Добірка наукової літератури з теми "Parametri idrologici"

It is of great challenge to accurately predict flash floods for small to medium catchments (SMC) in mountainous areas, for which parameter calibration strategies are crucial for model performance. This study investigates the influence of calibration parameter selection on flash flood simulations using a rainfall–runoff model, MISDc-2L (Modello Idrologico Semi-Distribuito in continuo–2 layers), at hourly scale for SMC in the Huai River basin of China over the 2010–2015 period. We investigated model performances under different calibration schemes, where different amounts of model parameters were selected for the calibration procedure. The model clearly performed better in the case involving calibration of partial sensitive parameters than that of a full parameter set with respect to the peaks, the hydrographs and the base-flow of flood simulation, especially after including maximum water capacity (W_max) in the calibration. This finding was consistently valid under different model calibration experiments, including single event, “split-sample” test and combined events at different flood magnitude levels. We further found that the model performed better for high magnitude flood events than medium and low ones, but clear improvements can be achieved for low and medium magnitude flood events with careful calibration parameter selection. Our study suggests that calibration parameter selection is important for flash flood event simulations with the MISDc-2L model for SMC in the Huai River basin of China; specifically, the reduction in calibration parameter amount and the inclusion of W_max in calibration remarkably improve flood simulation.

Abstract. Calibration of distributed hydrologic models usually involves how to deal with the large number of distributed parameters and optimization problems with multiple but often conflicting objectives that arise in a natural fashion. This study presents a multiobjective sensitivity and optimization approach to handle these problems for the MOBIDIC (MOdello di Bilancio Idrologico DIstribuito e Continuo) distributed hydrologic model, which combines two sensitivity analysis techniques (the Morris method and the state-dependent parameter (SDP) method) with multiobjective optimization (MOO) approach ε-NSGAII (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm-II). This approach was implemented to calibrate MOBIDIC with its application to the Davidson watershed, North Carolina, with three objective functions, i.e., the standardized root mean square error (SRMSE) of logarithmic transformed discharge, the water balance index, and the mean absolute error of the logarithmic transformed flow duration curve, and its results were compared with those of a single objective optimization (SOO) with the traditional Nelder–Mead simplex algorithm used in MOBIDIC by taking the objective function as the Euclidean norm of these three objectives. Results show that (1) the two sensitivity analysis techniques are effective and efficient for determining the sensitive processes and insensitive parameters: surface runoff and evaporation are very sensitive processes to all three objective functions, while groundwater recession and soil hydraulic conductivity are not sensitive and were excluded in the optimization. (2) Both MOO and SOO lead to acceptable simulations; e.g., for MOO, the average Nash–Sutcliffe value is 0.75 in the calibration period and 0.70 in the validation period. (3) Evaporation and surface runoff show similar importance for watershed water balance, while the contribution of baseflow can be ignored. (4) Compared to SOO, which was dependent on the initial starting location, MOO provides more insight into parameter sensitivity and the conflicting characteristics of these objective functions. Multiobjective sensitivity analysis and optimization provide an alternative way for future MOBIDIC modeling.

Abstract. We present a new conceptual scheme of the interaction between unsaturated and saturated zones of the MOBIDIC (MOdello Bilancio Idrologico DIstributo e Continuo) hydrological model which is applicable to shallow water table conditions. First, MODFLOW was coupled to MOBIDIC as the physically based alternative to the conceptual groundwater component of the MOBIDIC–MODFLOW. Then, assuming a hydrostatic equilibrium moisture profile in the unsaturated zone, a dynamic specific yield that is dependent on the water table level was added to MOBIDIC–MODFLOW, and calculation of the groundwater recharge in MOBIDIC was revisited using a power-type equation based on the infiltration rate, soil moisture deficit, and a calibration parameter linked to the initial water table depth, soil type, and rainfall intensity. Using the water table fluctuation (WTF) method for a homogeneous soil column, the parameter of the proposed groundwater recharge equation was determined for four soil types, i.e. sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, and loam under a pulse of rain with different intensities. The fidelity of the introduced modifications in MOBIDIC–MODFLOW was assessed by comparison of the simulated water tables against those of MIKE SHE, a physically based integrated hydrological modelling system simulating surface and groundwater flow, in two numerical experiments: a two-dimensional case of a hypothetical watershed in a vertical plane (constant slope) under a 1 cm d−1 uniform rainfall rate and a quasi-real three-dimensional watershed under 1 month of a measured daily rainfall hyetograph. The comparative analysis confirmed that the simplified approach can mimic simple and complex groundwater systems with an acceptable level of accuracy. In addition, the computational efficiency of the proposed approach (MIKE SHE took 180 times longer to solve the three-dimensional case than the MOBIDIC–MODFLOW framework) demonstrates its applicability to real catchment case studies.

Tradizionalmente, l'obiettivo della calibrazione di un modello afflussi-deflussi è sempre stato quello di ottenere un set di parametri (o una distribuzione di probabilità dei parametri) che massimizzasse l'adattamento dei dati simulati alla realtà osservata, trattando parzialmente le finalità applicative del modello. Nel lavoro di tesi viene proposta una metodologia di calibrazione che trae spunto dell'evidenza che non sempre la corrispondenza tra dati osservati e simulati rappresenti il criterio più appropriato per calibrare un modello idrologico. Ai fini applicativi infatti, può risultare maggiormente utile una miglior rappresentazione di un determinato aspetto dell'idrogramma piuttosto che un altro. Il metodo di calibrazione che viene proposto mira a valutare le prestazioni del modello stimandone l'utilità nell'applicazione prevista. Tramite l'utilizzo di opportune funzioni, ad ogni passo temporale viene valutata l'utilità della simulazione ottenuta. La calibrazione viene quindi eseguita attraverso la massimizzazione di una funzione obiettivo costituita dalla somma delle utilità stimate nei singoli passi temporali. Le analisi mostrano come attraverso l'impiego di tali funzioni obiettivo sia possibile migliorare le prestazioni del modello laddove ritenute di maggior interesse per per le finalità applicative previste.
In the majority of rainfall-runoff modelling applications, the objective function to be minimised in the parameterisation procedure is based on a measure of the goodness-of-fit that maximized the fit of the simulated data to the overall observed data, taking partially into account the specific model applications. The present dissertation focuses on the development and testing of an objective function based on the expected utility of the rainfall-runoff model. The method is based on the evidence that the performances of a hydrological model closely depend on the purpose of the application. For istance, the simulated data caught have different utility in a water resources management system or in a flood forecasting system. In the proposed method, at each time step, the comparison between simulated and observed data is carried out by using an “ad-hoc” utility function. The calibration is performed by maximizing the overall estimated utility of the simulated data. Different utility functions are tested and the results are compared against those obtained with traditional procedure. The results reveal that an adequate utility function allows an improvement of the model performances in the reproduction of the discharges considered most important to the purpose of the modeling application.

Tradizionalmente, l'obiettivo della calibrazione di un modello afflussi-deflussi è sempre stato quello di ottenere un set di parametri (o una distribuzione di probabilità dei parametri) che massimizzasse l'adattamento dei dati simulati alla realtà osservata, trattando parzialmente le finalità applicative del modello. Nel lavoro di tesi viene proposta una metodologia di calibrazione che trae spunto dell'evidenza che non sempre la corrispondenza tra dati osservati e simulati rappresenti il criterio più appropriato per calibrare un modello idrologico. Ai fini applicativi infatti, può risultare maggiormente utile una miglior rappresentazione di un determinato aspetto dell'idrogramma piuttosto che un altro. Il metodo di calibrazione che viene proposto mira a valutare le prestazioni del modello stimandone l'utilità nell'applicazione prevista. Tramite l'utilizzo di opportune funzioni, ad ogni passo temporale viene valutata l'utilità della simulazione ottenuta. La calibrazione viene quindi eseguita attraverso la massimizzazione di una funzione obiettivo costituita dalla somma delle utilità stimate nei singoli passi temporali. Le analisi mostrano come attraverso l'impiego di tali funzioni obiettivo sia possibile migliorare le prestazioni del modello laddove ritenute di maggior interesse per per le finalità applicative previste.
In the majority of rainfall-runoff modelling applications, the objective function to be minimised in the parameterisation procedure is based on a measure of the goodness-of-fit that maximized the fit of the simulated data to the overall observed data, taking partially into account the specific model applications. The present dissertation focuses on the development and testing of an objective function based on the expected utility of the rainfall-runoff model. The method is based on the evidence that the performances of a hydrological model closely depend on the purpose of the application. For istance, the simulated data caught have different utility in a water resources management system or in a flood forecasting system. In the proposed method, at each time step, the comparison between simulated and observed data is carried out by using an “ad-hoc” utility function. The calibration is performed by maximizing the overall estimated utility of the simulated data. Different utility functions are tested and the results are compared against those obtained with traditional procedure. The results reveal that an adequate utility function allows an improvement of the model performances in the reproduction of the discharges considered most important to the purpose of the modeling application.

L'obiettivo della Tesi è l'analisi idrologica del bacino del Samoggia chiuso a Calcara, su un periodo di osservazione compreso tra il 2010 e il 2016, per valutare l'impatto della numerosità dei dati idrometrici disponibili sulle calibrazioni di due modelli idrologici: un modello estremamente semplice, il Bucket Model, costituito da soli due parametri (k e S), e uno più complesso, HyMOD, costituito da un numero maggiore di parametri. La fase iniziale riguarda il reperimento e la ricostruzione dei dati di input dei modelli (precipitazione, evapotraspirazione potenziale e portate a scala di bacino, sia a passo orario che a passo giornaliero), sfruttando l'applicazione Dext3r fornita dall'ARPAe. La fase centrale riguarda la calibrazione dei modelli, valutando l'indice di prestazione NSE su quattro periodi diversi (2011, 2011-12, 2011-13 e 2011-14), e la validazione sul solo biennio 2015-2016. Le calibrazioni sono state effettuate utilizzando, per il Bucket Model, il metodo del gradiente (funzione "optim" in ambiente di lavoro R), mentre per il modello HyMOD, l'algoritmo genetico combinato con il metodo del gradiente (funzione "GA" combinata con "optim"). La fase finale riguarda la presentazione e la discussione dei risultati ottenuti.

Landslides are one of the widespread natural hazards and among these ones there are shallow landslides: landslides that mainly involve the soils (slope deposits, SD) that unconformably cover the geological substratum. A method of prevention that is currently promoted by scientific research is the realization of shallow landslide susceptibility maps which require the knowledge, among different factor, of the engineering-geological properties of the soils. Among the latter, hydrological properties and in particular hydraulic conductivity (K) of the SD, has a relevant weight being the major factor controlling the distribution and movement of the water in the subsoil. So, the requirement of characterizing of the engineering-geological properties of the SD, for which literature is still rather limited, is clear. Specifically, this thesis has as its first objective the characterization of the hydrological properties of the SD, focusing mainly on K. Another important aspect is represented by the fact that the engineering-geological properties of the SD (including K) are not currently well-known due to the high cost (both in terms of time and money) associated with data collection, laboratory and in situ tests. In this regard, this PhD thesis addresses two other aspects. Firstly, to investigate the predictive capacity of different techniques to estimate K from indirect methods. Finally, the local and regional variability of K of the SD was analyzed in order to obtain continuous maps of K. During the first 15 months, an intense field survey was carried out in the study area which has an extension of 420 km2, by means of 150 sampling sites and 720 hydraulic conductivity in situ tests (Ktests) and the collection of 146 samples for laboratory tests. Concerning first topic of this thesis, some of the engineering-geological properties (% gravel, % sand, % fines and Atterberg limits) show a tendency to distribute in different ways in relation to the lithology of the geological substratum. As regards K of the SD, the uncertainty of the Ktests was first estimated (coefficient of variation = 2 – 3%). All Ktests have been divided into 4 horizons according to the depth within which the measurements were performed. A high relationship was observed between log K and the depth of Ktests (R – Pearson = – 0.79). Some Ktests have been performed within shallow landslides it has been observed that K measured inside the landslide is about 4 times lower than that K measured inside landslides. Then, the correlations between K and engineering-geological properties of SD were realized through bi and multivariate statistical analysis: an overall weak correlation among log K and these properties is exhibited. Within the same textural classes and same grain size curves, it emerged that the effect of the lithology of the geological substratum can be considered negligible with respect to the K of the SD. Once the engineering-geological characterization of the SD was completed, another research topic was to evaluate and quantify the predictive efficacy of indirect methods to estimate K. This process was carried out by applying 31 empirical correlations (or pedo-functions, PTF) which are present in the literature and they showed very poor accuracy to predict K of SD. So it was decided to apply two methods for K prediction: multilinear regression and artificial neural networks. Through multilinear regression a new PTF was obtained which proved to be highly effective in predicting K (R2 = 0.82), as well as valid and robust from a statistical point of view. Similar results have been obtained through the implementation of artificial neural networks (R2 = 0.85 – 0.86). So, multilinear regression and neural networks prove to be quite efficient methods in predicting K of the SD. The last topic of this thesis was the analysis of the spatial distribution of K at site and regional scale. For each site the variability of K (range and interquartile range of log K is equal to 2.0 and 0.8 respectively). The spatial analysis at regional scale was performed with two different approaches: in the first case the Ktests were divided into four horizons according to the depth within which the Ktest was performed, in the second approach the entire dataset was previously normalized for the effect of depth. For each of the two approaches, exploratory geostatistical analysis were performed in order to verify the assumptions of normality, stationary and absence of trend, necessary for the correct execution of geostatistical methods. The algorithms of the Ordinary Kriging, Inverse Distance Weighted and Empirical Bayesian Kriging have been implemented which have allowed to generate the first maps of the continuous values of log K at regional scale in the study area. The different algorithms have provided similar results in terms of log K values (for the different approaches considered) obtaining accuracies (NRMSE = 10 – 20%) which are in good agreement with other examples of the literature.

L’invarianza spaziale dei parametri di un modello afflussi-deflussi può rivelarsi una soluzione pratica e valida nel caso si voglia stimare la disponibilità di risorsa idrica di un’area. La simulazione idrologica è infatti uno strumento molto adottato ma presenta alcune criticità legate soprattutto alla necessità di calibrare i parametri del modello. Se si opta per l’applicazione di modelli spazialmente distribuiti, utili perché in grado di rendere conto della variabilità spaziale dei fenomeni che concorrono alla formazione di deflusso, il problema è solitamente legato all’alto numero di parametri in gioco. Assumendo che alcuni di questi siano omogenei nello spazio, dunque presentino lo stesso valore sui diversi bacini, è possibile ridurre il numero complessivo dei parametri che necessitano della calibrazione. Si verifica su base statistica questa assunzione, ricorrendo alla stima dell’incertezza parametrica valutata per mezzo di un algoritmo MCMC. Si nota che le distribuzioni dei parametri risultano in diversa misura compatibili sui bacini considerati. Quando poi l’obiettivo è la stima della disponibilità di risorsa idrica di bacini non strumentati, l’ipotesi di invarianza dei parametri assume ancora più importanza; solitamente infatti si affronta questo problema ricorrendo a lunghe analisi di regionalizzazione dei parametri. In questa sede invece si propone una procedura di cross-calibrazione che viene realizzata adottando le informazioni provenienti dai bacini strumentati più simili al sito di interesse. Si vuole raggiungere cioè un giusto compromesso tra lo svantaggio derivante dall’assumere i parametri del modello costanti sui bacini strumentati e il beneficio legato all’introduzione, passo dopo passo, di nuove e importanti informazioni derivanti dai bacini strumentati coinvolti nell’analisi. I risultati dimostrano l’utilità della metodologia proposta; si vede infatti che, in fase di validazione sul bacino considerato non strumentato, è possibile raggiungere un buona concordanza tra le serie di portata simulate e osservate.
Spatial homogeneity of rainfall-runoff model parameters can be a practical and valuable solution in order to assess water availability of a region. Hydrological simulation is indeed an handy tool but it is critical as it usually requires some degree of calibration. Calibration of spatially distributed models, that are particularly useful to describe the variability of physical processes that play a role in runoff generation, is challenging because of the high number of involved parameters. But some parameters can be homogeneous in space, therefore allowing one to reduce their total amount when multiple basins are considered. This assumption is verified on a statistical ground, making use of an MCMC algorithm to assess the parameter uncertainty; as a result the parameter distributions are with varying degrees comparable on the different catchments. When one wants to simulate the hydrological response of ungauged catchments, the hypothesis of spatial homogeneity of parameters has even more relevance; a long regionalization technique is usually applied, but we propose a cross-calibration procedure to be used at regional level. With this procedure model parameters are calibrated making use of hydrological information coming from gauged basins that are more similar to the site of interest. We want to analyze the trade-off between assuming the parameters homogeneous in space and adding new information as the cross-calibration evolves. Results show that the cross-calibration is a process well worth using; in validation in fact a good agreement is reached between observed and simulated discharges.

L’invarianza spaziale dei parametri di un modello afflussi-deflussi può rivelarsi una soluzione pratica e valida nel caso si voglia stimare la disponibilità di risorsa idrica di un’area. La simulazione idrologica è infatti uno strumento molto adottato ma presenta alcune criticità legate soprattutto alla necessità di calibrare i parametri del modello. Se si opta per l’applicazione di modelli spazialmente distribuiti, utili perché in grado di rendere conto della variabilità spaziale dei fenomeni che concorrono alla formazione di deflusso, il problema è solitamente legato all’alto numero di parametri in gioco. Assumendo che alcuni di questi siano omogenei nello spazio, dunque presentino lo stesso valore sui diversi bacini, è possibile ridurre il numero complessivo dei parametri che necessitano della calibrazione. Si verifica su base statistica questa assunzione, ricorrendo alla stima dell’incertezza parametrica valutata per mezzo di un algoritmo MCMC. Si nota che le distribuzioni dei parametri risultano in diversa misura compatibili sui bacini considerati. Quando poi l’obiettivo è la stima della disponibilità di risorsa idrica di bacini non strumentati, l’ipotesi di invarianza dei parametri assume ancora più importanza; solitamente infatti si affronta questo problema ricorrendo a lunghe analisi di regionalizzazione dei parametri. In questa sede invece si propone una procedura di cross-calibrazione che viene realizzata adottando le informazioni provenienti dai bacini strumentati più simili al sito di interesse. Si vuole raggiungere cioè un giusto compromesso tra lo svantaggio derivante dall’assumere i parametri del modello costanti sui bacini strumentati e il beneficio legato all’introduzione, passo dopo passo, di nuove e importanti informazioni derivanti dai bacini strumentati coinvolti nell’analisi. I risultati dimostrano l’utilità della metodologia proposta; si vede infatti che, in fase di validazione sul bacino considerato non strumentato, è possibile raggiungere un buona concordanza tra le serie di portata simulate e osservate.
Spatial homogeneity of rainfall-runoff model parameters can be a practical and valuable solution in order to assess water availability of a region. Hydrological simulation is indeed an handy tool but it is critical as it usually requires some degree of calibration. Calibration of spatially distributed models, that are particularly useful to describe the variability of physical processes that play a role in runoff generation, is challenging because of the high number of involved parameters. But some parameters can be homogeneous in space, therefore allowing one to reduce their total amount when multiple basins are considered. This assumption is verified on a statistical ground, making use of an MCMC algorithm to assess the parameter uncertainty; as a result the parameter distributions are with varying degrees comparable on the different catchments. When one wants to simulate the hydrological response of ungauged catchments, the hypothesis of spatial homogeneity of parameters has even more relevance; a long regionalization technique is usually applied, but we propose a cross-calibration procedure to be used at regional level. With this procedure model parameters are calibrated making use of hydrological information coming from gauged basins that are more similar to the site of interest. We want to analyze the trade-off between assuming the parameters homogeneous in space and adding new information as the cross-calibration evolves. Results show that the cross-calibration is a process well worth using; in validation in fact a good agreement is reached between observed and simulated discharges.

The present research work focuses on the regionalisation of rainfall-runoff model parameters, fundamental for the implementation of hydrological models in ungauged basins and needed to reproduce the actual sequence of river discharge in time. Regionalisation of parameters is based on the transfer of information from hydrologically similar gauged basins to ungauged basins. This work provides further insights on parameter regionalisation and catchment similarity through the application of innovative methodologies to support the existing knowledge. The first experiment develops a methodology to test the robustness of regionalisation procedures to the availability of data in the study region. In particular, the effect of the density of streamflow gauging stations and the topological relationships between their corresponding drainage basins on the different regionalisation techniques is investigated. Such work provides useful information for the choice of the most appropriate method, based on data availability in the region. The focus is then moved to the value of hydrological similarity at sub-basin scale. Driven by the fact that similarity is generally defined between entire catchments, neglecting some significant differences in the within-basin rainfall-runoff transformation processes, a methodology to differentiate hydrological processes at sub-basin scale and to transfer model parameters from similar sub-basins is proposed. The analysis is based on the diversification of the parameter values, and therefore of the corresponding hydrological dynamics, across elevation, one of the main factors influencing the runoff generation processes. Finally, an innovative catchment signature is proposed for improving our knowledge about hydrological similarity, meant for the delineation of hydrologically similar regions. A new methodology for identifying the dominant rainfall-runoff transformation dynamics is presented: the interaction between the entire time-series of runoff generation forcings and runoff itself is quantified taking advantage of the concepts of the Information Theory and used to characterise catchments with promising results.

In long term evolution numerical models, the interactions of a floating barrier with the wave field is then deputed to some parametrized transfer functions, which mimic wave energy transmission and dissipation in the frequency domain. This thesis provide, as final result, two transfer functions (one for incident waves, one for reflected ones) for a particular class of compact shaped floating breakwaters. These functions are based on three main parameters, which have been derived on physical model results. The first one (x) is the ratio between the incoming wave frequency and an approximation of FB heave natural frequency, based on principal FB cross section dimensions. Wave steepness has been considered to be the second variable which helps in describing the amount of dissipated energy. An FB draft to water depth ratio has been identified. Available algorithms for the decomposition into incident and reflected waves of flume records are mostly Stokes-FFT based. Therefore they suffer some limitations for relatively high wave steepness (Ch. 4). Since the latter is considered as a crucial parameter, a lot of effort has been drawn in solving some conundrums of actual methods. Two algorithms are proposed. The first one (Ch. 5), based on empirical mode decomposition, did not give satisfactory results. The second one (Ch. 6) is based on linear waves superposition, but, getting rid of linear dispersion relation, detects automatically each phase celerity. The proposed algorithm appears to be effective for relatively shallow water waves, for which the phase modulation approach is more consistent than Stokes formulations. A Stokes 2nd order algorithm has also been implemented. In Ch. 7 the experimental set up is presented. A second order analysis of transmission and reflection processes is also introduced.Results are given (and discussed) in Ch. 8. Linear transmission and reflection transfer functions are derived, based on experimental data fitting. These are finally validated with irregular wave test measurements.It is found that the transmission process mainly depends on frequency (x) and on FB relative draft. The last parameter does not enter the reflection process, which basically described by x and wave steepness. In particular, steeper waves loose more energy, and are less reflected. For transmitted waves only, a significant amount of energy transfer from primary to secondary harmonics is observed.
Nei modelli numerici per applicazioni costiere, l'implementazione delle opere di difesa galleggianti è generalmente costruita a partire da semplici funzioni di transferimento. Queste distorcono, nelle spazio delle frequenze, il campo d'onda incidente in onde trasmesse a tergo dell'opera. Questa tesi propone due funzioni di trasferimento per una particolare classe di frangiflutti galleggianti (di seguito FB): una per il campo trasmesso, l'altra per quello incidente. Tali espressioni sono funzione di tre parametri principali, ricavati sulla base di risultati sperimentali. Il primo di questi è costituito dal rapporto tra la frequenza dell'onda incidente e un'approssimazione della frequenza naturale di oscillazione verticale del FB. Un secondo parametro è caratterizzato dalla ripidità dell'onda incidente, mentre l'ultimo è una variabile adimensionale che caratterizza il pescaggio del FB in relazione alla profondità d'acqua locale. Gli algoritmi presenti in letteratura, finalizzati alla decomposizione di misure d'onda in incidenti e riflesse, sono generalmente basati su formulazioni tipo Stokes-FFT. Pertanto, in presenza di ripidità particolarmente elevate, possono interpretare poco correttamente i dati misurati. Poichè la ripidità (dell'onda) è considerata un parametro fondamentale per la descrizione dei processi dissipativi, si propongono due algoritmi alternativi per la soluzione di tali criticità.Il primo di questi si basa su un punto di vista AM-FM, decomponendo le misure attraverso l'empirical mode decomposition (Cap. 5). Il secondo rimane su un'ipotesi di sovrapposizione lineare di onde elementari, ma prescinde dall'equazione di dispersione (Cap. 6). Ciò permette un'interpretazione più affinata delle celerità di fase. Con particolari vantaggi in acque basse, laddove l'approccio di modulazione di fase è più appropriato di un'espansione tipo Stokes. L'apparato sperimentale è descritto nel Cap. 7, nel quale è proposta anche una procedura di analisi dei risultati affinata al secondo ordine. Dai risultati (Cap.8) si desume che, dal punto di vista lineare, il processo di trasmissione dipende principalmente dalla frequenza dell'onda incidente e dal pescaggio del FB (relativo al fondale). Per quanto concerne le onde riflesse, queste sono meglio descritte dalla ripidità dell'onda, nonchè dalla frequenza. In particolare, le onde più ripide sono soggette a maggiori dissipazioni e conseguentemente sono riflesse in misura inferiore. Solamente in riferimento al processo di trasmissione, si notano sensibili trasferimenti di energia dalle componenti principali, a favore delle seconde armoniche.

One of the most relevant issues in groundwater hydrology is the assessment of heterogeneous hydraulic properties of natural aquifers at the intermediate scale. The intermediate scale includes, as a general definition, aquifers characterized by a ratio L/B, L being a linear measure of the horizontal extent, and B the average thickness, between one (local scale) and approximately one thousand (regional scale). In Italy groundwater represents almost eighty percent of drinkable water supply, therefore the control of groundwater pollution as well as an optimal planning of the well production activity are essential steps in groundwater management that are generally developed at the intermediate scale. The assessment of unknown geological properties affecting groundwater dynamics and the quantification of the related uncertainty is thus one of the most relevant issues, known in literature as parameter estimation or inverse modelling. Regional and local scales have been largely studied by the scientific community, although the local scale is typically less exploited than the regional. The intermediate scale, instead, has been the subject of a relatively limited number of publications and is still characterized by relevant open problems, like, for example, the optimal choice of the numerical model to adopt or the definition of a proper parameter estimation approach. Moreover, a limit is often given by the lack of experimental sites available for testing the new research developments. As a result, too often the research is not applied in real-world problems. This thesis is subdivided in four chapters. In Chapter 1 we introduce the multi-scale experimental site of Settolo, an alluvial unconfined aquifer in north-eastern Italy that constitutes, as far as we know, the first multi-scale groundwater test site in our country. The installed instrumentation and the collected data are described, together with a preliminary data interpretation. In Chapter 2 we focus on groundwater modelling at the intermediate-scale. We calibrate a homogeneous 2D groundwater model to reproduce the Settolo field piezometric data and we explore the differences with a 3D model implemented with the same parameters and boundary conditions. We compare again the two models with spatial heterogeneity in the parameters. Because of the very similar performance of the 2D and 3D models we conclude that, in our case, the 2D model is suitable to describe the Settolo aquifer behavior at the intermediate scale; therefore, it can be effectively adopted for inverse modelling approaches and data assimilation. Chapter 3 introduces a novel global optimization algorithm implemented in a geostatistical framework to calibrate groundwater models. The proposed parallel algorithm is tested and validated under various conditions, with both homogeneous and heterogeneous parameter distributions, showing robustness and efficiency in solving the inverse problem, as well as scalability to high performance computing. Finally in Chapter 4 we focus on the geological facies-heterogeneity, not suitable to be described by classic geostatistical approaches like, for example, variogram based models. We approach the inverse problem with a strategy that combines multiple point geostatistics and sequential data assimilation with the ensemble Kalman filter, involving different kind of data, i.e., satellite images, electrical resistivity tomographies and time series of piezometric heads recorded in different locations. This approach is tested for the first time on a real-world case, and its advantages and limits are shown.
La caratterizzazione degli acquiferi naturali a scala intermedia è un problema di fondamentale importanza nell'idrologia sotterranea. Per intermedia si intende una scala compresa fra la scala locale, con dimensioni orizzontali del dominio comparabili con quella verticale, e la scala regionale, dove la dimensione verticale è di più ordini di grandezza inferiore a quelle orizzontali. Gli studi sulla scala intermedia sono estremamente importanti per una gestione corretta e sostenibile della risorsa idropotabile, per il controllo dell'inquinamento e per la protezione dal dissesto idrogeologico. A titolo di esempio, in Italia circa l'ottanta per cento dell'acqua potabile viene estratta dalle falde acquifere. La letteratura scientifica di settore è composta da numerosi studi che trattano il problema su scala regionale, con un minor numero di contributi a scala locale. In ogni caso l'ambito della scala intermedia risulta meno sviluppato: esso è caratterizzato da alcuni problemi aperti, quali, ad esempio, la scelta più adeguata dei modelli numerici da utilizzare e la definizione di metodi di stima dei parametri. Un grande limite, inoltre, è rappresentato dalla scarsità di siti sperimentali su cui testare e validare le teorie e i metodi sviluppati, aspetto che spesso rischia di rendere i risultati della ricerca difficilmente fruibili nelle pratiche applicazioni. Il lavoro presentato in questa tesi è diviso in quattro capitoli. (1) Gestione e caratterizzazione del campo prove multi-scala di Settolo (TV). È stata messa a punto la strumentazione del campo prove di Settolo-Valdobbiadene, in provincia di Treviso, per lo studio delle dinamiche multi scala di flusso e trasporto sotterraneo. Per quanto è noto, a dicembre 2013 esso è l'unico esempio in Italia di campo sperimentale su più scale (locale e intermedia). Un attento monitoraggio di livelli di falda, precipitazione, e condizioni al contorno unito ad analisi geotecniche, idrauliche, geofisiche, chimico-biologiche e topografiche, fornisce un notevole insieme di dati che consentono svariate applicazioni. (2) Confronto tra modelli 2D e 3D su scala intermedia. Un primo utilizzo dei dati del campo sperimentale è consistito nella comparazione dei risultati di due modelli numerici volta a determinare l'adeguatezza di una approssimazione shallow water all'ambito di analisi. Nel confronto sono stati presi in considerazione anche aspetti pratici quali la velocità di calcolo e la facilità di implementazione con specifico riferimento alle caratteristiche del sito in esame. (3) Messa a punto di un nuovo algoritmo di stima dei parametri e dell'incertezza. Un nuovo algoritmo di ottimizzazione globale, applicabile a svariati problemi di ottimizzazione, è stato formulato e validato. Tale metodo è stato applicato con successo nella stima dei parametri idraulici eterogenei dell'acquifero di Settolo, fornendo anche una valutazione spaziale dell'incertezza nella stima. (4) Applicazione a un caso pratico di un metodo di assimilazione dati e multiple point geostatistics. Un approccio di modellazione inversa che combina l'ensemble Kalman filter (EnKF) e le multiple point geostatistics (MPG), è stato applicato al campo sperimentale di Settolo-Valdobbiadene. Combinando dati diversi, quali immagini satellitari, tomografie geoelettriche del suolo, dati piezometrici di falda, precipitazioni e indagini geotecniche, si è cercato di ricostruire la distribuzione spaziale dei paleoalvei ghiaiosi, la cui posizione risulta fondamentale per poter definire con precisione le direzioni preferenziali di flusso e trasporto sotterraneo. Tale analisi, applicata per la prima volta un caso reale, ha messo in luce potenzialità e limiti dell'approccio utilizzato.

Despite significant efforts have been directed toward reducing waste generation and encouraging alternative waste management strategies, landfills still remain the main option for Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) disposal in many countries. Hence, landfills and related impacts on the surroundings are still current issues throughout the world. Actually, the major concerns are related to the potential emissions of leachate and landfill gas into the environment, that pose a threat to public health, surface and groundwater pollution, soil contamination and global warming effects. To ensure environmental protection and enhance landfill sustainability, modern sanitary landfills are equipped with several engineered systems with different functions. For instance, the installation of containment systems, such as bottom liner and multi-layers capping systems, is aimed at reducing leachate seepage and water infiltration into the landfill body as well as gas migration, while eventually mitigating methane emissions through the placement of active oxidation layers (biocovers). Leachate collection and removal systems are designed to minimize water head forming on the bottom section of the landfill and consequent seepages through the liner system. Finally, gas extraction and utilization systems, allow to recover energy from landfill gas while reducing explosion and fire risks associated with methane accumulation, even though much depends on gas collection efficiency achieved in the field (range: 60-90% Spokas et al., 2006; Huitric and Kong, 2006). Hence, impacts on the surrounding environment caused by the polluting substances released from the deposited waste through liquid and gas emissions can be potentially mitigated by a proper design of technical barriers and collection/extraction systems at the landfill site. Nevertheless, the long-term performance of containment systems to limit the landfill emissions is highly uncertain and is strongly dependent on site-specific conditions such as climate, vegetative covers, containment systems, leachate quality and applied stress. Furthermore, the design and operation of leachate collection and treatment systems, of landfill gas extraction and utilization projects, as well as the assessment of appropriate methane reduction strategies (biocovers), require reliable emission forecasts for the assessment of system feasibility and to ensure environmental compliance. To this end, landfill simulation models can represent an useful supporting tool for a better design of leachate/gas collection and treatment systems and can provide valuable information for the evaluation of best options for containment systems depending on their performances under the site-specific conditions. The capability in predicting future emissions levels at a landfill site can also be improved by combining simulation models with field observations at full-scale landfills and/or with experimental studies resembling landfill conditions. Indeed, this kind of data may allow to identify the main parameters and processes governing leachate and gas generation and can provide useful information for model refinement. In view of such need, the present research study was initially addressed to develop a new landfill screening model that, based on simplified mathematical and empirical equations, provides quantitative estimation of leachate and gas production over time, taking into account for site-specific conditions, waste properties and main landfill characteristics and processes. In order to evaluate the applicability of the developed model and the accuracy of emissions forecast, several simulations on four full-scale landfills, currently in operative management stage, were carried out. The results of these case studies showed a good correspondence of leachate estimations with monthly trend observed in the field and revealed that the reliability of model predictions is strongly influenced by the quality of input data. In particular, the initial waste moisture content and the waste compression index, which are usually data not available from a standard characterisation, were identified as the key unknown parameters affecting leachate production. Furthermore, the applicability of the model to closed landfills was evaluated by simulating different alternative capping systems and by comparing the results with those returned by the Hydrological Evaluation of Landfill Performance (HELP), which is the most worldwide used model for comparative analysis of composite liner systems. Despite the simplified approach of the developed model, simulated values of infiltration and leakage rates through the analysed cover systems were in line with those of HELP. However, it should be highlighted that the developed model provides an assessment of leachate and biogas production only from a quantitative point of view. The leachate and biogas composition was indeed not included in the forecast model, as strongly linked to the type of waste that makes the prediction in a screening phase poorly representative of what could be expected in the field. Hence, for a qualitative analysis of leachate and gas emissions over time, a laboratory methodology including different type of lab-scale tests was applied to a particular waste material. Specifically, the research was focused on mechanically biologically treated (MBT) wastes which, after the introduction of the European Landfill Directive 1999/31/EC (European Commission, 1999) that imposes member states to dispose of in landfills only wastes that have been preliminary subjected to treatment, are becoming the main flow waste landfilled in new Italian facilities. However, due to the relatively recent introduction of the MBT plants within the waste management system, very few data on leachate and gas emissions from MBT waste in landfills are available and, hence, the current knowledge mainly results from laboratory studies. Nevertheless, the assessment of the leaching characteristics of MBT materials and the evaluation of how the environmental conditions may affect the heavy metals mobility are still poorly investigated in literature. To gain deeper insight on the fundamental mechanisms governing the constituents release from MBT wastes, several leaching experiments were performed on MBT samples collected from an Italian MBT plant and the experimental results were modelled to obtain information on the long-term leachate emissions. Namely, a combination of experimental leaching tests were performed on fully-characterized MBT waste samples and the effect of different parameters, mainly pH and liquid to solid ratio (L/S,) on the compounds release was investigated by combining pH static-batch test, pH dependent tests and dynamic up-flow column percolation experiments. The obtained results showed that, even though MBT wastes were characterized by relatively high heavy metals content, only a limited amount was actually soluble and thus bioavailable. Furthermore, the information provided by the different tests highlighted the existence of a strong linear correlation between the release pattern of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and several metals (Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, V, Zn), suggesting that complexation to DOC is the leaching controlling mechanism of these elements. Thus, combining the results of batch and up-flow column percolation tests, partition coefficients between DOC and metals concentration were derived. These data, coupled with a simplified screening model for DOC release, allowed to get a very good prediction of metal release during the experiments and may provide useful indications for the evaluation of long-term emissions from this type of waste in a landfill disposal scenario. In order to complete the study on the MBT waste environmental behaviour, gas emissions from MBT waste were examined by performing different anaerobic tests. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the potential gas generation capacity of wastes and to assess possible implications on gas generation resulting from the different environmental conditions expected in the field. To this end, anaerobic batch tests were performed at a wide range of water contents (26-43 %w/w up to 75 %w/w on wet weight) and temperatures (from 20-25 °C up to 55 °C) in order to simulate different landfill management options (dry tomb or bioreactor landfills). In nearly all test conditions, a quite long lag-phase was observed (several months) due to the inhibition effects resulting from high concentrations of volatile fatty acids (VFAs) and ammonia that highlighted a poor stability degree of the analysed material. Furthermore, experimental results showed that the initial waste water content is the key factor limiting the anaerobic biological process. Indeed, when the waste moisture was lower than 32 %w/w the methanogenic microbial activity was completely inhibited. Overall, the obtained results indicated that the operative conditions drastically affect the gas generation from MBT waste, in terms of both gas yield and generation rate. This suggests that particular caution should be paid when using the results of lab-scale tests for the evaluation of long-term behaviour expected in the field, where the boundary conditions change continuously and vary significantly depending on the climate, the landfill operative management strategies in place (e.g. leachate recirculation, waste disposal methods), the hydraulic characteristics of buried waste, the presence and type of temporary and final cover systems.