Sanjay Mathur, Maria A. Surmeneva, and Roman A. Surmenev. "Piezoelectric Response in Hybrid Micropillar Arrays of Poly(Vinylidene Fluoride) and Reduced Graphene Oxide." Polymers 11, no. 6 (June 20, 2019): 1065. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/polym11061065.

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This study was dedicated to the investigation of poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) micropillar arrays obtained by soft lithography followed by phase inversion at a low temperature. Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was incorporated into the PVDF as a nucleating filler. The piezoelectric properties of the PVDF-rGO composite micropillars were explored via piezo-response force microscopy (PFM). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) showed that α, β, and γ phases co-existed in all studied samples, with a predominance of the γ phase. The piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) data provided the local piezoelectric response of the PVDF micropillars, which exhibited a temperature-induced downward dipole orientation in the pristine PVDF micropillars. The addition of rGO into the PVDF matrix resulted in a change in the preferred polarization direction, and the piezo-response phase angle changed from −120° to 20°–40°. The pristine PVDF and PVDF loaded with 0.1 wt % of rGO after low-temperature quenching were found to possess a piezoelectric response of 86 and 87 pm/V respectively, which are significantly higher than the |d33eff| in the case of imprinted PVDF 64 pm/V. Thus, the addition of rGO significantly affected the domain orientation (polarization) while quenching increased the piezoelectric response.

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30

Russ, J. C., and P. J. Scott. "Quantitative Scanned Probe Microscopy." Proceedings, annual meeting, Electron Microscopy Society of America 54 (August 11, 1996): 874–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s042482010016683x.

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The great advantage of the atomic force microscope and related technologies (tunneling current, near field optical, tips that oscillate vertically or laterally, etc.) has been simplicity of design. Vertical deflection of a reference tip on a cantilevered probe is detected by light scattering and used to shift the sample in the z direction to restore tip position. The output is generally in the form of surface images rather than measurements with high dimensional accuracy. Atomic scale resolution is achievable but lower magnification imaging is more difficult.Piezo devices used for x-y and z axis control have a limited range of motion and are noisy, nonlinear and subject to creep. Piezo displacement is not simply a function of voltage, or of the time integral of current, but depends upon many factors including rate and distance of motion, and internal resistance and capacitance in the device. It is possible in principle to calibrate such a system using a reference grid standard, but even this is highly dependent on scanning speed (different in the x, y, z directions) and will not provide quantitative z information.

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31

Kofahl, Claudia, Friedrich Güthoff, and Götz Eckold. "Topological defects driving the growth of nanoscaled ferroelectric domains observed by piezo response force microscopy." Ferroelectrics 584, no. 1 (November 18, 2021): 1–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00150193.2021.1984767.

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32

Rajeev, Sreenidhi Prabha, S. Sabarinath, CK Subash, Uvais Valiyaneerilakkal, Pattiyil Parameswaran та Soney Varghese. "α- & β-crystalline phases in polyvinylidene fluoride as tribo-piezo active layer for nanoenergy harvester". High Performance Polymers 31, № 7 (28 серпня 2018): 785–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0954008318796141.

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The manuscript introduces the use of non-electrically polled spin-coated thin polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) films as the active layers in a contact electrification-based nanoenergy harvester. The four-layered device utilizes both piezo and triboelectric effect coupled with electrostatic induction. The elucidation of potential generation during contact between crystalline phases ( α and β) of PVDF layer material is investigated in the manuscript. Fourier transform infrared–attenuated total reflectance spectroscopy is carried out to illustrate the α- and β-phases in PVDF pellet, prepared film as well as the film after contact. Dynamic contact mode electrostatic force microscopy (DC-EFM) along with atomic force microscopy is used for the evaluation of reverse piezoelectric, local ferroelectric, triboelectric voltage and adhesive energy of the PVDF films before–after contact process. Quantum chemical calculation is performed using density functional theory to explain possible electron transitions in the active layers between the cylindrically symmetric α-phase and electrical double layer charges in the β-phase of PVDF. The interface study of the film is also carried out both experimentally using DC-EFM and through quantum chemical calculations. The fabricated device with the hybrid piezo-tribo layer promises to be a simple and low-cost energy source for the next-generation self-powered electronic devices. The device can also be used as knock sensor in engines as well as a capacitor.

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33

Shakya, Jyoti, Gayathri H N, and Arindam Ghosh. "Defects-assisted piezoelectric response in liquid exfoliated MoS₂ nanosheets." Nanotechnology 33, no. 7 (November 26, 2021): 075710. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1361-6528/ac368b.

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Abstract MoS2 is an intrinsic piezoelectric material which offers applications such as energy harvesting, sensors, actuators, flexible electronics, energy storage and more. Surprisingly, there are not any suitable, yet economical methods that can produce quality nanosheets of MoS2 in large quantities, hence limiting the possibility of commercialisation of its applications. Here, we demonstrate controlled synthesis of highly crystalline MoS2 nanosheets via liquid phase exfoliation of bulk MoS2, following which we report piezoelectric response from the exfoliated nanosheets. The method of piezo force microscopy was employed to explore the piezo response in mono, bi, tri and multilayers of MoS2 nanosheets. The effective piezoelectric coefficient of MoS2 varies from 9.6 to 25.14 pm V−1. We attribute piezoelectric response in MoS2 nanosheets to the defects formed in it during the synthesis procedure. The presence of defects is confirmed by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

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Serrado-Nunes, Jivago, Vitor Sencadas, Ai Ying Wu, Paula M. Vilarinho та Senentxu Lanceros-Méndez. "Electrical and Microstructural Changes of β-PVDF under Uniaxial Stress Studied by Scanning Force Microscopy". Materials Science Forum 514-516 (травень 2006): 915–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.514-516.915.

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Chain reorientation may be induced in polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) in its β-phase by applying a deformation perpendicular to the pre-oriented polymeric chains. This reorientation begins right after the yielding point and seems to be completed when the stress-strain curve stabilizes. As the deformation process plays an important role in the processing and optimisation properties of the material for practical applications, different deformation stress was applied to the PVDF lamellas and their topographic change and piezoelectric response were studied by means of scanning force microscopy in a piezo-response mode. The experimental results confirm the previously observed chain reorientation that occurs right after the yielding point and that is completed when the yielding region is passed. This reorientation is accompanied by a stretching of the granular structures observed in the topographical images and variations in the domain response. The observed results help to explain the variations in the macroscopic response of the material.

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35

Leitner, Michael, Hannah Seferovic, Sarah Stainer, Boris Buchroithner, Christian H. Schwalb, Alexander Deutschinger, and Andreas Ebner. "Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging in Turbid Liquids: A Promising Tool in Nanomedicine." Sensors 20, no. 13 (July 2, 2020): 3715. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s20133715.

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Tracking of biological and physiological processes on the nanoscale is a central part of the growing field of nanomedicine. Although atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one of the most appropriate techniques in this area, investigations in non-transparent fluids such as human blood are not possible with conventional AFMs due to limitations caused by the optical readout. Here, we show a promising approach based on self-sensing cantilevers (SSC) as a replacement for optical readout in biological AFM imaging. Piezo-resistors, in the form of a Wheatstone bridge, are embedded into the cantilever, whereas two of them are placed at the bending edge. This enables the deflection of the cantilever to be precisely recorded by measuring the changes in resistance. Furthermore, the conventional acoustic or magnetic vibration excitation in intermittent contact mode can be replaced by a thermal excitation using a heating loop. We show further developments of existing approaches enabling stable measurements in turbid liquids. Different readout and excitation methods are compared under various environmental conditions, ranging from dry state to human blood. To demonstrate the applicability of our laser-free bio-AFM for nanomedical research, we have selected the hemostatic process of blood coagulation as well as ultra-flat red blood cells in different turbid fluids. Furthermore, the effects on noise and scanning speed of different media are compared. The technical realization is shown (1) on a conventional optical beam deflection (OBD)-based AFM, where we replaced the optical part by a new SSC nose cone, and (2) on an all-electric AFM, which we adapted for measurements in turbid liquids.

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36

Lab, Max J., Anamika Bhargava, Peter T. Wright, and Julia Gorelik. "The scanning ion conductance microscope for cellular physiology." American Journal of Physiology-Heart and Circulatory Physiology 304, no. 1 (January 1, 2013): H1—H11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00499.2012.

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The quest for nonoptical imaging methods that can surmount light diffraction limits resulted in the development of scanning probe microscopes. However, most of the existing methods are not quite suitable for studying biological samples. The scanning ion conductance microscope (SICM) bridges the gap between the resolution capabilities of atomic force microscope and scanning electron microscope and functional capabilities of conventional light microscope. A nanopipette mounted on a three-axis piezo-actuator, scans a sample of interest and ion current is measured between the pipette tip and the sample. The feedback control system always keeps a certain distance between the sample and the pipette so the pipette never touches the sample. At the same time pipette movement is recorded and this generates a three-dimensional topographical image of the sample surface. SICM represents an alternative to conventional high-resolution microscopy, especially in imaging topography of live biological samples. In addition, the nanopipette probe provides a host of added modalities, for example using the same pipette and feedback control for efficient approach and seal with the cell membrane for ion channel recording. SICM can be combined in one instrument with optical and fluorescent methods and allows drawing structure-function correlations. It can also be used for precise mechanical force measurements as well as vehicle to apply pressure with precision. This can be done on living cells and tissues for prolonged periods of time without them loosing viability. The SICM is a multifunctional instrument, and it is maturing rapidly and will open even more possibilities in the near future.

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37

Baykara, Mehmet Z., Omur E. Dagdeviren, Todd C. Schwendemann, Harry Mönig, Eric I. Altman, and Udo D. Schwarz. "Probing three-dimensional surface force fields with atomic resolution: Measurement strategies, limitations, and artifact reduction." Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology 3 (September 11, 2012): 637–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.3762/bjnano.3.73.

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Noncontact atomic force microscopy (NC-AFM) is being increasingly used to measure the interaction force between an atomically sharp probe tip and surfaces of interest, as a function of the three spatial dimensions, with picometer and piconewton accuracy. Since the results of such measurements may be affected by piezo nonlinearities, thermal and electronic drift, tip asymmetries, and elastic deformation of the tip apex, these effects need to be considered during image interpretation. In this paper, we analyze their impact on the acquired data, compare different methods to record atomic-resolution surface force fields, and determine the approaches that suffer the least from the associated artifacts. The related discussion underscores the idea that since force fields recorded by using NC-AFM always reflect the properties of both the sample and the probe tip, efforts to reduce unwanted effects of the tip on recorded data are indispensable for the extraction of detailed information about the atomic-scale properties of the surface.

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38

Hang, Qi Ming, Xin Hua Zhu, Zhen Jie Tang, Ye Song, and Zhi Guo Liu. "Self-Assembled Perovskite Epitaxial Multiferroic BiFeO₃ Nanoislands." Advanced Materials Research 197-198 (February 2011): 1325–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.197-198.1325.

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Perovskite epitaxial multiferroic BiFeO3 nanoislands were grown on SrTiO3 (100) and Nb-doped SrTiO3 (100) single crystal substrates by chemical self-assembled method. Their phase structure and morphology were characterized by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and atomic force microscopy, respectively. The results showed that epitaxial multiferroic BiFeO3 nanoislands were obtained via post-annealing process in the temperature range of 650 - 800°C, and their lateral sizes were in the range of 50 - 160 nm and height of 6 -12 nm. With increasing the post-annealing temperature, the morphology of BiFeO3 nanoisland in the (100) growth plane evolved from tri-angled to squared, and then to plated shapes. By using piezo-force microscopy, ferroelectric characteristics of a single epitaxial BiFeO3 nanoisland (with lateral size of ~ 50 nm and height of 12 nm) grown on Nb-doped SrTiO3 (100) single crystal substrate, was characterized. The results demonstrated that fractal ferroelectric domains existed in the single BiFeO3 nanoisland, and self-biased polarization was also observed within this multiferroic nanoisland. This phenomenon can be ascribed to the interfacial stress caused by the lattice misfit between the BiFeO3 nanoisland and the SrTiO3 single crystal substrate.

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39

Kofahl, Claudia, Friedrich Güthoff, and Götz Eckold. "Direct observation of polar nanodomains in the incommensurate phase of (K0.96Rb0.04)2ZnCl4 crystals using piezo force microscopy." Ferroelectrics 540, no. 1 (February 17, 2019): 10–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00150193.2019.1611115.

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40

Herrera-Perez, G., O. Solis-Canto, J. Holguin-Momaca, S. Olive-Mendez, E. Guerrero-Lestarjette, G. Tapia-Padilla, A. Reyes-Rojas, and L. E. Fuentes-Cobas. "Microstructure Patterns by Switching Spectroscopy Piezo-response Force Microscopy of Lead Free Perovskite-type Polycrystalline Thin Films." Microscopy and Microanalysis 23, S1 (July 2017): 1648–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s143192761700890x.

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41

Urdinola, Kaory Barrientos, Paula Andrea Marín Muñoz, Pedronel Araque Marín, and Marisol Jaramillo Grajales. "In-Silico Prediction on the MSAMS-Assisted Immobilization of Bovine Serum Albumin on 10MHz Piezoelectric Immunosensors." Journal of Molecular and Engineering Materials 07, no. 01n02 (March 2019): 1950001. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/s2251237319500011.

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The biological sensing interface on the active area of a piezo transducer is responsible for the sensitivity, specificity, reusability, and reproducibility of these devices. Among the approaches used to functionalize piezo transducers, mixed self-assembled monolayers (MSAMs) are one of the most successful, given that they allow the obtaining of semi-crystalline molecular arrays and the arrangement of a bioreceptor on the surface. But, to deploy MSAMs on a substrate effectively, one must optimize and characterize the structural ratio between them and the bioreceptor. In this paper, we developed a molecular model of the interaction between Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) and MSAMs-functionalized gold substrates. First, we evaluated the conditions for the functionalization of the substrates and found that a 50:1 16-mercaptohexadecaonic acid (MHDA) to 11 mercapto-1-undecanol (MUA) ratio produced the best features on the surface. We also evaluated the specific conditions to immobilize BSA on MSAMs (using the afore-established ratio) via Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and then on a 10[Formula: see text]MHz quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and with the data obtained we concluded that a structural ratio of 0.005 (MSAM/BSA) is obtained when 1[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]M MHDA and 200[Formula: see text][Formula: see text]g/mL BSA were used, provided the most suitable conditions for the functionalization of a piezo transducer.

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42

Abas, Asim, Tao Geng, Wenjie Meng, Jihao Wang, Qiyuan Feng, Jing Zhang, Ze Wang, Yubin Hou, and Qingyou Lu. "Compact Magnetic Force Microscope (MFM) System in a 12 T Cryogen-Free Superconducting Magnet." Micromachines 13, no. 11 (November 7, 2022): 1922. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/mi13111922.

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Magnetic Force Microscopy (MFM) is among the best techniques for examining and assessing local magnetic characteristics in surface structures at scales and sizes. It may be viewed as a unique way to operate atomic force microscopy with a ferromagnetic tip. The enhancement of magnetic signal resolution, the utilization of external fields during measurement, and quantitative data analysis are now the main areas of MFM development. We describe a new structure of MFM design based on a cryogen-free superconducting magnet. The piezoelectric tube (PZT) was implemented with a tip-sample coarse approach called SpiderDrive. The technique uses a magnetic tip on the free end of a piezo-resistive cantilever which oscillates at its resonant frequency. We obtained a high-quality image structure of the magnetic domain of commercial videotape under extreme conditions at 5 K, and a high magnetic field up to 11 T. When such a magnetic field was gradually increased, the domain structure of the videotape did not change much, allowing us to maintain the images in the specific regions to exhibit the performance. In addition, it enabled us to locate the sample region in the order of several hundred nanometers. This system has an extensive range of applications in the exploration of anisotropic magnetic phenomena in topological materials and superconductors.

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43

Tiron, Vasile, Roxana Jijie, Teodora Matei, Ioana-Laura Velicu, Silviu Gurlui, and Georgiana Bulai. "Piezo-Enhanced Photocatalytic Performance of Bismuth Ferrite-Based Thin Film for Organic Pollutants Degradation." Coatings 13, no. 8 (August 12, 2023): 1416. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings13081416.

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This work addresses the global sustainable development concerns by investigating the enhancement of piezo-photocatalytic efficiency in bismuth ferrite-based thin films synthesized using reactive high-power impulse magnetron sputtering. The influence of substrate type and Cr addition on structural, optical and ferroelectric properties of bismuth ferrite (BFO) based thin films was investigated. X-ray diffraction measurements showed the formation of different phases depending on the substrate used for sample growth. Compared to the BFO film deposited on FTO (F-SnO2), the Cr-doped BFO (BFCO) sample on SrTiO3 (STO) exhibits higher photodegradation efficiency (52.3% vs. 27.8%). The enhanced photocatalytic activity of BFCO is associated with a lower energy band gap (1.62 eV vs. 1.77 eV). The application of ultrasonic-wave vibrations simultaneously with visible light improved 2.85 times and 1.86 times the photocatalytic degradation efficiencies of BFO/FTO and BFCO/STO catalysts, respectively. The piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) measurements showed that both catalysts exhibit ferroelectric behavior, but a higher piezoelectric potential was evidenced in the case of the BFO/FTO thin film. The enhancement of piezo-photodegradation efficiency was mainly attributed to the piezoelectric-driven separation and transport of photo-generated carriers toward the surface of the photocatalyst.

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44

Pellegrino, Paolo, Alessandro Paolo Bramanti, Isabella Farella, Mariafrancesca Cascione, Valeria De Matteis, Antonio Della Torre, Fabio Quaranta, and Rosaria Rinaldi. "Pulse-Atomic Force Lithography: A Powerful Nanofabrication Technique to Fabricate Constant and Varying-Depth Nanostructures." Nanomaterials 12, no. 6 (March 17, 2022): 991. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano12060991.

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The widespread use of nanotechnology in different application fields, resulting in the integration of nanostructures in a plethora of devices, has addressed the research toward novel and easy-to-setup nanofabrication techniques to realize nanostructures with high spatial resolution and reproducibility. Owing to countless applications in molecular electronics, data storage, nanoelectromechanical, and systems for the Internet of Things, in recent decades, the scientific community has focused on developing methods suitable for nanopattern polymers. To this purpose, Atomic Force Microscopy-based nanolithographic techniques are effective methods that are relatively less complex and inexpensive than equally resolute and accurate techniques, such as Electron Beam lithography and Focused Ion Beam lithography. In this work, we propose an evolution of nanoindentation, named Pulse-Atomic Force Microscopy, to obtain continuous structures with a controlled depth profile, either constant or variable, on a polymer layer. Due to the modulation of the characteristics of voltage pulses fed to the AFM piezo-scanner and distance between nanoindentations, it was possible to indent sample surface with high spatial control and fabricate highly resolved 2.5D nanogrooves. That is the real strength of the proposed technique, as no other technique can achieve similar results in tailor-made graded nanogrooves without the need for additional manufacturing steps.

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45

Xia, Fangzhou, Chen Yang, Yi Wang, Kamal Youcef-Toumi, Christoph Reuter, Tzvetan Ivanov, Mathias Holz, and Ivo W. Rangelow. "Lights Out! Nano-Scale Topography Imaging of Sample Surface in Opaque Liquid Environments with Coated Active Cantilever Probes." Nanomaterials 9, no. 7 (July 14, 2019): 1013. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/nano9071013.

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Atomic force microscopy is a powerful topography imaging method used widely in nanoscale metrology and manipulation. A conventional Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) utilizes an optical lever system typically composed of a laser source, lenses and a four quadrant photodetector to amplify and measure the deflection of the cantilever probe. This optical method for deflection sensing limits the capability of AFM to obtaining images in transparent environments only. In addition, tapping mode imaging in liquid environments with transparent sample chamber can be difficult for laser-probe alignment due to multiple different refraction indices of materials. Spurious structure resonance can be excited from piezo actuator excitation. Photothermal actuation resolves the resonance confusion but makes optical setup more complicated. In this paper, we present the design and fabrication method of coated active scanning probes with piezoresistive deflection sensing, thermomechanical actuation and thin photoresist polymer surface coating. The newly developed probes are capable of conducting topography imaging in opaque liquids without the need of an optical system. The selected coating can withstand harsh chemical environments with high acidity (e.g., 35% sulfuric acid). The probes are operated in various opaque liquid environments with a custom designed AFM system to demonstrate the imaging performance. The development of coated active probes opens up possibilities for observing samples in their native environments.

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46

Weng, Yuanqi, Fei Yan, Runkang Chen, Ming Qian, Yun Ou, Shuhong Xie, Hairong Zheng, and Jiangyu Li. "PIEZO channel protein naturally expressed in human breast cancer cell MDA-MB-231 as probed by atomic force microscopy." AIP Advances 8, no. 5 (May 2018): 055101. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.5025036.

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47

Dorozhkin, P., E. Kuznetsov, A. Schokin, S. Timofeev, and V. Bykov. "AFM + Raman Microscopy + SNOM + Tip-Enhanced Raman: Instrumentation and Applications." Microscopy Today 18, no. 6 (November 2010): 28–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1551929510000982.

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Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has developed into a very powerful tool for characterization of surfaces and nanoscale objects. Many physical properties of an object can be studied by AFM with nanometer-scale resolution. Local stiffness, elasticity, conductivity, capacitance, magnetization, surface potential and work function, friction, piezo response—these and many other physical properties can be studied with over 30 AFM modes. What is typically lacking in information provided by AFM studies is the chemical composition of the sample and information about its crystal structure. To obtain this information other characterization techniques are required, such as Raman and fluorescence microscopy. The Raman effect (inelastic light scattering) provides extensive information about sample chemical composition, quality of crystal structure, crystal orientation, presence of impurities and defects, and so on. Information provided by Raman and fluorescence spectroscopy is complementary to the information obtained by AFM. So it is a natural requirement in many research fields to integrate these techniques in one piece of equipment—to provide comprehensive physical, chemical, and structural characterization of the same object. Of course, for routine studies of various samples, it is important to be able to obtain AFM and Raman/fluorescence images of exactly the same sample area, preferably with the same sample scan.

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48

Kim, Uk Su, Seung-Yub Baek, Tae-Wan Kim, and Jeong Woo Park. "Cold Tribo-Nanolithography on Metallic Thin-Film Surfaces." Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 20, no. 7 (July 1, 2020): 4318–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1166/jnn.2020.17558.

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This paper demonstrates a modified tribo-nanolithgraphy (TNL), micro- to nanometer scale mechanical machining processes, on metallic thin film surfaces which have poor machinability in micro scale under several mN normal loads. TNL is one of the promising atomic force microscopy (AFM)-based lithography processes which is more effective fabrication technology, as compared to conventional photolithography due to its relatively simple processes, high resolution, short processing time, and low cost. We propose ultra-precision machining at sub-0 °C temperatures using a lab-made micro polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool on a retrofitted piezo stage with a Peltier device. The workpiece, located on the stage, is cooled artificially, and a normal load of several mN is applied by a micro PCD tool for micro scale machining processes. The machining results indicated considerably different machinability when the work was performed at sub-0 °C, as opposed to the ambient surface temperature, due to the changed mechanical characteristics of surface by the forced cooling of the workpiece. Although the normal load, machining speed, and machining area remained constant, the width and depth of machined grooves are significantly increased at sub-0 °C temperature conditions. In addition, we analyzed the TNL characteristics when machining with the PCD tool in four different machining directions. The mechanical surface properties, surface topography, scanning electron microscope (SEM) images, chip formation and other physical properties are investigated for more discussions.

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49

Luiten, Willemijn M., Verena M. van der Werf, Noureen Raza, and Rebecca Saive. "Investigation of the dynamic properties of on-chip coupled piezo/photodiodes by time-resolved atomic force and Kelvin probe microscopy." AIP Advances 10, no. 10 (October 1, 2020): 105121. http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/5.0028481.

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50

Stiubianu, George-Theodor, Adrian Bele, Alexandra Bargan, Violeta Otilia Potolinca, Mihai Asandulesa, Codrin Tugui, Vasile Tiron, Corneliu Hamciuc, Mihaela Dascalu, and Maria Cazacu. "All-Polymer Piezo-Composites for Scalable Energy Harvesting and Sensing Devices." Molecules 27, no. 23 (December 3, 2022): 8524. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/molecules27238524.

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Silicone elastomer composites with piezoelectric properties, conferred by incorporated polyimide copolymers, with pressure sensors similar to human skin and kinetic energy harvester capabilities, were developed as thin film (<100 micron thick) layered architecture. They are based on polymer materials which can be produced in industrial amounts and are scalable for large areas (m2). The piezoelectric properties of the tested materials were determined using a dynamic mode of piezoelectric force microscopy. These composite materials bring together polydimethylsiloxane polymers with customized poly(siloxane-imide) copolymers (2–20 wt% relative to siloxanes), with siloxane segments inserted into the structure to ensure the compatibility of the components. The morphology of the materials as free-standing films was studied by SEM and AFM, revealing separated phases for higher polyimide concentration (10, 20 wt%). The composites show dielectric behavior with a low loss (<10−1) and a relative permittivity superior (3–4) to pure siloxane within a 0.1–106 Hz range. The composite in the form of a thin film can generate up to 750 mV under contact with a 30 g steel ball dropped from 10 cm high. This capability to convert a pressure signal into a direct current for the tested device has potential for applications in self-powered sensors and kinetic energy-harvesting applications. Furthermore, the materials preserve the known electromechanical properties of pure polysiloxane, with lateral strain actuation values of up to 6.2% at 28.9 V/μm.

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