Статті в журналах: "Penetration into a pool"

1

Tam, A. S., and D. E. Hardt. "Weld Pool Impedance for Pool Geometry Measurement: Stationary and Nonstationary Pools." Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control 111, no. 4 (December 1, 1989): 545–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3153090.

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The most elusive quantity in describing weld pool geometry is the depth, since it cannot be directly observed; yet it is the most important quantity to be regulated during welding. This paper addresses the problem of depth feedback measurement for full penetration welds, where the objective is to completely melt the cross section. It has been demonstrated that the existence and size of a full penetration weld can be detected by measuring the mechanical impedance of the resulting weld pool. Previous work in modeling this phenomenon has been limited to stationary welds, and experiments have either used impractical measurement methods or have not provided conclusive results. In this paper, a model of pool motion is developed that applies to both the stationary and moving weld case, and the pool motion is detected directly from changes in the arc voltage. A description of pool motion is derived from an elliptical membrane model, and the total system transfer function, including arc and pool dynamics is derived. A series of experiments demonstrates that the pool motion can indeed be detected for the moving pool case. However, the exact determination of pool oscillation frequencies requires knowledge of the pool perimeter geometry, since the elliptical system has many closely spaced eigenvalues arising from both symmetric and antisymmetric mode shapes.

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2

Zhang, Y. M., L. Li, and R. Kovacevic. "Dynamic Estimation of Full Penetration Using Geometry of Adjacent Weld Pools." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 119, no. 4A (November 1, 1997): 631–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2831197.

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Control of weld penetration is currently one of the most important and crucial research issues in the area of welding. The weld pool can provide accurate and instantaneous information about the weld penetration, however, the establishment and confirmation of the correlation between weld pool and weld penetration require numerous accurate measurements and suitable geometrical modeling of weld pool. A normalized model is proposed to characterize the weld pool two-dimensionally. More than 6,000 weld pools are measured from experiments using a developed real-time weld pool sensing system. A data analysis shows that the weld penetration is correlated with the weld pool which is specified by the three characteristic parameters proposed in the study. However, the correlation is nonlinear. To approximate the complicated nonlinearity, neural networks are used. Comparative modeling trails show that the weld penetration can be more accurately calculated if the adjacent weld pools are also used. This implies that the correlation between the weld penetration and weld pool is dynamic. Hence, an on-line nonlinear dynamic estimation system is developed to estimate the weld penetration.

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3

Carlson, N. M., and J. A. Johnson. "Ultrasonic sensing of weld pool penetration." NDT & E International 25, no. 1 (January 1992): 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0963-8695(92)90129-5.

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4

Chen, Tao, Songbai Xue, Peizhuo Zhai, Bo Wang, and Weimin Long. "Study on Penetration Sensing Method Based on Pool Oscillation and Arc Voltage during Pulsed GMAW." Applied Sciences 10, no. 8 (April 15, 2020): 2735. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10082735.

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The internal relations among the oscillation characteristics of the weld pool, the voltage signal curve and the penetration status of the weld joint in pulsed gas metal arc welding were investigated by using high-speed camera and image analysis system to extract characteristics of weld pool oscillation. The results show that the amplitude of weld pool oscillation decreased with decreasing weld penetration. An abrupt change occurred in the frequency components and amplitude of weld pool oscillation, accompanying the transition from partial to full penetration. The voltage signal curve lost the oscillation frequency characteristic of the pool, due to the curvature of the weld pool surface. While similar to the oscillation amplitude, the fluctuation of the voltage signal caused by the weld pool oscillation reflected the penetration of the weld pool. The abrupt transition in the fluctuation amplitude of the voltage signal in the base duration from partial penetration to full penetration may be used to sense the penetration of the weld pool in real time.

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5

Epstein, M., and M. A. Grolmes. "Natural Convection Characteristics of Pool Penetration Into a Melting Miscible Substrate." Journal of Heat Transfer 108, no. 1 (February 1, 1986): 190–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.3246886.

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Experiments were performed to gain an understanding of the convective heat transfer process occurring in a warm liquid pool as it penetrates into an underlying meltable solid of less dense material, for the case where the molten phase of the solid and pool liquid are mutually miscible. Previous experimental work on downward melting penetration made use of warm aqueous salt solution pools overlying solid polyethylene glycol (PEG) or ice, or pools of heated organic liquids with benzene as the frozen substrate. Owing to the complexity of the melting trends observed in these studies, particularly with PEG substrates, a sufficiently definitive theory of the phenomenon has not yet emerged. As part of the present study, an attempt was made to reproduce the previous experimental results for salt-solution-pool penetration into PEG. An unexpected strong effect of initial solid PEG temperature on melting rate was uncovered for this polymer material. It was found that the unconventional melting trends reported previously at high pool-to-substrate density ratios could be eliminated if careful control of the initial PEG temperature is maintained. These new experimental data indicate that the melting of PEG by an overlying pool of heavier salt solution has much in common with classical, turbulent, thermal convection above a horizontal surface. Additional experiments were conducted which seem to support this conclusion for other pool–substrate material pairs as well.

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6

Chen, Jinsong, Jian Chen, Zhili Feng, and Yuming Zhang. "Model Predictive Control of GTAW Weld Pool Penetration." IEEE Robotics and Automation Letters 4, no. 3 (July 2019): 2762–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/lra.2019.2918681.

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7

Pietrzak, K. A., and S. M. Packer. "Vision-Based Weld Pool Width Control." Journal of Engineering for Industry 116, no. 1 (February 1, 1994): 86–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2901813.

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Methods for controlling weld penetration for arc welding processes from top-side measurements have long been sought. One indirect variable that has been reported to correlate with penetration is weld pool geometry. A system which uses weld pool geometry sensing for controlling weld penetration is described in this paper. The system uses a miniature camera mounted in a modified coaxial viewing torch to view the weld pool. A robust machine vision algorithm has been developed for this system to measure weld pool width. The algorithm was designed to locate the edges of the weld pool despite the presence of other edges caused by the heat affected zone, scratches, marks, and weld pool impurities. The algorithm uses a matched edge filter and a majority voting scheme to measure the width of the pool. A control system was developed to regulate weld pool width in the presence of disturbances caused by such items as incorrect parameter settings, small variations in material composition, and material thickness changes. Experiments were conducted to test the control system by simulating some of these disturbances. The experiments demonstrated that for certain classes of materials, this technique works quite well. However, for other materials such as stainless steel 304, surface impurities in the weld pool visually obscure the weld pool and its edges to such a degree that the system fails to lock onto the edges of the pool.

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8

Cao, Z. N., Y. M. Zhang, and R. Kovacevic. "Numerical Dynamic Analysis of Moving GTA Weld Pool." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 120, no. 1 (February 1, 1998): 173–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2830096.

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A three dimensional model with a moving heat source is developed to describe heat transfer and fluid flow in transient weld pools. Full penetration and free top and bottom surfaces are incorporated in the model in order to simulate the welding process more practically. The influence of plate thickness and welding current on the dynamics of weld pools is analyzed using calculated data. It is shown that when the workpiece is nearly penetrated, the depth of weld pool increases quickly. Also, the elevation of the top surface decreases quickly once the full penetration status is established.

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9

JIAO, WENHUA, QIYUE WANG, YONGCHAO CHENG, RUI YU, and YUMING ZHANG. "Prediction of Weld Penetration Using Dynamic Weld Pool Arc Images." Welding Journal 99, no. 11 (November 1, 2020): 295s—302s. http://dx.doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.027.

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This work aims to study an improved method to predict weld penetration that is not directly observable during manufacturing but is critical for the integrity of the weld produced. Previous methods used signals acquired at a time, typically a single image or multiple images/signals from the process, to derive the penetration at that given time. Al-though deep learning appears to extract data well, analyses of weld pool physics, previous studies, and skilled weld operation all suggest that the dynamic welding phenomena give a more solid mechanism to assure the adequacy of the needed information. Therefore, this paper proposes to fuse the present weld pool arc image with two previous images, acquired 1⁄6 and 2⁄6 s earlier. The fused single image thus reflects the dynamic welding phenomena. Due to the extraordinary complexity, the weld penetration is correlated to the fused image through a convolutional neural network (CNN). Welding experiments have been conducted in a variety of welding conditions to synchronously collect the needed data pairs to train the CNN. Results show that this method improved the prediction accuracy from 92.7 to 94.2%. Due to the critical role of weld penetration and the negligible impact on system/implementation, this method represents major progress in the important field of weld penetration monitoring and is expected to provide more significant improvements during welding using pulsed current, where the process becomes highly dynamic.

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10

Kovacevic, R., and Y. M. Zhang. "Machine Vision Recognition of Weld Pool in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture 209, no. 2 (February 1995): 141–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/pime_proc_1995_209_066_02.

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The weld pool and its surrounding area can provide a human welder with sufficient visual information to control welding quality. Seam tracking error and pool geometry can be recognized by a skilled human welder and then utilized to adjust the welding parameters. However, for machine vision, accurate real-time recognition of weld pool geometry is a difficult task due to the high intensity arc light, even though seam tracking errors can be detected. A novel vision system is, therefore, used to acquire quality images against the arc. A real-time recognition algorithm is proposed to analyse the image and recognize the pool geometry based on the pattern recognition technique. Despite surface impurity and other influences, the pool geometry can always be recognized with sufficient accuracy in 150 ms under different welding conditions. To explore the potential application of machine vision in weld penetration control, experiments are conducted to show the correlation between pool geometry and weld penetration state. Thus, pool recognition also provides a possible technique for front-face sensing of the weld penetration.

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11

LI, CHAO, QIYUE WANG, WENHUA JIAO, MICHAEL JOHNSON, and YU MING ZHANG. "Deep Learning-Based Detection of Penetration from Weld Pool Reflection Images." Welding Journal 99, no. 9 (September 1, 2020): 239s—245s. http://dx.doi.org/10.29391/2020.99.022.

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An innovative method was proposed to determine weld joint penetration using machine learning techniques. In our approach, the dot-structured laser images reflected from an oscillating weld pool surface were captured. Experienced welders typically evaluate the weld penetration status based on this reflected laser pattern. To overcome the challenges in identifying features and accurately processing the images using conventional machine vision algorithms, we proposed the use the raw images without any processing as the input to a convolutional neural network (CNN). The labels needed to train the CNN were the measured weld penetration states, obtained from the images on the backside of the workpiece as a set of discrete weld penetration categories. The raw data, images, and penetration state were generated from extensive experiments using an automated robotic gas tungsten arc welding process. Data augmentation was performed to enhance the robustness of the trained network, which led to 270,000 training examples, 45,000 validation examples, and 45,000 test examples. A six-layer convolutional neural net-work trained with a modified mini-batch gradient descent method led to a final testing accuracy of 90.7%. A voting mechanism based on three continuous images increased the classification accuracy to 97.6%.

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12

Zhang, Y. M., Z. N. Cao, and R. Kovacevic. "Numerical Analysis of Fully Penetrated Weld Pools in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science 210, no. 2 (March 1996): 187–95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/pime_proc_1996_210_185_02.

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Full penetration welding is widely used in metal joining, but it has been ignored in previous convective numerical models. In addition to the free surface on top of the pool, an additional free surface appears on the bottom of the workpiece. It can be shown that the top surface, temperature distribution and fluid flow field in the weld pool are all coupled with the pool's bottom surface. This complicates the numerical process and therefore no convective models have previously been developed for fully penetrated weld pools. In order to improve the numerical solution for the fully penetrated weld pool, a three-dimensional model is proposed. Free top and bottom pool surfaces have been included. The electromagnetic force, buoyancy force and surface tension gradient (Marangoni) are the three driving forces for weld pool convection. Welding parameters are changed in order to analyse their effects on weld pool geometry. It is found that the depression of the top surface contains abundant information about the full penetration state as specified by the back-side bead width.

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13

KUMAR, N., S. DASH, A. K. TYAGI, and BALDEV RAJ. "Melt pool vorticity in deep penetration laser material welding." Sadhana 36, no. 2 (April 2011): 251–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12046-011-0017-5.

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14

Cai, Yangchuan, Zhen Luo, Zunyue Huang, and Yida Zeng. "Influence of Oxides on Microstructures and Mechanical Properties of High-Strength Steel Weld Joint." High Temperature Materials and Processes 35, no. 10 (November 1, 2016): 1047–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2015-0151.

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AbstractA comprehensive investigation was conducted into the effect of oxides on penetrations, microstructures and mechanical properties of BS700MC super steel weld bead. Boron oxide changed the penetration of weld bead by changing the Marangoni convection in the weld pool and contracting the welding arc. Chromium oxide only changed the Marangoni convection in the weld pool to increase the penetration of super steel. Thus, the super steel weld bead has higher penetration coated with flux boron oxide than that coated with chromium oxide. In other words, the activating flux TIG (A-TIG) welding with flux boron oxide has less welding heat input than the A-TIG welding with flux chromium oxide. As a result, on the one hand, there existed more fine and homogeneous acicular ferrites in the microstructure of welding heat-affected zone when the super steel was welded by A-TIG with flux boron oxide. Thus, the weld beads have higher value of low-temperature impact toughness. On the other hand, the softening degree of welding heat-affected zone, welded by A-TIG with flux boron oxide, will be decreased for the minimum value of welding heat input.

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15

Artinov, Antoni, Xiangmeng Meng, Nasim Bakir, Ömer Üstündağ, Marcel Bachmann, Andrey Gumenyuk, and Michael Rethmeier. "The bulging effect and its relevance in high power laser beam welding." IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 1135, no. 1 (November 1, 2021): 012003. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1135/1/012003.

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Abstract The present work deals with the recently confirmed widening of the weld pool interface, known as a bulging effect, and its relevance in high power laser beam welding. A combined experimental and numerical approach is utilized to study the influence of the bulge on the hot cracking formation and the transport of alloying elements in the molten pool. A technique using a quartz glass, a direct-diode laser illumination, a high-speed camera, and an infrared camera is applied to visualize the weld pool geometry in the longitudinal section. The study examines the relevance of the bulging effect on both, partial and complete penetration, as well as for different sheet thicknesses ranging from 8 mm to 25 mm. The numerical analysis shows that the formation of a bulge region is highly dependent on the penetration depth and occurs more frequently during partial penetration above 6 mm and complete penetration above 8 mm penetration depth, respectively. The location of the bulge correlates strongly with the cracking location. The obtained experimental and numerical results reveal that the bulging effect increases the hot cracking susceptibility and limits the transfer of alloying elements from the top of the weld pool to the weld root.

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16

Wu, C. S., and L. Dorn. "Prediction of Surface Depression of a Tungsten Inert Gas Weld Pool in the Full-Penetration Condition." Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture 209, no. 3 (June 1995): 221–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1243/pime_proc_1995_209_076_02.

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A three-dimensional model is set up to predict the surface depression of a tungsten inert gas (TIG) weld pool in a full-penetration condition in order to find out the relation between pool depression and weld penetration. It solves pool surface depression, fluid flow and heat transfer simultaneously and determines the configuration of a weld pool surface based on the dynamic balance among arc pressure, pool gravity and surface tension at the deformed weld pool surface. In the numerical simulation, difficulties associated with the irregular shape of the deformed weld pool surface and the liquid/solid interface have been overcome by adopting a boundary-fitted non-orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system. A series of data about pool surface depression under different TIG welding conditions are obtained. The validity of the model is verified through TIG welding experiments.

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17

Wang, Ren Ping, Yong Ping Lei, and Yao Wu Shi. "Keyhole Modeling during Laser Deep Penetration Welding." Applied Mechanics and Materials 29-32 (August 2010): 252–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.29-32.252.

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In order to accurately simulate the process of laser deep penetration welding, a mathematical model to describe laser deep penetration welding was developed by using the heat source derived from the ray-tracing model, and taking account into the effect of keyhole on welding pool. With all the governing equations including continuity, momentum and energy equation, the VOF method is adopted to trace the free surface of the molten pool. Numerical simulation was conducted by FLUENT 6.3 software package. The simulation results show that the formation of keyhole in the weld is caused by recoil pressure.

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18

Kovacevic, R., and Y. M. Zhang. "Real-Time Image Processing for Monitoring of Free Weld Pool Surface." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 119, no. 2 (May 1, 1997): 161–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2831091.

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The arc weld pool is always deformed by plasma jet. In a previous study, a novel sensing mechanism was proposed to sense the free weld pool surface. The specular reflection of pulsed laser stripes from the mirror-like pool surface was captured by a CCD camera. The distorted laser stripes clearly depicted the 3D shape of the free pool surface. To monitor and control the welding process, the on-line acquisition of the reflection pattern is required. In this work, the captured image is analyzed to identify the torch and electrode. The weld pool edges are then detected. Because of the interference of the torch and electrode, the acquired pool boundary may be incomplete. To acquire the complete pool boundary, models have been fitted using the edge points. Finally, the stripes reflected from the weld pool are detected. Currently, the reflection pattern and pool boundary are being related to the weld penetration and used to control the weld penetration.

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19

Huang, Jiankang, Jing He, Xiaoying He, Yu Shi, and Ding Fan. "Study on Dynamic Development of Three-dimensional Weld Pool Surface in Stationary GTAW." High Temperature Materials and Processes 37, no. 5 (April 25, 2018): 455–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/htmp-2016-0224.

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AbstractThe weld pool contains abundant information about the welding process. In particular, the type of the weld pool surface shape, i. e., convex or concave, is determined by the weld penetration. To detect it, an innovative laser-vision-based sensing method is employed to observe the weld pool surface of the gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). A low-power laser dots pattern is projected onto the entire weld pool surface. Its reflection is intercepted by a screen and captured by a camera. Then the dynamic development process of the weld pool surface can be detected. By observing and analyzing, the change of the reflected laser dots reflection pattern, for shape of the weld pool surface shape, was found to closely correlate to the penetration of weld pool in the welding process. A mathematical model was proposed to correlate the incident ray, reflected ray, screen and surface of weld pool based on structured laser specular reflection. The dynamic variation of the weld pool surface and its corresponding dots laser pattern were simulated and analyzed. By combining the experimental data and the mathematical analysis, the results show that the pattern of the reflected laser dots pattern is closely correlated to the development of weld pool, such as the weld penetration. The concavity of the pool surface was found to increase rapidly after the surface shape was changed from convex to concave during the stationary GTAW process.

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20

Xiang, Jun Bin, and Xiang Dong Gao. "Restoration and Enhancement of X-Ray Images of Molten Pool during Laser Deep Penetration Welding." Applied Mechanics and Materials 201-202 (October 2012): 356–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.201-202.356.

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Owing to a strong capability of penetration, the radiography can be used to observe and analyze the formation of a molten pool inside weldments during laser deep penetration welding. The shape of a molten pool and the thermal transmit of laser through keyhole can be monitored and analyzed in real-time. During a high-power fiber laser bead on plate welding of Type 304 stainless steel, a high-speed radiography camera was employed to capture the molten pool images. These captured X-ray images were degraded by the disturbance and noises from the welding process and radiography devices. This paper proposes an efficient arithmetic to restore and enhance the X-ray images of molten pools. The point spread function (PSF) of X-ray image degeneration was obtained through blind deconvolution, And the PSF was applied as a parameter to implement the constrained least squares filtering of X-ray image of a molten pool. Also, the X-ray image was enhanced by contrast stretching transformation. Experimental results showed that the proposed arithmetic of image restoration and enhancement could improve the quality of X-ray images efficiently and protrude the contour feature of a molten pool.

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21

Rybachuk, A. M., V. F. Cubarew, and Yu V. Doronin. "Weld Pool Static Equilibrium in Butt Welds with Full Penetration." Global Nuclear Safety 14, no. 2 (June 2019): 31–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.26583/gns-2019-02-04.

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22

HASEGAWA, Hiroyuki, JIANBIN Ju, Keisuke HORIGAMI, and Yasuo SUGA. "Penetration Control by Detecting Molten Pool Oscillation in Arc Welding." Proceedings of the JSME annual meeting 2000.3 (2000): 427–28. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemecjo.2000.3.0_427.

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23

TOMOHIRO, Nakayama, Shoichi MATSUDA, and Yasushi TANAHARA. "Arc Welding Penetration Control utilizing Electromagnetic Controlled Molten Pool Welding." Proceedings of Conference of Kyushu Branch 2019.72 (2019): F22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmekyushu.2019.72.f22.

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24

ASATO, Toshinaga, Shoich MATSUDA, Yasushi TANAHARA, and Yuhei ONODA. "Arc Welding Penetration Control utilizing Electromagnetic Controlled Molten Pool Welding." Proceedings of Mechanical Engineering Congress, Japan 2017 (2017): G0400303. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemecj.2017.g0400303.

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25

EMURA, Yuki, Mikio ISOZAKI, Ken-ichi MATSUBA, and Kenji KAMIYAMA. "Penetration Behavior of Molten Stainless Steel into a Sodium Pool." Proceedings of the National Symposium on Power and Energy Systems 2019.24 (2019): B111. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmepes.2019.24.b111.

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26

Emiroglu, M. "Estimating Flow Characteristics of Different Weir Types and Optimum Dimensions of Downstream Receiving Pool." Journal of Hydrology and Hydromechanics 58, no. 4 (December 1, 2010): 245–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/v10098-010-0023-z.

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Estimating Flow Characteristics of Different Weir Types and Optimum Dimensions of Downstream Receiving PoolThis paper presents the results of a laboratory study on the flow characteristics of sharp-crested weirs, broad-crested weirs, and labyrinth weirs. The variation of the maximum bubble penetration depth for different weir types is investigated depending on overfall jet expansion, discharge, and drop height. Moreover, most efficient depth, length and width of the downstream receiving pool in an open channel system are studied by considering the penetration depth, overfall jet expansion, jet trajectory and the bubble zone. The results show that overfall jet expansion at the labyrinth weirs is significantly wider than the rectangular sharp-crested weirs and the trapezoidal sharp-crested weir. It is demonstrated that the labyrinth weirs have the lowest values of bubble penetration depth among the weirs tested. Furthermore, it is found that the rectangular and the trapezoidal weirs are observed to have the highest bubble penetration depth among all weirs. Consequently, empirical equations are obtained for predicting the maximum penetration depth of bubbles, trajectory of free overfall nappe, jet expansion of free overfall nappe, and the length of the bubble zone.

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27

Liang, Jian Bin, Xiang Dong Gao, De Yong You, Zhen Shi Li, and Wei Ping Ruan. "Detection of Seam Offset Based on Molten Pool Characteristics during High-Power Fiber Laser Welding." Advanced Materials Research 549 (July 2012): 1064–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.549.1064.

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Laser welding includes the heat conduction welding and the deep penetration welding. Deep penetration welding can not only penetrate the material completely, but also can vaporize the material. An important phenomenon during deep penetration welding is that molten pool in the weldment will appear a keyhole. The formation of the keyhole leads to a deep penetration weld with a high aspect ratio and this is the most advantageous feature of welding by high-energy-density beams. Small focus wandering off weld seam may result in lack of penetration or unacceptable welds, and largely reduce heating efficiency. In a fiber laser butt-joint welding of Type 304 austenitic stainless steel plate with a high power 6kW continuous wave fiber laser, an infrared sensitive high-speed video camera was used to capture the dynamic images of the molten pools. The configurations of molten pools were analyzed through image processing techniques such as median filtering, partial Otsu threshold segmentation and Canny edge to obtain the edge of keyholes and molten pools. The circular degree and the area of keyholes and the width and average gray of molten pools were defined as characteristic parameters to reflect the seam offset between the laser beam and the weld center. By analyzing the change of characteristic parameters during welding process, it was found that these parameters were related to the seam offset. Welding experimental results and analysis of characteristic parameters confirmed that the seam offset could be monitored and distinguished by molten pools configuration during high-power fiber laser welding.

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28

Saha, Abhishek, Yanju Wei, Xiaoyu Tang, and Chung K. Law. "Kinematics of vortex ring generated by a drop upon impacting a liquid pool." Journal of Fluid Mechanics 875 (July 25, 2019): 842–53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/jfm.2019.503.

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We herein report an experimental study on the morphological evolution of a vortex ring formed inside a liquid pool after it is impacted and penetrated by a coalescing drop of the same liquid. The dynamics of the penetrating vortex ring along with the deformation of the pool surface has been captured using simultaneous high-speed laser induced fluorescence and shadowgraph techniques. It is identified that the motion of such a vortex ring can be divided into three stages, during which inertial, capillary and viscous effects alternatingly play dominant roles to modulate the penetration process, resulting in linear, non-monotonic and decelerating motion in these three stages respectively. Furthermore, we also evaluate the relevant time and length scales of these three stages and subsequently propose a unified description of the downward motion of the penetrating vortex ring. Finally, we use the experimental data for a range of drop diameters and impact speeds to validate the proposed scaling.

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29

Liu, Yu Kang, Shu Jun Chen, Wei Jie Zhang, and Yu Ming Zhang. "Nonlinear Dynamic Modelling of Weld Penetration in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Process." Advanced Materials Research 658 (January 2013): 292–97. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.658.292.

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Skilled welders can estimate and control the weld penetration based on weld pool observation. This implies that an advanced control system could be developed to control the penetration by emulating the decision making process of the human welder. In this paper a nonlinear dynamic model is established to correlate the process inputs (welding current and traveling speed) and weld penetration in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). An innovative 3D vision sensing system capable of measuring the weld pool characteristic parameters in real-time is utilized. Dynamic experiments are conducted under various welding conditions. Dynamic linear model is first constructed and the results are analyzed. The linear model is then improved by incorporating a nonlinear operating point modeled by Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS). It is found that the penetration state can be better modeled by the proposed ANFIS model.

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30

Fabbro, R. "Melt pool and keyhole behaviour analysis for deep penetration laser welding." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 43, no. 44 (October 15, 2010): 445501. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/43/44/445501.

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31

Muhammad Naqiuddin Mat Salleh, Mahadzir Ishak, Kazuhiko Yamasaki, Moinuddin Mohammed Quazi, and Aiman Mohd Halil. "Pulsed Nd: YAG Laser Parameters Effect on Welding Uncoated Advance High Strength Steel (AHSS) for Automotive." Journal of Advanced Research in Fluid Mechanics and Thermal Sciences 84, no. 1 (July 1, 2021): 91–100. http://dx.doi.org/10.37934/arfmts.84.1.91100.

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Pulse wave (PW) welding technique has become more adequate process to produce a deep penetration welding with smaller fusion zone and heat affected zone for automotive steel joint. A 1.6 mm thickness of N22CB boron steel from advance high strength steel (AHSS) type was welded by using PW mode from a low power Nd: YAG laser. The process parameters studied in this paper are pulsed energy, Ep, focal length, F, and welding speed, S. Bead-on-plate (BOP) welding was used in this experiment. The effect of parameters on the weld pool geometry was studied. Higher pulsed energy gives high weld penetration and higher weld width, contributing to the bigger weld pool size. Positive defocus position of focal length produces weld geometry with high penetration depth and smaller bead width compared to negative defocus position. Lower welding speed could produce deep penetration depth as the high heat input produced.

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32

Duan, Ai Qin, and Shui Li Gong. "The Influence of the Type and Pressure of Shielding Gas on the Porosity Formation for CO₂ Laser Welding of TA15." Advanced Materials Research 753-755 (August 2013): 372–78. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amr.753-755.372.

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Many studies have shown that during laser welding, shielding gases play a key role in many aspects. In this paper, a series of contrast experiments about CO2laser welding of TA15 TI-alloy were completed by using He and Ar as shielding for different pressure, respectively. The experiments results reveal that the porosities in the weld have strong relation with weld penetration, and the shielding gas have great influences on the weld penetration. So the porosities mainly form in the center of welds which are under critical penetration and lack of penetration, and have no direct relation with the type and pressure of shielding gas.From the contrast images of penetrating process, it is known that when He as shielding gas, the sizes of keyholes on the back welds are quite larger than the sizes when Ar. This means more vapor erupting from bottom keyhole and porosities not easy to form. At the same pressure, the opening times of keyholes when He as shielding gas are longer than the times when Ar. Long opening times of keyholes make the shielding gas within keyhole not easy to be involved into the molten pool and form the porosities.

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33

SUGA, Yasuo, Takuya TOKIWA, and Kaoru YASUDA. "Detection of Peculiar Frequency of Molten Pool and Estimation of Penetration in Pulse TIG Welding. Estimation and Control of Penetration by Detecting Peculiar Frequency of Molten Pool." QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE JAPAN WELDING SOCIETY 19, no. 1 (2001): 19–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.2207/qjjws.19.19.

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34

Jorge, Vinicius Lemes, Fernando Matos Scotti, Ruham Pablo Reis, and Américo Scotti. "The potential of wire feed pulsation to influence factors that govern weld penetration in GMA welding." International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology 110, no. 9-10 (September 12, 2020): 2685–701. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-06037-8.

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Abstract Derivative welding processes are in many cases capable of altering phenomena that determine fundamental aspects of weld bead formation. Some of these evolutions act over the wire feed dynamics. However, in this scenario, the effects of the wire feed pulsation on the weld bead formation governing factors have not been fully explored yet. Therefore, this work aimed at examining how a wire feed pulsation approach affects the droplet transfer in gas metal arc welding and how its interaction with the molten pool defines the weld bead penetration. Bead-on-plate weldments were produced by varying the wire feed pulsation frequency, yet keeping the same levels of arc energy and wire feed speed, with the power source operating in constant voltage and current modes. To assess the droplet transfer behavior, high-speed imaging was used. The geometry of the weld beads was compared in terms of fusion penetration. The results showed that an increase in the wire feed pulsation frequency intensifies the detachment frequency of the droplets, being possible to accomplish a stable metal transfer with them straightly projected toward the weld pool, which contributed to a centralized-increased penetration profile. Based on a descriptive model, it was demonstrated that the increase in droplet momentum or kinetic energy, due to the wire feed pulsation, was not enough to justify the penetration enhancement. It was concluded that the wire feed dynamics can also stimulate surface tension variations in the weld pool and therefore disrupt the behavior of its mass and heat convection, supporting fusion penetration.

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35

French, Richard, Hector Merin-Reyes, and Will Yeadon. "A Feasibility Study Comparing Two Commercial TIG Welding Machines for Deep Penetration." MATEC Web of Conferences 269 (2019): 01004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201926901004.

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Developing a deep penetration TIG welding technique to produce welds of equal quality to the industrial standard practise of laser-based welding techniques has the potential to lower production complexity and cost. Higher currents levels are required to increase penetration depth in conventional TIG welding but this results in excessive weld bead width amongst other detrimental effects. However, through K-TIG and A-TIG techniques these detrimental effects can be circumnavigated. Prior experimental work on weld pool dynamics in conventional TIG welding in higher current regions has been sparse as TIG welding enhanced through novel techniques provides the best quality welds. This paper is an early feasibility study for novel deep penetration welding techniques motivated by observations made during research done at The University of Sheffield where unexpected activity in the weld pool was identified during TIG welding with a VBC IE500DHC between 300A – 1000A. This current range is labelled the ‘Red Region’. Understanding the fluid dynamics of the molten metal in the weld pool at the ‘ Red Region' current level will help in the creation of novel techniques for deep penetration TIG welding. Addressing this, this paper compares the quality of welds produced between 100A and 200A on 316 Stainless Steel by two industrially leading welding machines; the Miller Dynasty 350 and the VBCie 500DHC.

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36

Wang, Ren Ping, and Y. P. Lei. "Simulation Study of Keyhole Formation during Laser Deep Penetration Welding." Applied Mechanics and Materials 44-47 (December 2010): 400–403. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.44-47.400.

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The elaborated model solves the coupled equations of a laminar fluid flow and heat transfer to predict the temperature distribution in the weld pool. The enthalpy-porosity technique was employed to account for the latent heat during melting and solidification. The coupled effects of buoyancy and Marangoni forces are considered in this model. The volume-of-fluid (VOF) method was employed to track free surfaces of weld pool. The molten temperature distribution, velocity field and molten shape were calculated using FLUENT software. The results clearly demonstrate Marangoni flow significantly alters the characteristics of the thawing and solidifying process, and makes the molten wider and shallower.

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37

Zhang, Y. M., and R. Kovacevic. "Real-Time Sensing of Sag Geometry During GTA Welding." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 119, no. 2 (May 1, 1997): 151–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2831090.

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Seam tracking and weld penetration control are two fundamental issues in automated welding. Although the seam tracking technique has matured, the latter still remains a unique unsolved problem. It was found that the full penetration status during GTA welding can be determined with sufficient accuracy using the sag depression. To achieve a new full penetration sensing technique, a structured-light 3D vision system is developed to extract the sag geometry behind the pool. The laser stripe, which is the intersection of the structured-light and weldment, is thinned and then used to acquire the sag geometry. To reduce possible control delay, a small distance is selected between the pool rear and laser stripe. An adaptive dynamic search for rapid thinning of the stripe and the maximum principle of slope difference for unbiased recognition of sag border were proposed to develop an effective real-time image processing algorithm for sag geometry acquisition. Experiments have shown that the proposed sensor and image algorithm can provide reliable feedback information of sag geometry for the full penetration control system.

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38

Chen, Tao, Songbai Xue, Bo Wang, Peizhuo Zhai, and Weimin Long. "Study on Short-Circuiting GMAW Pool Behavior and Microstructure of the Weld with Different Waveform Control Methods." Metals 9, no. 12 (December 7, 2019): 1326. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/met9121326.

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In order to study internal relation among the behavior of the weld pool, the microstructure of weld bead and the waveform of short-circuiting gas metal arc welding (S-GMAW), a high speed photograph-images analysis system was formed to extract characteristics of weld pool behavior. Three representative waveform control methods were used to provide partly and fully penetrated weld pools and beads. It was found that the behavior of the weld pool was related to the instantaneous power density of the liquid bridge at the break-up time. Weld pool oscillation was triggered by the explosion of the liquid bridge, the natural oscillation frequencies were derived by the continuous wavelet transform. The change of weld pool state caused the transition of oscillation mode, and it led to different nature oscillation frequencies between partial and full penetration. Slags flow pattern could be an indication of the weld pool flow. Compared with the scattered slags on fully penetrated weld pool, slag particles accumulated on partially penetrated weld pools. The oscillating promoted the convection of the welding pool and resulted in larger melting width and depth, the grain size, and the content of pro-eutectoid ferrite in the weld microstructure of S235JR increased, the content of acicular ferrite decreased.

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39

Wang, Hong Xiao, Chun Sheng Wang, Chun Yuan Shi, and Zhi Yi Huang. "Heat Source Model of Lap Laser Welding of Stainless Steel Vehicle." Applied Mechanics and Materials 121-126 (October 2011): 3347–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/amm.121-126.3347.

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Resistance spot welding (RSW) is being taken place by partial lap laser welding for the poor surface quality and bad airtight due to the pressure of electrodes. The shape of partial lap laser welding is similar to the vase. When the penetration of the joint is in a certain range, there is no welding trace on the outer surface. Laser welding temperature field numerical analysis based on Abaqus finite element analysis software is committed to obtain a suitable range of process parameters to improve production efficiency and automation by determining the joint penetration. To master the laser lap welding of stainless steel weld penetration state, the combination of three-dimensional positive cone + three-dimensional inverted cone + half-ellipsoid heat source model was established simulating stainless steel lap laser weld pool shape and forecasting the range of process parameters .

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40

Postacioglu, N., P. Kapadia, and J. Dowden. "Capillary waves on the weld pool in penetration welding with a laser." Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics 22, no. 8 (August 14, 1989): 1050–61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/22/8/007.

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41

Yan, Z. H., G. J. Zhang, H. M. Gao, and L. Wu. "Determining penetration from topside weld bead and weld pool geometry in PGMAW." Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 10, no. 6 (December 2005): 744–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/174329305x65078.

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42

BASKORO, Ario Sunar, Satoshi NAKAMURA, Tomohiko HAYASHI, and Yasuo SUGA. "1553 Welding Penetration Control in Underwater Welding Using Molten Pool Oscillation Model." Proceedings of the JSME annual meeting 2008.1 (2008): 401–2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1299/jsmemecjo.2008.1.0_401.

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43

Yu, Rongwei, and Lianfa Bai. "CMT penetration status prediction based on temperature field distribution of weld pool." Optik 206 (March 2020): 164301. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.164301.

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44

Cheng, Yongchao, Shujun Chen, Jun Xiao, and YuMing Zhang. "Dynamic estimation of joint penetration by deep learning from weld pool image." Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 26, no. 4 (March 21, 2021): 279–85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2021.1896141.

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45

Yang, J., T. Sanderson, G. Graham, and C. Ume. "Laser Phased Array Measurement of Simulated Solidified Weld Penetration Depth." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 118, no. 2 (May 1, 1996): 266–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2831020.

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This paper presents an experimental investigation of the use of an optical fiber laser phased array to measure solidified weld pool penetration depth in butt and v-groove joints. The purpose was to determine the optimum distances between the ultrasound source (the array), receiver, and the weld joint, in order to measure weld penetration depth. The relationship between penetration depth and wave amplitude was approximately linear. A narrow range of distances between the ultrasound receiver and weld joint permitted the ultrasonic system to detect penetration depth over the entire thickness of the base metal. Maximum resolution in measuring penetration depth was achieved by keeping the distance between the array and the weld joint as small as possible.

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46

Reich, Stefan, Alexander Göbel, Marcel Goesmann, Dominic Heunoske, Sebastian Schäffer, Martin Lueck, Matthias Wickert, and Jens Osterholz. "2D and 3D Triangulation Are Suitable In Situ Measurement Tools for High-Power Large Spot Laser Penetration Processes to Visualize Depressions and Protrusions before Perforating." Materials 15, no. 11 (May 24, 2022): 3743. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma15113743.

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During laser penetration, the irradiated samples form a melt pool before perforation. Knowledge of the dynamics of this melt pool is of interest for the correct physical description of the process and leads to improved simulations. However, a direct investigation, especially at the location of high-power laser interaction with large spot diameters in the centimeter range is missing until now. Here, the applicability of 2D triangulation for surface topology observations is demonstrated. With the designed bidirectional 2D triangulation setup, the material cross-section is measured by profile detection at the front and back side. This allows a comprehensive description of the penetration process to be established, which is important for a detailed explanation of the process. Specific steps such as surface melting, indentations, protrusions during melt pool development and their dynamics, and the perforation are visualized, which were unknown until now. Furthermore, a scanning 3D triangulation setup is developed to obtain more information about the entire melt pool at the front side, and not just a single intersection line. The measurements exhibit a mirror-symmetric melt pool and the possibility to extrapolate from the central profile to the outer regions in most cases.

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47

Hermans, M. J. M., B. Y. B. Yudodibroto, Yoshinori Hirata, G. den Ouden, and I. M. Richardson. "The Oscillation Behaviour of Liquid Metal in Arc Welding." Materials Science Forum 539-543 (March 2007): 3877–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.539-543.3877.

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This paper gives an historic overview and new developments of research activities in the field of the oscillatory behaviour of liquid metal in arc welding. Early work focused on the oscillation behaviour of the weld pool in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW). Agitated weld pools exhibit specific modes of oscillation, the frequency of which can be measured from the arc voltage data and is conditioned by the geometry of the weld pool and the properties of the liquid metal. Of technological interest is the alteration of the oscillation behaviour for partially and fully penetrated situations, which can be used for penetration control during welding. A logical extension of the research activities was related to the influence of filler wire addition on the oscillation behaviour. An intermediate step towards the description of Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), is the situation of GTAW with cold filler wire supply. It was found that both the liquid weld pool and the pendant liquid droplet at the tip of the filler wire experience an oscillation, which obscures the influence of the individual contributions of both liquid masses on the voltage data. It was shown that online penetration control is still possible, provided that the metal is transferred in an uninterrupted way, i.e. the filler wire flows smoothly into the weld pool. For GMAW, in which detached droplets collide with the weld pool surface, the difficulties are even more prominent. Recent work is related to this issue. Monitoring of the phenomena occurring at the weld pool and the pendant droplet become problematic by means of the voltage data. Observations by means of high-speed video imaging will be discussed. Apart from the experimental studies, efforts are undertaken in numerical simulations of the processes. A good correlation is obtained between experimental data and the results of the numerical models.

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48

Zhang, Y. M., and L. Li. "Interval Model Based Robust Control of Weld Joint Penetration." Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 121, no. 3 (August 1, 1999): 425–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.2832698.

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Weld penetration sensing and control with a weld-face sensor are among the most relevant research issues in automated welding. Previous studies showed that the geometry of the weld pool contains accurate, instantaneous information about the weld penetration. In this study, the weld pool is measured in real-time to provide the feedback of the weld penetration, and the welding current is selected as the control variable. Analyses reveal that the influence of mandatory variations in welding conditions on the process dynamics can be described by an interval model that has bounded parameter intervals. A robust control algorithm with guaranteed closed-loop stability is used to overcome the interval uncertainty in the process dynamics. Dynamic experiments are performed using different welding conditions and varied welding parameters. From the experimental data the bounded parameter intervals are identified for the model of the process being controlled. Closed-loop control experiments are done under different perturbations. Experimentation shows that the variations encountered in practical welding can be overcome by the developed control system. In addition to penetration control, this work provides an example for developing robust manufacturing process control systems based on objective quantitative descriptions of the process uncertainty.

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49

Lee, Yongki, Jason Cheon, and Cheolhee Kim. "Review on Vacuum Laser Beam Welding." Journal of Welding and Joining 40, no. 1 (February 28, 2022): 74–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.5781/jwj.2022.40.1.8.

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Vacuum laser beam welding (VLBW) exhibits better welding characteristics, e.g., deep penetration, less pore, and spatter generation, compared with the conventional laser welding technique under atmospheric pressure. Low ambient pressure affects the vaporization temperature of the base material and the interaction between laser and plasma plume, which affects the behaviors of laser-induced plasma plume, keyhole, and weld pool flow. This review introduces improvements in welding characteristics such as penetration depth, pore, and spatter generation in the VLBW process. The effect of ambient pressure on welding characteristics was reviewed, and the behavior of laser-induced plume, keyhole, and molten pool under reduced ambient pressure was discussed to understand the mechanisms for enhanced weldability.

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50

Fabbro, Rémy, Mohammed Hamadou, and Frederic Coste. "Metallic vapor ejection effect on melt pool dynamics in deep penetration laser welding." Journal of Laser Applications 16, no. 1 (February 2004): 16–19. http://dx.doi.org/10.2351/1.1642633.

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