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1
Kliučininkas, Linas, Simona Balkevičiene, and Jolita Mockuviene. "MODELLING OF TRAFFIC POLICY MEASURES FOR AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT." Environment. Technology. Resources. Proceedings of the International Scientific and Practical Conference 1 (June 18, 2005): 187. http://dx.doi.org/10.17770/etr2005vol1.2133.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This paper presents the application of the Integrated Transport Effect Modeling System ITEMS, taking into consideration existing vehicle fleet, traffic flows, and ambient air quality monitoring data. The objective of this study is to estimate the exhausts of CO, NOx, and SO2 released by motor vehicles in relation to predictive traffic policy measures in Kaunas, Lithuania.This study analyses the extent to which some traffic policies and future trends may influence the ambient air pollution in urban environment. Three traffic policy measures such as: i) increase of car parking fee; ii) reduction of car parking places; iii) introduction of dedicated traffic lines for public transport are considered as the case studies to examine the extend to which they could reduce emissions from motor vehicles. At the same time, each policy measure comprises four scenarios including one, which indicates the current situation. The comparative analyses of the influence of different traffic policy measures on vehicle/passenger kilometres travelled and on emissions are presented.
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Maslina, Maslina, and Bima Dhevrando. "ANALISIS KESELAMATAN LALU-LINTAS JL.SOEKARNO HATTA BALIKPAPAN." INFO-TEKNIK 20, no. 1 (June 20, 2020): 1. http://dx.doi.org/10.20527/infotek.v20i1.6951.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Soekarno Hatta Road is one of the road shaft beetween Balikpapan and Samarinda which has 119 kilometres long. This road is province roads that had been through out or passed by with typical heavy and light vehicles which has high intensity accident level. This research is aimed to devise factor and characteristic of accidents along Sokearno Hatta roads from zero kilometres until 13th kilometres.
This research begun with roads survey observation and secondary data collection including with roads accidents documents for the pass 3 years.( which is in years of 2015 – 2017). Data analysis prepared with calculating numbers of accidents using formula EAN (Equivalent Accidents Number) and UCL Method (Upper Control Limit) for determination area with high risk accidents (Black Spot). Anatomy Accidents Data Documents were enumerated to analyze in that specified area. That can be conclude that the numbers of accidents on Soekarno Hatta Street from zero kilometres until 13th kilometreswith EAN method i.g : more than 84 times bigger different from UCL value i.g: 43,3. Accidents that was happened in the mornings at weekdays Monday to Friday which were implicate 2 motorcycles and passenger in fifthteen till twenty years old students (boys).
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Liu, Yingying, Xueyan Zhao, Jing Wang, Shengnan Zhu, Bin Han, Di Zhao, Xinhua Wang, and Chunmei Geng. "A Comprehensive 2018-Based Vehicle Emission Inventory and Its Spatial–Temporal Characteristics in the Central Liaoning Urban Agglomeration, China." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19, no. 4 (February 11, 2022): 2033. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042033.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Rapid economic expansion and urbanisation have seriously affected the atmospheric environmental quality of the Central Liaoning Urban Agglomeration (CLUA). This study aimed to establish a detailed vehicle emission inventory of the CLUA with a 3 km × 3 km gridded spatiotemporal distribution. A top-down methodology using vehicle kilometres travelled annually, emission factors, and activity data of each city was established. Carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), ammonia (NH3), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5), particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm (PM10), Black Carbon (BC), and organic carbon (OC) emissions were 291.0, 221.8, 3.6, 2.2, 42.8, 9.3, 10.3, 5.2, and 1.6 Gg in 2018, respectively. The contribution of diesel heavy-duty trucks to NOx, SO2, PM2.5, PM10, BC, and OC emissions was greater than 54.5%, the largest contribution of all vehicles. Gasoline small passenger vehicles were the primary contributor to CO, VOC, and NH3 emissions, contributing 37.3%, 39.5%, and 75.3% of total emissions, respectively. For emission standards, Pre-China 1 vehicles were the largest contributor to CO and VOC emissions and China 3 vehicles contributed the largest amount of NOx, SO2, PM2.5, PM10, BC, and OC emissions. The spatial distribution of pollutants showed “obvious lines” and grids with high emissions were concentrated in expressways, national highways, and provincial highways. The temporal variation showed morning–evening peaks during diurnal variations, which was consistent with resident behaviour. This work can help us understand vehicular emission characteristics of the CLUA and provide basic data for air quality modelling. Future research should investigate traffic flow by vehicle types and emission factors at a local level, which will be helpful for transport management planning.
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Teske, Sven, Stefan Bratzel, Ralf Tellermann, Benjamin Stephan, and Mauricio Vargas. "Net Zero: The Remaining Global Market Volume for Internal Combustion Engines in Light-Duty Vehicles under a 1.5 °C Carbon Budget Trajectory." Energies 15, no. 21 (October 28, 2022): 8037. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15218037.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
To achieve the goals of the Paris Climate Agreement, decarbonization targets for the global automotive industry are required. We assess the quantity of light-duty vehicles (LDVs) with internal combustion engines (ICEs) that can be manufactured within the identified carbon budget and compare it with the current sales plans of the four largest automobile manufacturers—Volkswagen, General Motors, Toyota, and Hyundai/Kia—as representative of traditional car manufacturers. We first describe the quantification of a carbon budget for LDVs under the 1.5 °C target and a methodology for calculating the market shares that will allow different drive-train technologies to stay within it. The global LDV market for new sales and historic and future vehicle retirement rates are presented, together with assumptions for car usage (in passenger kilometres per year) and fuel efficiencies. We calculate the quantity of ICE LDVs that can be sold before the manufacture of ICEs must cease globally. We then compare this upper global limit with the current sales plans of car companies. The plans of the four manufacturers differ, but all considerably exceed the number of ICE vehicle sales required to meet the 1.5 °C target. This analysis does not forecast the development of the global LDV market, but assesses the gap between manufacturers’ intention and the requirement under a 1.5 °C pathway.
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Babanoski, Kire, Ice Ilijevski, and Zlate Dimovski. "Analysis of Road Traffic Safety through Direct Relative Indicators for Traffic Accidents Fatality: Case of Republic of Macedonia." PROMET - Traffic&Transportation 28, no. 6 (December 19, 2016): 661–69. http://dx.doi.org/10.7307/ptt.v28i6.2137.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the absence of a detailed profile and assessment of the road traffic safety situation in the Republic of Macedonia, the paper will show the analysis by calculating and comparing the direct relative indicators for deaths from traffic accidents in relation to the total population (public risk), the total number of vehicles (traffic risk) and the total number of passenger-kilometres (dynamic traffic risk). Their established trends in the period 2005-2014 will also be shown and then compared with the levels in other European countries. Within the risks, there is additionally the risk of suffering that takes into account the consequences of accidents to people (human losses, heavy and light bodily injuries), which will be calculated and analysed for the area covered by the eight Sectors for Internal Affairs (SIA) in the Republic of Macedonia. For this purpose maps of the public risk of suffering from accidents on the roads will be made, which will closely show the traffic safety situation in the country. The diagnosing of the traffic safety situation will contribute to the creation of new measures and activities or improving the existing ones by the competent authorities in order to promote the road traffic safety.
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SZYMLET, Natalia, Piotr LIJEWSKI, Łukasz RYMANIAK, Barbara SOKOLNICKA, and Maciej SIEDLECKI. "Comparative analysis of exhaust emissions from passenger cars and motorcycles." Combustion Engines 177, no. 2 (May 1, 2019): 19–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.19206/ce-2019-204.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The subject of this article is a comparative analysis of exhaust emissions for: HC (hydrocarbons), CO (carbon monoxide), CO2 (car-bon dioxide), NOx (nitrogen oxides) from a passenger vehicle and a motorcycle in laboratory conditions on a dynamometer station. The first vehicle category was represented by a compression-ignition engine with a displacement volume of 1.3 dm3 and a power of 66 kW. The exhaust aftertreatment system included a catalytic converter and a particulate filter. The second category was a motorcycle, equipped with an engine with a displacement of 0.7 dm3 and a maximum power of 55 kW. The two-wheeled vehicle was equipped with a three-way catalytic converter. Speeds were modeled on the European type approval test – NEDC (New European Driving Cycle). In order to conduct a comparative analysis of exhaust emissions and fuel consumption from vehicles of different categories, the obtained results were presented in the form of emissions converted into passenger-kilometers (g/pkm). The research used modern equipment belonging to the PEMS (Portable Emissions Measurement Systems) group of devices. The analyzes carried out enable the decision mak-ing on which vehicles have a greater environmental impact due to their exhaust emissions, taking into account the distance and the number of passengers carried.
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Utama, Muhammad Gemilang P., and Nirwana Puspasari. "Analisa Biaya Operasional Kendaraan Bus Angkutan Kota Jurusan Palangka Raya-Pangkalan Bun." Media Ilmiah Teknik Sipil 8, no. 2 (June 1, 2020): 96–103. http://dx.doi.org/10.33084/mits.v8i2.1407.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Transportation is an important role in aspects of social economic and cultural activities. Based on the distribution of passenger traffic in and out of the land transportation, the Bus fleet majoring in Palangkaraya-Pangkalan Bun is the most desirable transportation service because travel times are faster and more efficient. The research objective is to determine the magnitude of operational costs for public transportation vehicles Palangka Raya-Pangkalan Bun. The method of collecting passenger data and bus fleet data is a non-random sampling method. Primary data in the form of vehicle operating costs are analyzed by the method of cost per kilometer approach for each vehicle, revenue is analyzed by the method of approaching the average amount of revenue of the company per year and subtracted by total vehicle operating costs per kilometer, rates are analyzed by the method of adding the fixed cost components, costs variable and overhead costs in units per passenger and Fare Box Ratio (FBR) are analyzed using the method of comparing the value of Vehicle Operating Costs per year with annual income. From the results of the study, the amount of Operational Cost needs is spent at 81% of annual income. With a Factor Load calculation of 12 passengers per Trip over the past three years. The fare incurred for ticket purchase per one time departure is Rp 130,000.00 with a Fare Box Ratio (FBR) of 123% so that it can be categorized as a profit
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Liyanage, Sohani, and Hussein Dia. "An Agent-Based Simulation Approach for Evaluating the Performance of On-Demand Bus Services." Sustainability 12, no. 10 (May 18, 2020): 4117. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12104117.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
On-demand multi-passenger shared transport options are increasingly being promoted as an influential strategy to reduce traffic congestion and emissions and improve the convenience and travel experience for passengers. These services, often referred to as on-demand public transport, are aimed at meeting personal travel demands through the use of shared vehicles that run on flexible routes using advanced tools for dynamic scheduling. This paper presents an agent-based traffic simulation model that was developed to evaluate the performance of on-demand public transport and compare it with existing scheduled bus services using a case study of the inner city of Melbourne in Australia. The key performance measures used in the comparative evaluation included quality of service and passenger experience in terms of waiting times, the efficiency of service and operations in terms of hourly vehicle utilization, and system efficiency in terms of trip completion rates, passenger kilometers travelled and total passenger trip times. The results showed significant benefits for passengers who use on-demand bus services compared to scheduled bus services. The on-demand bus service was found to reduce average total passenger waiting times by 89% during the Morning Peak; by 78% during the Mid-Day period; by 81% during the Afternoon Peak; and by more than 95% during other periods of the day. From an operator’s perspective, the on-demand services were found to achieve around 70% vehicle utilization rates during peak hours compared to a utilization rate not exceeding 16% for the scheduled bus services. Even during off-peak periods, the occupancies for on-demand services were almost twice the vehicle occupancies for scheduled bus services. In terms of system efficiency, the on-demand services achieved a trip completion rate of 85% compared to a trip completion rate of 67% for the scheduled bus services. The total passenger-kilometers travelled was similar for both scheduled and on-demand bus services, which refutes claims that on-demand bus services induce more kilometers of travel. The trip completion times were around 55% shorter for on-demand bus services compared to scheduled services, which represents a significant saving in travel time for users. Finally, the paper presents average emissions per completed trip for both types of services and shows a significant reduction in emissions for on-demand services compared to conventional bus services. These include, on average, a 48% reduction in CO2 emissions per trip; 82% reduction in NO emissions per trip; and 41% reduction in p.m.10 emissions per trip. These findings clearly demonstrate the superior benefits of on-demand bus services compared to scheduled bus services.
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Narváez-Villa, Paúl, Blanca Arenas-Ramírez, José Mira, and Francisco Aparicio-Izquierdo. "Analysis and Prediction of Vehicle Kilometers Traveled: A Case Study in Spain." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18, no. 16 (August 6, 2021): 8327. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168327.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Knowledge of the kilometers traveled by vehicles is essential in transport and road safety studies as an indicator of exposure and mobility. Its application in the determination of user risk indices in a disaggregated manner is of great interest to the scientific community and the authorities in charge of ensuring road safety on highways. This study used a sample of the data recorded during passenger vehicle inspections at Vehicle Technical Inspection stations and housed in a data warehouse managed by the General Directorate for Traffic of Spain. This study has three notable characteristics: (1) a novel data source is explored, (2) the methodology developed applies to other types of vehicles, with the level of disaggregation the data allows, and (3) pattern extraction and the estimate of mobility contribute to the continuous and necessary improvement of road safety indicators and are aligned with goal 3 (Good Health and Well-Being: Target 3.6) of The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda. An Operational Data Warehouse was created from the sample received, which helped in obtaining inference values for the kilometers traveled by Spanish fleet vehicles with a level of disaggregation that, to the knowledge of the authors, was unreachable with advanced statistical models. Three machine learning methods, CART, random forest, and gradient boosting, were optimized and compared based on the performance metrics of the models. The three methods identified the age, engine size, and tare weight of passenger vehicles as the factors with greatest influence on their travel patterns.
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Ehrenberger, Simone, Isheeka Dasgupta, Mascha Brost, Laura Gebhardt, and Robert Seiffert. "Potentials of Light Electric Vehicles for Climate Protection by Substituting Passenger Car Trips." World Electric Vehicle Journal 13, no. 10 (October 2, 2022): 183. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/wevj13100183.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
For the transformation of the mobility sector, small and light electric vehicles (LEV) show great promise, owing to their efficiency and low vehicle weight resulting in low energy consumption and lower greenhouse gas emissions per driven kilometer. The presented study focuses on the theoretical potential of substitutability of passenger car trips in Germany by varied LEVs based on the “Mobilität in Deutschland 2017” (“Mobility in Germany 2017”) dataset, for the year 2030. A detailed approach for identifying substitutable car trips was developed, reflecting age, trip purpose, number of passengers, and other decision criteria. By conducting a life cycle assessment of the considered LEVs and passenger cars, potential emission savings were analyzed. In the considered baseline scenario, it is found that emissions could be reduced by 44 % with 50% of passenger car mileage being substituted by LEVs. This study, thereby, gives way to further research on LEVs, and would urge both policy makers and general users to steer towards comprehensive measures that encourage a switch from cars to LEVs.
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Zadorozhnyi, Zenovii-Mykhaylo, Volodymyr Muravskyi, Mariya Shesternyak, and Anna Hrytsyshyn. "Innovative NFC-validation system for accounting of income and expenses of public transport enterprises." Marketing and Management of Innovations 1, no. 1 (2022): 84–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.21272/mmi.2022.1-06.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
To control pricing in passenger transportation, monitor the functioning of urban transport networks, reduce direct contacts during the COVID-19 pandemic, it is advisable to implement a system of NFC validation of fares. NFC (Near-Field Communication) technology provides primary information on public transport and travel fares. The article aims to improve the method of application of the technology of automated NFC-validation of fares in urban passenger transport to account for and control provided transport services. The tasks include research of mechanisms of the automated identification and counting of quantity of the transported passengers to account incomes of the motor transport enterprises; selection of calculation units for automated determination of the cost of provided transport services; development of control methods of drivers work, the operation of vehicles, transportation of privileged categories of citizens, pricing, etc. Theoretical and methodological aspects of NFC-validation technologies for public transport fares for accounting purposes have been studied based on general research methods – institutional and innovative; economic and mathematical methods of analysis and polynomial trend using Excel spreadsheets were used to predict the pace of implementation of NFC-devices; methods of bibliographic and comparative analysis using the information resource «ResearchGate»– to determine promising areas for new technologies in the provision of transport and passenger services. It is proved that the most effective unit of cost calculation of transport services is «passenger-kilometer», which corresponds to the peculiarities of the functioning of urban passenger transport, as it takes into account the number of passengers and distance of travel. The procedure for distribution of income from the sale of electronic tickets and budget subsidies between carriers based on information on the total number (including privileged categories) of transported passengers has been developed. The method of automated cost accounting by the «passenger-kilometer» meter for fuels and lubricants, staff salaries, depreciation of vehicles, and its current repairs, which define the cost of transport services, is improved. Implementing NFC fare validation technology will facilitate automated accounting of costs, revenues, and cash receipts from transport services, the introduction of effective control over the work of drivers, vehicles, concessional transportation, pricing, timeliness, and reliability taxes on urban transport.
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Khan Ankur, Atiquzzaman, Stefan Kraus, Thomas Grube, Rui Castro, and Detlef Stolten. "A Versatile Model for Estimating the Fuel Consumption of a Wide Range of Transport Modes." Energies 15, no. 6 (March 18, 2022): 2232. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en15062232.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The importance of a flexible and comprehensive vehicle fuel consumption model cannot be understated for understanding the implications of the modal changes currently occurring in the transportation sector. In this study, a model is developed to determine the tank-to-wheel energy demand for passenger and freight transportation within Germany for different modes of transport. These modes include light-duty vehicles (LDVs), heavy-duty vehicles (HDVs), airplanes, trains, ships, and unmanned aviation. The model further estimates future development through 2050. Utilizing standard driving cycles, backward-looking longitudinal vehicle models are employed to determine the energy demand for all on-road vehicle modes. For non-road vehicle modes, energy demand from the literature is drawn upon to develop the model. It is found that various vehicle parameters exert different effects on vehicle energy demand, depending on the driving scenario. Public transportation offers the most energy-efficient means of travel in the forms of battery electric buses (33.9 MJ/100 pkm), battery electric coaches (21.3 MJ/100 pkm), fuel cell electric coaches (32.9 MJ/100 pkm), trams (43.3 MJ/100 pkm), and long-distance electric trains (31.8 MJ/100 pkm). International shipping (9.9 MJ/100 tkm) is the most energy-efficient means of freight transport. The electrification of drivetrains and the implementation of regenerative braking show large potential for fuel consumption reduction, especially in urban areas. Occupancy and loading rates for vehicles play a critical role in determining the energy demand per passenger-kilometer for passenger modes, and tonne-kilometer for freight modes.
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Bhagat, Sadan Kumar. "Situation of Land Transportation in Nepal." Tribhuvan University Journal 31, no. 1-2 (December 31, 2017): 193–206. http://dx.doi.org/10.3126/tuj.v31i1-2.25355.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
There is a close relation between increment of transportation (roads and vehicles) and socio-economic development of the nation however, present condition of Nepal is discouraging. The study deals with present situation of land transportation, its problems with suggestions. An attempt has been made to point out causes and nature of road accidents, problems faced by general people and businessmen during travel and transportation of cargo. This study reveals that out of 29157 kilometers available road network only 12305 kilometers (42.20 %) road was black topped and the condition of road was miserable because there was no proper and regular repair and maintenance. Graveled roads were in very poor condition and in most of the roads and bridges were not constructed. Earthen roads were not suitable for travelling in rainy season. The buses run on long routes were found violating norm of keeping double drivers, the speed of vehicle remained higher than limit. They unnecessarily used loud or pressurize horn which had created noise pollution. The vehicles moved on graveled and earthen roads had been operating in poor condition. Vehicles were very old and damaged and only a few vehicles moved on certain routes. Vehicle accident incidences had frequently occurred in hilly areas where vehicles plunged down from the road and number of fatalities and injuries were found in double digit. The major reasons of accidents were high speed of vehicles, steering or brake failure, untrained and intoxicated drivers, driving by cleaner/conductor, continuous long duty hours of drivers, poor condition of vehicle, muddy and slippery roads, haphazard overtaking practice on single lane roads, lack of concentration of drivers on driving , non-observance of safety measures, traffic rules and signs, drove vehicle without wearing seat belt/helmet, kept more passengers than allowed/available seats, hung passengers on gate, backside and roof, loaded cargo beyond the limited weight and height respectively.
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Gis, Wojciech, Jerzy Waśkiewicz, Maciej Menes, and Maciej Gis. "Comparative Preliminary Unit Costs Analysis of the Operation of Passenger Cars with Combustion Engines and Fuel Cell Vehicles Powered by Hydrogen." Journal of KONES 26, no. 4 (December 1, 2019): 69–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/kones-2019-0091.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
AbstractThe article presents political and legal aspects regarding the recommendation for the development of hydrogen technology in the economy and in transport. The development of electric cars with hydrogen-powered fuel cells, which took place in recent years in the world, has been outlined. The principles of calculation of average vehicle operating costs applicable in the transport economics are discussed. The estimated average unit operating costs of a statistical passenger car using conventional energy carriers, estimated in the studies of the Motor Transport Institute are quoted. The assumptions and results of the estimation of the average cost per 1 vehicle-kilometre of the electric passenger car’s mileage (BEV) have been presented, as well as the assumptions and results of the estimation of the average unit operating costs of a hydrogen powered passenger car (FCEV). The average unit costs of the mileage of these vehicles have been compared. The predictions regarding the future changes in the average prices of FCEV vehicles have been cited and the average unit costs of operating electric cars with fuel cells by the 2050 have been estimated. The project of administrative support for the development of low-emission transport in Poland was indicated.
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Jalali, Roozbeh, Seama Koohi-Fayegh, Khalil El-Khatib, Daniel Hoornweg, and Heng Li. "Investigating the Potential of Ridesharing to Reduce Vehicle Emissions." Urban Planning 2, no. 2 (June 29, 2017): 26–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.17645/up.v2i2.937.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
As urban populations grow, cities need new strategies to maintain a good standard of living while enhancing services and infrastructure development. A key area for improving city operations and spatial layout is the transportation of people and goods. While conventional transportation systems (i.e., fossil fuel based) are struggling to serve mobility needs for growing populations, they also represent serious environmental threats. Alternative-fuel vehicles can reduce emissions that contribute to local air pollution and greenhouse gases as mobility needs grow. However, even if alternative-powered vehicles were widely employed, road congestion would still increase. This paper investigates ridesharing as a mobility option to reduce emissions (carbon, particulates and ozone) while accommodating growing transportation needs and reducing overall congestion. The potential of ridesharing to reduce carbon emissions from personal vehicles in Changsha, China, is examined by reviewing mobility patterns of approximately 8,900 privately-owned vehicles over two months. Big data analytics identify ridesharing potential among these drivers by grouping vehicles by their trajectory similarity. The approach includes five steps: data preprocessing, trip recognition, feature vector creation, similarity measurement and clustering. Potential reductions in vehicle emissions through ridesharing among a specific group of drivers are calculated and discussed. While the quantitative results of this analysis are specific to the population of Changsha, they provide useful insights for the potential of ridesharing to reduce vehicle emissions and the congestion expected to grow with mobility needs. Within the study area, ridesharing has the potential to reduce total kilometers driven by about 24% assuming a maximum distance between trips less than 10 kilometers, and schedule time less than 60 minutes. For a more conservative maximum trip distance of 2 kilometers and passenger schedule time of less than 40 minutes, the reductions in traveled kilometers could translate to the equivalent of approximately 4.0 tons CO2 emission reductions daily.
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Handajani, Mudjiastuti, Ferry Firmawan, and Harmini Harmini. "PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS AND MODELING OF PASSENGER PUBLIC TRANSPORT SERVICES IN SALATIGA CITY." astonjadro 11, no. 1 (December 22, 2021): 61. http://dx.doi.org/10.32832/astonjadro.v11i1.5674.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
<p>The performance condition of public transportation services in Salatiga City does have an average rating of still good, but it still has classic problems such as there is no passenger stop, public transportation takes a long time to catch up on deposits, and passengers do not know the fare per kilometer that must be paid. These conditions encourage research activities in the form of an analysis of the performance of public transport passengers in Salatiga City (Case Study of the Tamansari – Blotongan Route). The long-term goal of this research is that the resulting analysis can contribute to stakeholders in Salatiga City, especially in terms of (public transport) towards smart transportation. The specific target to be achieved from the research is the analysis and modeling of the performance of passenger public transport services that will be carried out in Salatiga City, in the form of field surveys and secondary data collection, namely: number of vehicles, number of passengers and data in the form of public transport routes: routes, schedules, speeds and Primary forms are: boarding alighting (up and down passengers) and headway (distance between two public transport vehicles). The analytical method used is the analysis and modeling of the performance of passenger public transportation services in accordance with Government Regulation No. 10 of 2012 Directorate General of Land Transportation concerning Minimum Service Standards for Road-Based Mass Transportation. The results showed that the physical condition of the passenger fleet of Salatiga City on the Tamansari - Blotongan PP route was classified as suitable for use. There are a total of 90 fleets that are sufficient for the needs of Salatiga City public transport passengers who want to travel by means of transportation. The results of the performance analysis based on various indicators show that the performance quality of public transportation services in Salatiga City has met the standards set by the Directorate General of Land Transportation. It can be seen from the results of the load factor analysis with a value of 0.72, the value is included in category A, namely > 0.8. For the level of satisfaction and level of performance, most of the indicators have met the satisfaction of public transport passengers in Salatiga City, so it is sufficient to maintain it. However, there are indicators of waiting times for public transportation that need to be improved.</p>
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Obaid, Mohammed, and Arpad Torok. "Macroscopic Traffic Simulation of Autonomous Vehicle Effects." Vehicles 3, no. 2 (April 29, 2021): 187–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/vehicles3020012.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The increasing worldwide demand on urban road transportation systems requires more restrictive measures and policies to reduce congestion, time delay and pollution. Autonomous vehicle mobility services, both shared and private, are possibly a good step towards a better road transportation future. This article aims to study the expected impact of private autonomous vehicles on road traffic parameters from a macroscopic level. The proposed methodology focuses on finding the different effects of different combinations of autonomous vehicle penetration and Passenger Car Units (PCU) on the chosen road traffic model. Four parameters are studied: traveled daily kilometers, daily hours, total daily delay and average network speed. The analysis improves the four parameters differently by implementing autonomous vehicles. The parameter total delay has the most significant reduction. Finally, several mathematical models are developed for the percentage of improvement for each chosen parameter.
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Wen, Huiying, Jiaren Sun, Qiang Zeng, Xuan Zhang, and Quan Yuan. "The Effects of Traffic Composition on Freeway Crash Frequency by Injury Severity: A Bayesian Multivariate Spatial Modeling Approach." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2018 (August 7, 2018): 1–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2018/6964828.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This study sets out to investigate the effects of traffic composition on freeway crash frequency by injury severity. A crash dataset collected from Kaiyang Freeway, China, is adopted for the empirical analysis, where vehicles are divided into five categories and crashes are classified into no injury and injury levels. In consideration of correlated spatial effects between adjacent segments, a Bayesian multivariate conditional autoregressive model is proposed to link no-injury and injury crash frequencies to the risk factors, including the percentages of different vehicle categories, daily vehicle kilometers traveled (DVKT), and roadway geometry. The model estimation results show that, compared to Category 5 vehicles (e.g., heavy truck), larger percentages of Categories 1 (e.g., passenger car) and 3 (e.g., medium truck) vehicles would lead to less no-injury crashes and more injury crashes. DVKT, horizontal curvature, and vertical grade are also found to be associated with no-injury and/or injury crash frequencies. The significant heterogeneous and spatial effects for no-injury and injury crashes justify the applicability of the proposed model. The findings are helpful to understand the relationship between traffic composition and freeway safety and to provide suggestions for designing strategies of vehicle safety improvement.
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Balac, Milos, Sebastian Hörl, and Kay W. Axhausen. "Fleet Sizing for Pooled (Automated) Vehicle Fleets." Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board 2674, no. 9 (July 1, 2020): 168–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0361198120927388.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This paper proposes an (automated) on-demand public transport service using different vehicle capacities to serve current car demand in cities. The service relies on space and time aggregation of passengers that have similar origins and destinations. It provides a point-to-point service with predefined pick-up and drop-off locations. In this way, detours to pick-up en-route passengers is avoided. The optimization problem that minimizes the fleet size along with limiting rebalancing distances is defined as a mixed-integer linear programming problem. Solving the problem for Zurich, Switzerland, yields, in the best case, a fleet size equal to 3.7% of the current fleet that could serve current car demand. Vehicle kilometers traveled could also be reduced by nearly 10%. Results also show that the speed of automated vehicles has a substantial effect on the necessary fleet size and free-flow speeds generally produce over-optimistic results.
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Liu, Yu, Kunqi Ma, Hanzhengnan Yu, Jingyuan Li, and Xiaopan An. "Influence of Test Cycles on Energy Consumption Test of Electric Vehicles." E3S Web of Conferences 241 (2021): 02004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202124102004.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In order to verify the necessity of the application of China Automotive Test Cycle which is constructed through actual driving data in china of more than 55 million kilometers in the energy consumption test of electric vehicles in China, this paper compares the characteristics of New European Test Cycle (NEDC), World-wide harmonized Light duty Test Cycle (WLTC) and China light-duty vehicle test cycle for passenger car(CLTC-P), and analyzes the differences of vehicle energy demand under different test cycles from theoretical and simulation point, simulation results show that the endurance mileage is longest and the energy recovery strategy is more effective under CLTC-P cycle. Finally, four types of vehicles are selected to carry out the endurance mileage test under these three test cycles. The test results are consistent with the simulation results. Therefore, in order to make the test results of electric vehicle energy consumption closer to the actual use of our country, CLTC-P should be selected to replace NEDC and WLTC cycle.
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Truong, Tuyen, Phong Vu Truong, and Viet Quoc Tran. "IoT-based Hybrid Wireless Network for Tourist Boat Tracking towards Smart Cities." EAI Endorsed Transactions on Smart Cities 7, no. 1 (March 23, 2023): e2. http://dx.doi.org/10.4108/eetsc.v7i1.2789.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Moving and transporting by canoe and boat on rivers and canals is a cultural feature of the Mekong Delta and plays an important role in the economy and society. However, the management and use of equipment to support the monitoring of waterway transport vehicles in this area has yet to receive adequate investment and attention. Given the complicated evolution of the COVID-19 epidemic, it is critical to strengthen oversight of inland waterway management, as well as freight and passenger transportation. This paper presents the design and implementation of an IoT-based support system for managing and monitoring passenger ships and tourism activities in smart cities. This study proposes a hybrid wireless communication network solution that takes advantage of the strengths of LoRa and Zigbee wireless communication technologies, as well as telecommunication networks, to ensure that the system has a wide operating range of several kilometers, low power consumption, and can be deployed in areas where telecommunications are not available. Aside from tracking the journey and managing information about vehicles, drivers, and passengers, the system also aids in the collection of environmental parameters along river routes according to the travel route. An experimental evaluation of the system's operation was carried out for the tourist boat route between two famous tourist sites, Ninh Kieu Key and Cai Rang floating market in Can Tho city, Vietnam.
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Wang, Senlei, Goncalo Homem de Almeida Correia, and Hai Xiang Lin. "Exploring the Performance of Different On-Demand Transit Services Provided by a Fleet of Shared Automated Vehicles: An Agent-Based Model." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2019 (December 16, 2019): 1–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/7878042.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Automated vehicles used as public transport show a great promise of revolutionizing current transportation systems. Still, there are many questions as to how these systems should be organized and operated in cities to bring the best out of future services. In this study, an agent-based model (ABM) is developed to simulate the on-demand operations of shared automated vehicles (SAVs) in a parallel transit service (PTS) and a tailored time-varying transit service (TVTS). The proposed TVTS system can switch service schemes between a door-to-door service (DDS) and a station-to-station service (SSS) according to what is best for the service providers and the travelers. In addition, the proposed PTS system that allows DDS and SSS to operate simultaneously is simulated. To test the conceptual design of the proposed SAV system, simulation experiments are performed in a hypothetical urban area to show the potential of different SAV schemes. Simulation results suggest that SAV systems together with dynamic ridesharing can significantly reduce average waiting time, the vehicle kilometres travelled and empty SAV trips. Moreover, the proposed optimal vehicle assignment algorithm can significantly reduce the empty vehicle kilometres travelled (VKT) for the pickups for all tested SAV systems up to about 40% and improve the system capacity for transporting the passengers. Comparing the TVTS system, which has inconvenient access in peak hours, with the PTS systems, which always makes available door-to-door transport, we conclude that the latter could achieve a similar system performance as the former in terms of average waiting time, service time and system capacity.
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Romano Alho, André, Takanori Sakai, Simon Oh, Cheng Cheng, Ravi Seshadri, Wen Han Chong, Yusuke Hara, Julia Caravias, Lynette Cheah, and Moshe Ben-Akiva. "A Simulation-Based Evaluation of a Cargo-Hitching Service for E-Commerce Using Mobility-on-Demand Vehicles." Future Transportation 1, no. 3 (November 3, 2021): 639–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp1030034.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Time-sensitive parcel deliveries—shipments requested for delivery in a day or less—are an increasingly important aspect of urban logistics. It is challenging to deal with these deliveries from a carrier perspective. These require additional planning constraints, preventing the efficient consolidation of deliveries that is possible when demand is well known in advance. Furthermore, such time-sensitive deliveries are requested to a wider spatial scope than retail centers, including homes and offices. Therefore, an increase in such deliveries is considered to exacerbate negative externalities, such as congestion and emissions. One of the solutions is to leverage spare capacity in passenger transport modes. This concept is often denominated as cargo hitching. While there are various system designs, it is crucial that such a solution does not deteriorate the quality of service of passenger trips. This research aims to evaluate the use of mobility-on-demand (MOD) services that perform same-day parcel deliveries. To test the MOD-based solutions, we utilize a high-resolution agent- and activity-based simulation platform of passenger and freight flows. E-commerce demand carrier data collected in Singapore are used to characterize simulated parcel delivery demand. We explore operational scenarios that aim to minimize the adverse effects of fulfilling deliveries with MOD service vehicles on passenger flows. Adverse effects are measured in fulfillment, wait, and travel times. A case study on Singapore indicates that the MOD services have potential to fulfill a considerable amount of parcel deliveries and decrease freight vehicle traffic and total vehicle kilometers travelled without compromising the quality of MOD for passenger travel. Insights into the operational performance of the cargo-hitching service are also provided.
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Grzelak, Małgorzata, Grzegorz Wiejak, and Andrzej Świderski. "Forecasting the number of vehicle kilometers by applying the autoregression model, using Warsaw trams as an example." WUT Journal of Transportation Engineering 134 (June 1, 2022): 83–93. http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/01.3001.0016.1352.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
One of the biggest challenges of the 21st century is ecological responsibility. It also concerns the sustainable development of transport and the reduction of threats related to the negative impact of this phenomenon on the environment. A constant increase in transport congestion, atmospheric air pollution, and noise promotes the search for new solutions, especially in urban areas. One of the systematically implemented and improved ideas in this area is the development of urban transport systems. Their effectiveness and efficiency are evidenced by the level of meeting the transport needs of residents, with the optimal utilization of vehicles. The article analyses urban transport in Warsaw, focusing only on trams as the second most popular means of transport after wheeled vehicles. Two objectives of the study were adopted. The first was evaluating the current state and characteristics of the available options and indicating potential development directions, considering factors that determine it. The second goal was to select the appropriate model describing the number of vehicle kilometers accumulated by Warsaw trams in the years 2017-2019 and parametric identification of this model. The study allowed us to estimate and make a short-term forecast of transport services carried out by trams. The research has shown that the current situation regarding the performance of transport work by trams in Warsaw does not fit into the paradigm of sustainable transport development. This is due to the loss of vehicles from the records in the absence of new vehicle purchases. Additionally, the developed tool indicates a decrease in the number of vehicles-km performed in the following months and, thus, a reduction in the share of trams in transport in the Warsaw communication system. The identified problem (i.e., a downward trend in transport performance) is essential from the point of view of the quality of the system's operation and the ability to meet passengers' expectations. It also informs decision-makers about the need to implement changes leading to an increase in the share of tram transport, mainly in capacity and operating costs.
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Grythe, Henrik, Susana Lopez-Aparicio, Harald Høyem, and Torleif Weydahl. "Decoupling Emission Reductions and Trade-Offs of Policies in Norway Based on a Bottom-Up Traffic Emission Model." Atmosphere 13, no. 8 (August 12, 2022): 1284. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081284.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The way Norway is spearheading electrification in the transport sector is of global interest. In this study, we used the Norwegian Emissions from Road Vehicle Exhaust (NERVE) model, a bottom-up high-resolution traffic emission model, to calculate all emissions in Norway (2009–2020) and evaluate potential co-benefit and trade-offs of policies to target climate change mitigation, air quality and socioeconomic factors. Results for municipal data with regard to traffic growth, road network influences, vehicle composition, emissions and energy consumption are presented. Light vehicle CO2 emissions per kilometer have been reduced by 22% since 2009, mainly driven by an increasing bio-fuel mixing and battery electric vehicles (BEV) share. BEVs are mostly located in and around the main cities, areas with young vehicle fleets, and strong local incentives. Beneficiaries of BEVs incentives have been a subset of the population with strong economic indicators. The incentivized growth in the share of diesel-fuelled passenger vehicles has been turned, and together with Euro6 emission standards, light vehicle NOx emissions have been halved since peaking in 2014. BEVs represent an investment in emission reductions in years to come, and current sales set Norway up for an accelerated decline in all exhaust emissions despite the continual growth in traffic.
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Ayu Trisna Adhiswari Wedagama, Dewa, Ni Putu Delima Yogeswari Saraswati, and Luh Putu Egarustari. "Evaluasi dan Perencanaan Angkutan Sekolah di Kabupaten Gianyar." COMSERVA Indonesian Jurnal of Community Services and Development 2, no. 11 (March 27, 2023): 2820–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.59141/comserva.v2i11.687.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Gianyar got the position of fifth rank from all regencys in Bali Province as the highest number of schools, it has 382 schools. The highest number of schools in one region can make traffic density so it will cause congestion or crowded, because road capacity is inadequate. To overcome this problem, the Gianyar District Transportation Office held a free school transport program in the form of the Trans Harmoni Bus which has been operating since 2016 and Trans Gianyar transportation which was inaugurated on October 19, 2018. This research aims to evaluate the performance of school transport that is currently running, to analyze route changes, and to calculate the BOK (Vehicle Operating Costs) needed for the 2019 school year. This research uses primary data and secondary data. Primary data uses the form of interviews, questionnaires from students' routes, headway surveys and load factors. Secondary data uses the form of fleets, routes and existing routes, and route lengths. The method which is used is the analysis method based on the data obtained. The method is analyzing the performance of Gianyar Regency school transport according to the provisions of the Department of Transportation, arranging transportation routes, and calculating the vehicle operational costs. The results of Gianyar Regency school transport performance evaluation currently show the number of passengers, travel distance and transportation waiting time because they did not meet the standards of Department of Transportation, the level of fuel consumption with 12 routes that meet the standards, load factors only 10 routes that meet the standards, travel time only 1 route that meets the standards, travel speeds of all routes meet the standard, and headways with 5 routes that meet the standards. The results of the need analysis to change the route for 2019 are planned to be come 29 routes for Trans Gianyar transportation and 12 routes for the Trans Harmoni Bus. The highest BOK (Vehicle Operating Costs) per year and per kilometer based on the route plan for public passenger car vehicles is Rp. 67,218,681 per year and Rp. 14,142 per KM, for small bus vehicles Rp. 66,366,399 per year and Rp. 14,417 per km, and for bus vehicles medium amounting to Rp. 208,254,660 per year and Rp. 26,885 per KM.
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Zheleznyakov, Alexander B. "Mezonautes in Conditional Space." AEROSPACE SPHERE JOURNAL, no. 3 (October 14, 2021): 50–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.30981/2587-7992-2021-108-3-50-57.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In July 2021, regular flights of the Unity rocket plane and the New Shepard rocket with the First Step capsule took place. For the first time, both vehicles had passengers on board. The first of them rose to a height of about 86 kilometers, the second – "stepped" over a hundred-kilometer line. The events are long-awaited and, in a certain sense, significant. The media was quick to call the incident the beginning of the "era of space tourism". However, this name does not quite accurately reflect the essence of this phenomenon. Furthermore, it is impossible to consider the participants of these missions as cosmonauts. But, in any case, this is a new stage in technology development. The article provides brief information on the flights that took place. An attempt was made to understand the terminology issues. An assessment of the new phenomenon and its influence on the further development of aviation and cosmonautics is given.
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Alhindawi, Reham, Yousef Abu Nahleh, Arun Kumar, and Nirajan Shiwakoti. "Application of a Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Technique for Projection of the Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Road Transportation." Sustainability 11, no. 22 (November 12, 2019): 6346. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11226346.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In the past, different forecasting models have been proposed to predict greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, most of these models are unable to handle non-linear data. One of the most widely known techniques, the Adaptive Neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS), can deal with nonlinear data. Its ability to predict GHG emissions from road transportation is still unexplored. This study aims to fulfil that gap by adapting the ANFIS model to predict GHG emissions from road transportation by using the ratio between vehicle-kilometers and number of transportation vehicles for six transportation modes (passenger cars, motorcycle, light trucks, single-unit trucks, tractors, and buses) from the North American Transportation Statistics (NATS) online database over a period of 22 years. The results show that ANFIS is a suitable method to forecast GHG emissions from the road transportation sector.
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Stătescu, Alexandru-Eugen. "Statistical analysis of investments in transport infrastructure, passenger numbers, and energy consumption by modes of transport in Romania." Proceedings of the International Conference on Applied Statistics 1, no. 1 (October 1, 2019): 430–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.2478/icas-2019-0037.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract Economic and financial analysis is a method of knowing the mechanism of formation and modification of the economic phenomena by their decomposition into the component elements and by identifying the factors of influence. The object of decomposition by elements or factors may be a result (structural analysis), or a change in the result from a basis of comparison (causal analysis). In the present paper I propose an analysis of the investments according to the number of passengers and the consumption of energy on national transport modes in Romania within a period of 15 years, respectively between 2000 and 2015. For this purpose the data that will be used was published by the National Institute of Statistics, namely three indicators: investments in transport infrastructure, the weight of each mode in passenger transport and the consumption of energy by modes of transport. Energy consumption by modes of transport is the final energy consumption of transport activity by modes of transport, expressed in tones oil equivalent (toe). The quantities of energy used in international maritime and air transport and pipeline transport are not included. The main types of fuels used are the main fuels covered by petroleum products, electricity and small amounts of gas and biofuels. The weight of each mode in passenger transport is defined as the percentage share of each mode of transport in total domestic passenger transport. The modes of transport considered are: a) cars, b) buses and coaches, and c) trains (metro and trams and light metro are excluded). Domestic passenger transport includes data referring only to national transport, irrespective of the nationality of the transport vehicle. The weight is calculated from the passenger-km indicator (pkm), defined as the transport of a passenger over one kilometer. The investments in the transport infrastructure represent the construction works carried out for the development of the transport infrastructure. In order to carry out the statistical analysis of the investments in the transport infrastructure, the number of passengers and the energy consumption in transport modes in Romania, multiple linear regression models and time series analysis will be used.
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Landowski, Bogdan, and Monika Baran. "Analysis of selected results of engine oil tests." MATEC Web of Conferences 302 (2019): 01010. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201930201010.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The study presents selected results of viscosity tests performed for different temperatures of lubricating oil with viscosity marked as 5w30. Viscosity tests of new oil and oil right after being used have been compared. Lubricating oil used in a drive unit of a passenger car was tested. A vehicle in which oil had been changed irregularly was purposefully selected for the tests. Its mileage was over 15-20 thousand kilometers. Upon testing the vehicle mileage was above 265 thousand kilometers. The values of selected characteristics of the analyzed engine oils have been determined including: density, kinematic viscosity and viscosity index. FUNGILAB rotary viscometer was used for measurement of the oil kinematic viscosity.
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Li, Qihui, Qiang Bai, Aihui Hu, Zhoulin Yu, and Shixiang Yan. "How Does COVID-19 Affect Traffic on Highway Network: Evidence from Yunnan Province, China." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2022 (February 28, 2022): 1–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/7379334.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The COVID-19 pandemic and antipandemic policies have significantly impacted highway transportation. Many studies have been conducted to quantify these impacts. However, quantitative analysis of the impacts on province-wide traffic in developing countries, such as China, is still inadequate. This paper tried to fill this gap by proposing equations to quantify the traffic variations of overall province-wide traffic and to analyze the intercity bus traffic variation and intercity bus usage, applying the K-means cluster method to conduct the analysis of traffic reductions in regions with different levels of economic development, and using the hypothesis testing for traffic recovery analysis. It is found that passenger vehicle traffic and truck traffic dropped by 59.67% and 68.19% during the outbreak, respectively. The intercity bus traffic on highways declined by 59.8% to 98.6%, and the intercity bus usage dropped by 55.6% on average. For traffic reductions in different regions, the higher the GDP per capita was, the more the traffic was affected by the pandemic. In regions with lower GDP per capita, traffic variations were minor. It is also found that the passenger vehicle traffic went through four stages in 99 days: the Decline Stage, Rapid Recovery Stage, Slow Recovery Stage, and Normal Stage, while truck traffic only experienced the Decline Stage, Rapid Recovery Stage, and Normal Stage and took 51 days to recover to the Normal Stage. In the Rapid Recovery Stage, the recovery rates were 15.6% and 12.9% per week for passenger vehicle traffic and truck traffic, respectively, and the recovery rate was only 2.1% for passenger vehicle traffic in the Slow Recovery Stage. Despite the recovery of traffic volumes, neither passenger-kilometers nor tonne-kilometers of freight in 2020 reached the same level as in 2019. These findings help the understanding of the pandemic’s impacts on highway traffic for researchers and can provide valuable references for decision-makers to develop antipandemic policies.
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Otayek, Elie, Rania Wehbe, and Zaher Massaad. "Autonomous vehicles implementation in Lebanon: Opportunities, challenges, and ethical decisions." MATEC Web of Conferences 281 (2019): 01009. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201928101009.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The Autonomous Vehicle (AV) technology allows people to travel without intervening. The quick progress in this technology and the efforts of manufacturers companies to reach fully Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) using artificial intelligent, forecast a bright future. Researches have estimated that on average, one passenger in a vehicle traveling one kilometer in Lebanon costs about $ 48, including externality components of crashes, travel time, congestion and pollution. Thus, the main purpose of this research is to highlight the opportunities of implementing AVs in Lebanon, such as reduction in traffic accidents and congestion, improvement of accessibility, human health, economic and social life. Moreover, this paper highlight the barriers standing in front of implementing this technology, like the missing of Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) and the funds needed for its execution, and gives some policy recommendations. Finally, the authors present their statistics conducted in Lebanon about ethical decisions that AVs should take particularly in case of a crash in different scenarios through the participants’ responses.
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Permana, Ari Widya, and Nirwana Puspasari. "Analisis Biaya Operasional Kendaraan pada Angkutan Umum Bus Akibat Pandemi Covid-19 (Trayek Palangkaraya – Pangkalanbun)." Rekayasa Sipil 17, no. 1 (January 3, 2023): 1–6. http://dx.doi.org/10.21776/ub.rekayasasipil.2023.017.01.1.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Bus transportation existence in Central Kalimantan is very important because it is able to carry out mass transportation, connecting and reaching all areas of Central Kalimantan. This research was conducted to obtain the appropriate amount of vehicle operating costs and passenger fares to be applied under normal conditions and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Primary data were obtained through questionnaires, namely vehicle operating costs components data and passenger trips data. Analysis was carried out based on Decree of Transportation Minister No. KM. 89 of 2002. Vehicle operating costs per seat kilometer for the Palangka Raya – Pangkalan Bun route on the Damri Bus are IDR 131.04/seat-km, while the Logos Bus is IDR 170.97/seat-km. Under normal conditions, the Damri Bus fare is IDR 190,453/passenger, while the Logos Bus fare is IDR 134,241/passenger. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the Damri Bus fare was IDR 216,707/pnp, while the Logos bus fare was IDR 198,435/pnp.
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Zheng, Xiuzheng, and Liguo Zhang. "Ecodriving for Reduction of Bus Transit Emission with Vehicle’s Hybrid Dynamic Model." Mathematical Problems in Engineering 2015 (2015): 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/543429.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This paper formulates a global ecodriving optimal control to advise the green driving speed for bus transit to minimize the exhaust emission using Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I) communication. Assuming communication between vehicles and infrastructure (V2I) and knowledge of traffic signal timings and waiting passengers at stations are known, an optimal driving speed is proposed to minimize the total vehicle emissions of the bus route. The dwell time of the bus transit at each station which includes two parts is proposed. A traffic lights timing model is employed as constraints to control the formation of the green wave band. Vehicle specific power (VSP) model is further applied to evaluate the exhaust emission level linked with the speed and acceleration of the bus transit. An approximate sixteen-kilometer traffic network including fourteen intersections and fifteen stations of Beijing bus transit line 1 in Chaoyang District, Beijing, is chosen to investigate the performance of the developed ecodriving approach.
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Gonçalves, Daniel Neves Schmitz, Renata Albergaria de Mello Bandeira, Mariane Gonzalez da Costa, George Vasconcelos Goes, Tássia Faria de Assis, Márcio de Almeida D’Agosto, Isabela Rocha Pombo Lessi de Almeida, and Rodrigo Rodrigues de Freitas. "A Multitier Approach to Estimating the Energy Efficiency of Urban Passenger Mobility." Sustainability 12, no. 24 (December 9, 2020): 10263. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su122410263.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
As society has experiences new modes of mobility in recent years, cities have planned to increase their energy efficiency as a way of reducing environmental impacts and promoting economic development. However, governments face difficulties in establishing mechanisms to determine the best actions in the management of urban mobility regarding energy efficiency and to elaborate a ranking of cities based on energy efficiency in order to better allocate resources. This is due to the complex nature of obtaining a wide range of activity and energy data from a single municipality, especially in data-scarce regions. This paper develops and applies a model for estimating the energy efficiency of urban mobility that is applicable to different contexts and backgrounds. The main contribution of the article is the use of a multitier approach to compare and adjust outputs, considering different transport configurations and data sets. The results indicate that variations in vehicle occupancy and individual motorized transport rates have a significant impact on energy efficiency, which reached 0.70 passenger-kilometers/MJ in Sorocaba, Brazil. However, as the use of electric vehicles increases in this city, this scenario is expected to change. Additionally, the method has been proven to be an important mechanism for benchmarking purposes and for the decision-making process for transport investments.
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Wang, Shen, Thomas Weber, and Dieter Schramm. "Simulative Study of an Innovative On-Demand Transport System Using a Realistic German Urban Scenario." Future Transportation 3, no. 1 (December 30, 2022): 38–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/futuretransp3010003.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Trams are a meaningful means of public transport in urban traffic. However, trams have some well-known disadvantages. These include, for example, possibly long distances to the stop, long waiting times, and lack of privacy, among others. The innovative mobility concept “FLAIT-Train” offers solutions to the problems mentioned. The FLAIT-train operates on ordinary roads and is intended to offer DOOR-2-DOOR transport. In the first application phase, the FLAIT-train runs on exclusive lanes but in the future can mix with other traffic. They are designed as vehicles with 2 seats and 1 m width. The vehicle technology of FLAIT-trains is similar/identical to battery-electric autonomous vehicles. This paper uses traffic simulations to investigate whether FLAIT trains are a suitable alternative to conventional trams, taking simulated/theoretical transport capacities in passenger-kilometers per day into account. Using the software SUMO (“Simulation of Urban Mobility”), a realistic traffic scenario is generated. In this scenario, the operation of the FLAIT-Trains and the trams are simulated under the same conditions and based on statistical data. Based on the simulation results, the performances of the FLAIT-Trains and the trams are compared.
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Mamala, Jarosław, Mariusz Graba, Andrzej Bieniek, Krzysztof Prażnowski, Andrzej Augustynowicz, and Michał Śmieja. "Study of energy consumption of a hybrid vehicle in real-world conditions." Eksploatacja i Niezawodnosc - Maintenance and Reliability 23, no. 4 (August 31, 2021): 636–45. http://dx.doi.org/10.17531/ein.2021.4.6.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The paper presents an analysis of energy consumption in a Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) used in actual road conditions. Therefore, the paper features a comparison of the consumption of energy obtained from fuel and from energy taken from the vehicle’s batteries for each travel with a total distance of 5000 km. The instantaneous energy consumption per travelling kilometre in actual operating conditions for a combustion engine mode are within the range of 233 to 1170 Wh/km and for an electric motor mode are within the range of 135 to 420 Wh/km. The average values amount to 894 Wh/km for the combustion engine and 208 Wh/km for the electric motor. The experimental data was used to develop curves for the total energy consumption per 100km of road section travelled divided into particular engine types (combustion/electric), demonstrating a close correlation to actual operating conditions. These values were referred to the tested passenger vehicle’s approval data in a WLTP test, with the average values of 303 Wh/km and CO2 emission of 23 g/km.
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Helmers, Eckard, Johannes Dietz, and Martin Weiss. "Sensitivity Analysis in the Life-Cycle Assessment of Electric vs. Combustion Engine Cars under Approximate Real-World Conditions." Sustainability 12, no. 3 (February 9, 2020): 1241. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12031241.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This study compares the environmental impacts of petrol, diesel, natural gas, and electric vehicles using a process-based attributional life cycle assessment (LCA) and the ReCiPe characterization method that captures 18 impact categories and the single score endpoints. Unlike common practice, we derive the cradle-to-grave inventories from an originally combustion engine VW Caddy that was disassembled and electrified in our laboratory, and its energy consumption was measured on the road. Ecoivent 2.2 and 3.0 emission inventories were contrasted exhibiting basically insignificant impact deviations. Ecoinvent 3.0 emission inventory for the diesel car was additionally updated with recent real-world close emission values and revealed strong increases over four midpoint impact categories, when matched with the standard Ecoinvent 3.0 emission inventory. Producing batteries with photovoltaic electricity instead of Chinese coal-based electricity decreases climate impacts of battery production by 69%. Break-even mileages for the electric VW Caddy to pass the combustion engine models under various conditions in terms of climate change impact ranged from 17,000 to 310,000 km. Break-even mileages, when contrasting the VW Caddy and a mini car (SMART), which was as well electrified, did not show systematic differences. Also, CO2-eq emissions in terms of passenger kilometers travelled (54–158 g CO2-eq/PKT) are fairly similar based on 1 person travelling in the mini car and 1.57 persons in the mid-sized car (VW Caddy). Additionally, under optimized conditions (battery production and use phase utilizing renewable electricity), the two electric cars can compete well in terms of CO2-eq emissions per passenger kilometer with other traffic modes (diesel bus, coach, trains) over lifetime. Only electric buses were found to have lower life cycle carbon emissions (27–52 g CO2-eq/PKT) than the two electric passenger cars.
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Alhindawi, Reham, Yousef Abu Nahleh, Arun Kumar, and Nirajan Shiwakoti. "Projection of Greenhouse Gas Emissions for the Road Transport Sector Based on Multivariate Regression and the Double Exponential Smoothing Model." Sustainability 12, no. 21 (November 3, 2020): 9152. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su12219152.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The economic and health impacts resulting from the greenhouse effect is a major concern in many countries. The transportation sector is one of the major contributors to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worldwide. Almost 15 percent of the global GHG and over 20 percent of energy-related CO2 emissions are produced by the transportation sector. Quantifying GHG emissions from the road transport sector assists in assessing the existing vehicles’ energy consumptions and in proposing technological interventions for enhancing vehicle efficiency and reducing energy-supply greenhouse gas intensity. This paper aims to develop a model for the projection of GHG emissions from the road transport sector. We consider the Vehicle-Kilometre by Mode (VKM) to Number of Transportation Vehicles (NTV) ratio for the six different modes of transportation. These modes include motorcycles, passenger cars, tractors, single-unit trucks, buses and light trucks data from the North American Transportation Statistics (NATS) online database over a period of 22 years. We use multivariate regression and double exponential approaches to model the projection of GHG emissions. The results indicate that the VKM to NTV ratio for the different transportation modes has a significant effect on GHG emissions, with the coefficient of determination adjusted R2 and R2 values of 89.46% and 91.8%, respectively. This shows that VKM and NTV are the main factors influencing GHG emission growth. The developed model is used to examine various scenarios for introducing plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and battery electric vehicles in the future. If there will be a switch to battery electric vehicles, a 62.2 % reduction in CO2 emissions would occur. The results of this paper will be useful in developing appropriate planning, policies, and strategies to reduce GHG emissions from the road transport sector.
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HENNEK, Krystian, Mariusz GRABA, and Jarosław MAMALA. "The influence of the throttle inclination characteristics of a SI engine on fuel consumption in driving cycles." Combustion Engines 170, no. 3 (August 1, 2017): 78–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.19206/ce-2017-312.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
This dissertation shows the analysis of the selected indicators of the work of a passenger vehicle drivetrain designated with the use of the Road Load Engine Simulator. In a digital simulation, an internal – combustion engine is saved in a form of numerical speed characteristics in the computers memory. Basing on a virtual vehicle, some indicators of the drivetrain of a passenger vehicle have been determined, while driving with five electronic throttle inclination regulator settups. The simulation results of e.g., throttle repeal speeds and fuel consumtion are summarized in a tabular and graphic form and some of them are expressed per 100 kilometer of the distance covered. Both synthetic and real driving cycles were analyzed during the study and their influence on the egines fuel consumption was also shortly described.
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Dziedziak, Paweł, Tomasz Szczepański, Andrzej Niewczas, and Marcin Ślęzak. "Car reliability analysis based on periodic technical tests." Open Engineering 11, no. 1 (January 1, 2021): 630–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/eng-2021-0061.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Abstract This article presents the results of the analysis of data from 500 vehicle control stations concerning periodic tests of passenger cars in the number of 2 million. Based on the collected data, a database of vehicles has been prepared to cover technical information, such as model, mass, engine capacity and maximum power. This information has been summarized with the exploitation data such as age of the car, distance traveled, the area in which the vehicle was most frequently used, the use for business or private purposes, and intensity of operation that was measured by the ratio of kilometers traveled to the age of the car. This information constituted a set of factors affecting the reliability of the car. Information about reliability itself was the results of control tests, including occurring defects and their significance. The occurring defects were codified, which allowed their allocation to particular categories describing car systems, such as steering, braking and driving. While the significance of the fault resulted from the test result: positive (minor defects) or negative (important defects). This article presents a factor and the correlation analysis of the database, which assesses which construction and operating factors have a significant impact on damages occurring in individual car systems.
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Michalcewicz-Kaniowska, Małgorzata, and Małgorzata Zajdel. "CHANGING DATA PATTERNS IN CERTAIN ASPECTS OF ROAD TRANSPORT IN POLAND AND TURKEY." sj-economics scientific journal 21, no. 2 (June 30, 2016): 120–32. http://dx.doi.org/10.58246/sjeconomics.v21i2.345.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The article features several aspects of road transport in Poland and Turkey. The study involved comparing data obtained from statistical offices in both countries (GUS - Główny Urząd Statystyczny in Poland, and the TUIK - Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu in Turkey). The following facets were analysed: vehicle numbers, road structure and length, and the number of passenger-kilometres. The data included the period from 2003 to 2013. The authors also attempted to provide future estimates. The fixed-base and variable-base indicators were defined, as well as the trend function, which illustrates the changes in the studied phenomenon. The research proved that road transport is the most important means of passenger transport in both countries. It is considerably more popular, and is developing more rapidly in Turkey, which is illustrated by the growing number of newly registered buses and coaches. The researchers also studied road infrastructure and determined that main roads are 4.66% of all roads in Poland and 8.06% in Turkey.
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Ramos, João Marcos A. M., Vinícius G. J. Almeida, Henrique S. Santana, Thais R. M. Braga Silva, and Fabrício A. Silva. "User-centered analysis of a safe bus routing strategy." Journal of Internet Services and Applications 14, no. 1 (June 20, 2023): 84–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.5753/jisa.2023.3075.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Context-aware mobility has the potential to make the way we travel more efficient, safer, and more sustainable. Among the possible contexts, safety, in terms of crime levels in city regions, is one that has been used to calculate safer routes. Making a bus route safer is important to improve the quality of life of the passengers, who often are victims of criminals during their journey. However, existing studies focus only on private vehicles and do not assess the impact for citizens as a whole. In this work, an existing solution for calculating safe routes is evaluated in the context of public bus transport in terms of the impact caused to passengers. The results showed that, in general, changing a bus route to make it safer increases the distance traveled by a few kilometers for most passengers. This small increase in distance is not harmful to the passengers, given that they will be at less risk to face any kind of criminal situation. In addition to this analysis, a scalable tool for extracting mobility flow was also developed.
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Kaplanović, Snežana, and Radomir Mijailović. "THE INTERNALISATION OF EXTERNAL COSTS OF CO2 AND POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM PASSENGER CARS." Technological and Economic Development of Economy 18, no. 3 (October 1, 2012): 470–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.3846/20294913.2012.702694.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
The paper's goal is to unify practical and theoretical aspects of internalisation of external costs, in line with the “polluter pays” and “user pays” principles. Due to the impossibility of applying an ideal economic solution for internalisation of external costs, alternative solutions have to be developed and implemented. One of the possible solutions for internalisation of external costs of CO2 and pollutant emissions from passenger cars is presented in this paper. It is a new methodology for calculating annual circulation taxes on passenger cars. This methodology, besides CO2, also takes into account the pollutants whose emissions are regulated by the Euro standards (CO, HC, NOx and PM), as well as the vehicle age and kilometres driven. The proposed methodology has been tested on some of the best-selling passenger cars in Europe. The results of analysis show significant differences between our methodology and the methodologies that are used in five European countries (Ireland, the United Kingdom, Malta, Luxembourg and Sweden), which use the CO2 emissions as a reference value for their calculation. Also, we have proved that the annual circulation tax, calculated using our methodology, provide better internalisation of external costs compared to the fuel tax.
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Desta, Robel, and Janos Toth. "Macroscopic Experiments on Coexistence of Autonomous Vehicle Behavior on Various Heterogeneous Traffic Conditions." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2022 (October 22, 2022): 1–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2022/3552167.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Automated vehicles (AVs) are likely to bring paradigm shift in the future of transportation and in the transformation of urban space as they could reduce traffic accidents, energy consumption, and pollution while also lowering congestion expenses. To provide meaningful insights, there is a substantial need for investigation into the macroscopic evaluation of various evolutions of AVs using several measures of effectiveness. The main focus of this study is to evaluate the macroscopic operational impacts of AVs in terms of their driving logics, automation levels, and roadway type, all of which are adopted based on their passenger car unit (PCU) factors at various penetration rates, in order to assess the coexistence of AVs with heterogeneous traffic. The daily vehicle hours travelled, daily vehicle kilometers travelled, sum of delays on links, speed variation, and sum of vehicle volumes on links are used as measures of effectiveness parameters based on outputs of PTV Visum scenario manager. The results of the various scenario combinations depicted an overall improvement with advancement of driving logics, automation levels, and roadway types for each studied parameter. For instance, for better roadway condition with the motorway scenario and at higher AV penetration, the cautious driving behavior negatively affects the network performance, whereas favorable improvements are observed for the parameters of the normal and aggressive driving behaviors. Decision makers could make use of the insights obtained from the results to further shape the AV deployment aspects and extend the study considering infrastructure AV-readiness along with AV communication systems.
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Kılınç, Songül, Uğur Akbaba, Fidel Çakmak, and İlker Turp. "Development of Air Driver Seat for Use in M3/N3 Class Vehicles." European Journal of Research and Development 2, no. 4 (December 31, 2022): 115–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.56038/ejrnd.v2i4.171.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
At the present time, due to the high density of the population and the increase in traffic problems, the extend of the time spent on the road often forces people to prefer public transportation. It is most important to ensure the safety of the passenger in the vehicle. In order to achieve this, it is necessary to ensure the health, safety and comfort of the vehicle driver as a priority. Especially in long distance transportation, it is important to increase the time spent on the road, the correct driving position of the driver and the movements suitable for ergonomics are important in terms of not losing the workforce. Health and risk are always associated with occupational diseases. Vehicle drivers are at high risk for discomfort from long term sitting positions and vehicle vibration. In this study, a design that will improve ease of use, ergonomics and comfort for bus and truck drivers has been developed within the scope of ISO 16121-1:2012 directive for M3/N3 class vehicles. Dynamic and static load vibration analysis simulation (FAE) was applied with the ANSYS program on the CAD drawings of the developed driver's seat. Revisions were made according to the inconsistencies encountered in the vibration analysis simulations performed under dynamic load and the analysis was repeated. Prototype production was carried out to ensure the accuracy of the design. The works for the vibration tests, which will correspond to the bad road test equivalent to 1,000,000 kilometers over the prototype, are continuing. All other validation tests were applied to the prototype produced driver's seat and positive results were obtained.
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Sinha, Rajib, Lars E. Olsson, and Björn Frostell. "Sustainable Personal Transport Modes in a Life Cycle Perspective—Public or Private?" Sustainability 11, no. 24 (December 11, 2019): 7092. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su11247092.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Life cycle-based studies endorse public transport to cause lower environmental pressures compared to a private car. However, a private car can cause lower environmental pressure when a public vehicle (bus or train) runs on a lower occupancy during an off-peak hour. This fact should be the basis for a more profound debate regarding public versus private transport. Many transport interventions are striving to reduce the number of car transports. To reach this goal, passengers need attractive alternatives to their reduced number of car travels (i.e., attractive public transport). This study aimed to develop a model allowing us to estimate potential environmental gains by changing travel behavior. A passenger travel model was developed based on life cycle inventories (LCI) of different travel modes to calculate environmental footprints. The model was applied in an intervention of public transport through temporary free public transport. The intervention was successful in significantly reducing the number of car transports (12%). However, total passenger kilometer travelled (PKT) increased substantially more, mainly by bus, but also train, bicycle and walking. The total energy, carbon and nitrogen oxide footprints were slightly increased after the intervention. If the commuters were assumed to travel during peak hours or the number of public transports were not affected by the increased number of commuters, the overall environmental footprints decreased. Our conclusions are that transport interventions are very complex. They may result in desired changes, but also in altered travel behavior, increasing overall impact. Thus, a very broad evaluation of all transport modes as well as potential positive social influences of the transport intervention will be necessary.
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Shamsi, Hamidreza, Mohammad Munshed, Manh-Kien Tran, Youngwoo Lee, Sean Walker, Jesse The, Kaamran Raahemifar, and Michael Fowler. "Health Cost Estimation of Traffic-Related Air Pollution and Assessing the Pollution Reduction Potential of Zero-Emission Vehicles in Toronto, Canada." Energies 14, no. 16 (August 12, 2021): 4956. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en14164956.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Fossil fuel vehicles, emitting air toxics into the atmosphere, impose a heavy burden on the economy through additional health care expenses and ecological degradation. Air pollution is responsible for millions of deaths and chronic and acute health problems every year, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The fossil-fuel-based transportation system releases tons of toxic gases into the atmosphere putting human health at risk, especially in urban areas. This analysis aims to determine the economic burden of environmental and health impacts caused by Highway 401 traffic. Due to the high volume of vehicles driving on the Toronto Highway 401 corridor, there is an annual release of 3771 tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2e). These emissions are mainly emitted onsite through the combustion of gasoline and diesel fuel. The integration of electric and hydrogen vehicles shows maximum reductions of 405–476 g CO2e per vehicle-kilometer. Besides these carbon dioxide emissions, there is also a large amount of hazardous air pollutants. To examine the impact of air pollution on human health, the mass and concentrations of criteria pollutants of PM2.5 and NOx emitted by passenger vehicles and commercial trucks on Highway 401 were determined using the MOVES2014b software. Then, an air dispersion model (AERMOD) was used to find the concentration of different pollutants at the receptor’s location. The increased risk of health issues was calculated using hazard ratios from literature. Finally, the health cost of air pollution from Highway 401 traffic was estimated to be CAD 416 million per year using the value of statistical life, which is significantly higher than the climate change costs of CAD 55 million per year due to air pollution.
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Zhang, Kairan, and Mohamed Hassan. "Identifying the Factors Contributing to Injury Severity in Work Zone Rear-End Crashes." Journal of Advanced Transportation 2019 (May 2, 2019): 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2019/4126102.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
Egypt’s National Road Project is a large infrastructure project aiming to upgrade the existing network of 2500 kilometers as well as constructing new roads of 4000 kilometers to meet today’s need. Increasing highway work zones eventually direct the challenges for traffic safety and mobility. Realizing the need for mitigating the impact of such a challenging scenario, this paper aims to investigate and identify the factors of work zone rear-end crash severity. In this regard, a random parameter ordered probit model was applied to analyze data on the Egyptian long-term highway work zone projects during the period of 2010 to 2017. The factors of speeding and foggy weather conditions are found to be the key indicators for modeling the random parameters. Besides, during the weekend and at nighttime, there is a higher risk of rear-end crash in work zones, while heavy and passenger vehicles are at greater risk in this regard. It is anticipated that the findings of this study would facilitate transport agencies in developing effective measures to ensure safe mobility across work zones.
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Li, Teng, Eryu Zhu, and Haoran Liu. "Life cycle carbon emission of monorail transit and its comparison in operation stage with other city transit modes." E3S Web of Conferences 272 (2021): 01013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202127201013.
Повний текст джерелаАнотація:
In this paper, carbon emissions of a monorail transit are calculated using the method of whole life cycle, which can be divided into four stages: material manufacturing stage, construction stage, operation stage and demolition stage. In the operation phase, the units are PKT (Passenger Kilometers Travelled) and VKT (Vehicle Kilometers Travelled), while in other three stages, the unit is 1 km. The results show that the carbon emissions from the 1km length monorail are 6271.204 tons. In addition, in the operation stage, it is found that the PKT index and VKT index of Chongqing monorail transportation are 0.07468 and 3.31933 respectively, far lower than those of subways in the same city. For PKT indicators of other rail transits, from small to large, they are light rail, tram, subway, APM and maglev. As for VKT indicators, from small to large, they are tram, light rail, subway, APM and maglev. The PKT index of Beijing subway is the lowest compared with that of other cities.