Дисертації з теми "Oil pollution of the sea Antarctica"

The distribution of trace metals (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd and Pb) has been determined in dissolved and particulate phases, along with relevant hydrographic parameters, from the nearshore coastal zone of the western North Sea (between 52ON and 56ON) during four Land Ocean Interaction Study (LOIS) surveys covering the seasonal cycle (autumn 1994 to summer 1995) The behaviour of the redox-sensitive metals, Fep and Mnp in the western North Sea were strongly correlated (r>0 44 for all seasons, P<0 05) in all surveys and exhibited maximum concentrations in winter (16 mg g -1 and 700 ug g-1 respectively) which progressively decreased throughout the year Distinct seasonal variations were also observed for particulate Cu, Cd and Pb For example, enhanced concentrations of Cup (36 ± 39 ug g-1) and Cdp (0.36 ± 0.42 ug g -1) in the Humber coastal zone during summer were attributed to preferential particulate organic/biogenic-metal interactions. In contrast enhanced, though diffuse, atmospheric inputs of Pb from continental winds were considered to have contributed to the elevated Pbp concentrations (82 ± 27 ug g -1) observed offshore during winter Results from radiotracer incubation experiments suggest that biological activity makes a significant contribution to the removal of dissolved Mn and Cd to the particulate phase. However, a phase lag of two to three months between maximum primary productivity and maximum particulate metal adsorption (KD=2 X 104 & 5 x 102 for Mn and Cd respectively) indicates a decoupling from the spring plankton bloom In general metal distributions in the Humber coastal zone were significantly influenced by freshwater discharge, tidal regime at the mouth of the estuary and prevailing wind conditions Total trace metal fluxes across the mouth of the Humber Estuary were highest during spring (311, 8 96 & 1045 kg day-1, for Cu, Cd and Pb respectively) and lowest during summer (25 7, 1 .12 & 33 4 kg day-1, for Cu, Cd and Pb respectively) They were dominated by variations in freshwater outflow and the tidal range during sampling On an annual basis comparison to estuarine inputs (rivers, industry and sewage sources) suggested retention of Cu (25%) and Cd (56%) Estimates of partitioning (KD) were derived from the dissolved and particulate data for Cu, Cd and Pb over the seasonal cycle Copper was dominated by the particulate phase (73-80%) in all seasons but summer, whilst Cd showed particulate phase dominance (54-70%) in autumn and winter only The Pb distributions were dominated by the particulate phase (94-99%) independent of season Trace metal settling velocities implied that the Humber Plume was acting as a sink for Cu, Cd and Pb in winter and spring However settling velocities calculated for Cd and Pb (flood tide) in summer were similar to background suspended particulate matter (SPM) suggesting long range transport with the residual circulation. Modelling of Pb isotopic ratios in the Humber Plume suggested that on average 32-39% of the extracted Pbp originated from anthropogenic sources The data from this study has given unique information concerning the concurrent seasonal distributions of particulate trace metals in the western North Sea and have yielded new insights into mechanisms affecting trace metal cycling and transport, essential in the development and refinement of coupled hydrodynamic-geochemical models.

Analytical techniques were developed for the detection of inorganic arsenic (As(III) and As(V)), monomethylarsenic (MMA) and dimethylarsenic (DMA) in water, pore waters, suspended particles and bed sediments of the Humber Estuary, Thames Estuary and the southern North Sea. Dissolved inorganic As in the Humber Estuary showed removal in the mouth of the estuary in association with an Fe-rich outfall. Intertidal sediments and suspended particles had elevated inorganic As concentrations in the vicinity of the As-rich outfall located in the low salinity zone. Particulate As had a distinct concentration gradient away from the estuary mouth, indicating the transport of As out of the estuary. The presence of MMA and DMA in the water column was attributed to the methylation of inorganic As by marine phytoplankton and was not detected when the seawater temperatures were below about 10° C DMA concentrations were higher than MMA. The Humber and the Thames Estuaries both had sources of inorganic As, but As methylation within the estuaries was not significant. MMA and DMA in the estuarine plumes and the North Sea showed strong seasonality, with concentrations below detection in winter, and maximum concentrations in late summer when the methylated As was 21% of the total As in the Humber and Thames Plumes. The concentrations of MMA and DMA in the early autumn (32% of the total dissolved As) were highest off the Dutch coast where the water temperatures were up to 18° C. There were no significant correlations between the methylated As and inorganic As, temperature, chlorophyll a nor phosphate. A water sample from a developing spring bloom was incubated and showed the removal of inorganic As at a rate of 0.04ugAs/l/day, but there was no subsequent increase in the dissolved organic species, indicating a delay interval between peak primary productivity and the release of MMA and DMA. Inorganic As was detected in the porewaters of the Humber and Thames Plumes. In late summer, MMA and DMA were found at equivalent concentrations in all the Humber Plume porewaters. Flux calculations indicated that the diffusion of inorganic As, MMA and DMA from the sediments into the water column was insignificant, largely as a result of low sediment porosity. However, a resuspension event caused a detectable increase in inorganic As at the bottom of the water column. The importance of this work to the development of the 3-D hydrodynamic model of the North Sea is discussed.

Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) offers exceptional sensitivity and multi-element capability for trace metal analysis but the formation of polyatomic ions (particularly below m/z = 80) can cause, serious interferences. Such species can be introduced via precursor atoms in atmospheric gases, the sample matrix or impurities in the argon support gas. This thesis describes the development of a portfolio of analytical methods coupled with ICP-MS detection for the determination of trace metals such as manganese, cobalt, copper, nickel, zinc, mercury and lead in complex matrices such as sea water. A literature review of coupled techniques is given in Chapter one. Chapter two discusses the effect of sea water on the analytical performance of ICP-MS. Initial studies were carried out using a single channel flow injection (FI) manifold and included an investigation of the addition of nitrogen to the nebulizer gas flow of the ICPMS for the reduction of the ArNa* polyatomic ion interference at m/z = 63 on the Cu signal. This was followed by a multivariate simplex optimisation for the suppression of the ArNa* polyatomic ion interference at m/z = 63 and non-spectroscopic interferences affecting other masses in sea water, for the determination of Cu, Cr, Mn, Ni, Co, Zn and Pb. In Chapter three an on-line FI-ICP-MS matrix elimination method for the determination of trace metals such as Mn, Co, Cu, Zn and Pb in sea water is discussed. The method involved chelation of the analytes onto Chelex-100 or MetPac CC-1 iminodiacetate (IDA) .resin, with the simultaneous removal of indirectly interfering matrix species, particularly Na and CI ions. Results showing how the effects of the interferences were overcome, together with validation of the method by the analysis of open ocean, coastal and estuarine certified reference materials are reported. s Chapter four compares FI approaches coupled with AFS, ICP-AES and ICP-MS detectors for the determination of total mercury. Initial studies compared figures of merit for FI (conventional pneumatic nebulization) and Fl-cold vapour generation (CVG) coupled with ICP-AES and ICP-MS. Detection limits for total Hg were improved by developing simple on- and off-line preconcentration procedures using a MetPac CC-1 micro-column incorporated in a FI manifold vAth conventional pneumatic nebulization. An AFS detector was then used in the development of a method for the determination of total mercury with an on-line bromide/bromate oxidation step. In chapter five an LC-ICP-MS method for the speciation of Hg in sea water samples is described. The method involved the separation of mercury(II) chloride, methylmercury chloride and ethylmercury chloride on a Cig ODS stationary phase with an ammonium acetate/acetonitriIe/2-mercaptoethanol mobile phase. In order to achieve the necessary detection limits required for the determination of mercury in real sea water samples (&lt; 50 ng r^), an off-line preconcentration method using a dithiocarbamate resin was used.

The rise in global energy demand has motivated the exploration and production of oil and gas in increasingly challenging marine environments and there is a continuous risk of accidental oil spills. One of the many fates of spilled oil is deposition on the seabed, which has been extensively studied following the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. However, post-depositional fates of oil in sediments are not well understood. Similarly, the effects of chemical dispersant on oil fate are currently under investigation as their overall contribution to mitigating oil spills environmental impacts remains debated. This project aimed to evaluate the potential for spilled oil to entrain marine sediments and the effects dispersant application had on the process under three transport regimes; (1) post-depositional transport via oil-sediment aggregate deposition in deep-sea sediments, (2) percolative transport in intertidal sands and (3) advective pore-water transport in intertidal and subtidal sands. Investigations into the sorption dynamics of two polyaromatic hydrocarbons in sediment-dispersantseawater systems were also undertaken to evaluate the influence of dispersant application on sorption of hydrocarbons to sediments. Finally, the effects of oil exposure at in situ conditions of pressure and temperature on sediment bacterial community composition were investigated. Oil transport experiments revealed that the tested regimes resulted in significant entrainment of hydrocarbons in marine sediments. Dispersant application resulted in enhanced oil entrainment into sands but not in silts and this effect depended on the water-solubility of hydrocarbons. Watersoluble components were less affected by dispersant than less water-soluble ones. Investigations into sediment bacterial responses to oil exposure at in situ conditions of pressure and temperature revealed a significant effect of both variables on diversity and community composition, highlighting the importance of conducting deep-sea microbial studies at conditions as close to in situ as possible.

The aim of this thesis was to study the effect of the treated oil refinery effluents of Bahrain Petroleum Company ( BAPCO ) on the marine environment. The study has been carried out in seven chapters, the first de~ling with general introduction about the physical environment of the Arabian Gulf and its oil industry in addition to marine pollution and fishery in Bahrain. The second chapter was aimed at studying the quality of water at different areas in Bahrain to compare it with the quality of water at an area adjacent to the refinery outfalls. The third chapter deals with the impact of the refinery on the marine environment. The research approach adopted was ecological and observational I involving water and sediment analysis. The fourth chapter was aimed at studying the effects of the refinery effluents on the fish through toxicity tests and estimation of trace metals and hydrocarbons in the fish tissues. The studies were conducted with several effluents from the main and side streams of the refinery, outlets of the induced air flotation unit and Sitra separator. The fifth chapter was aimed at studying the effect of Sitra oil storage tanks treated effluent on the intertidal fauna of the adjacent area. The sixth chapter deals with a general discussion on the whole studies. While the seventh chapter deals with sions and recommendations. From the study conducted , it could be said that in general the water quality of the western and northern regions of Bahrain is better than the water quality of the eastern region. The east has in general higher pH, higher ammonia, higher nitrite, lower nitrate, and higher phosphate levels than the other regions. The higher concentrations of all these substances reflects the urbanisation and industrialisation of this part of Bahrain and the consequent discharges of waste material. The fish, safee, were tested with different concentrations of the refinery main stream effluent using both short and long term exposures. The same experiment was set up using effluents from the side stream, the I.A.F. discharge of the refinery and Sitra separator outlet. The results indicated a greater toxicity of pollutants in the I.A.F. and Sitar separator effluents than in the main and the side stream effluents. The lethal concentration of I.A.F. and Sitra separator effluents which brought death to fifty percent of the test population of fish (safee) within 96 hours was approximately twenty percent. Fish from the experimental media showed a higner concentration of heavy metals. The study of the effect of Sitra oil storage tanks treated effluent on the intertidal fauna of the adjacent area revealed that no fauna was found at stations located just outside the effluent outlet. The sediment of these stations was black, slimy, heavily oiled with a bad smell and contains dead shells and turrets. Away from the effluent, a diverse fauna was found. It is concluded that the BAPCO refinery has a measurable impact on the marine environment of the east coast of Bahrain, and recommenqations are made tor the development of future policies with regard to Bahraini coastal waters.

Since the Exxon Valdez accident in 1987, renewed interest has come forth to better understand and predict the fate and transport of crude oil lost to marine environments. The short-term fate of an Arabian Crude oil was simulated in laboratory experiments using artificial seawater. The time-dependent changes in the rheological and chemical properties of the oil under the influence of natural weathering processes were characterized, including dispersion behavior of the oil under simulated ocean turbulence. Methodology included monitoring the changes in the chemical composition of the oil by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry (GCMS), toxicity evaluations for the oil dispersions by Microtox analysis, and quantification of dispersed soluble aromatics by fluorescence spectrometry. Results for this oil show a sharp initial increase in viscosity, due to evaporative losses of lower molecular weight hydrocarbons, with the formation of stable water-in-oil emulsions occurring within one week. Toxicity evaluations indicate a decreased EC-50 value (higher toxicity) occurring after the oil has weathered eight hours, with maximum toxicity being observed after weathering seven days. Particle charge distributions, determined by electrophoretic techniques using a Coulter DELSA 440, reveal that an unstable oil dispersion exists within the size range of 1.5 to 2.5 um, with recombination processes being observed between sequential laser runs of a single sample.

« Mère Méditerranée ». Si la Méditerranée a été une aire de rivalité et de combats, les découvertes archéologiques et les recherches historiques montrent que cette mer a été, plus encore, une voie extraordinaire de transmission des savoirs. Par elle, ont transité des marchandises mais, surtout, des hommes qui ont diffusé leurs inventions telles que l’écriture, la philosophie, les mathématiques, l’astronomie, la médecine et d’autres sciences encore, et aussi, des croyances, des idées, des goûts artistiques et des modèles politiques, économiques et sociaux. Cette histoire nous aide à concevoir la possibilité d’un monde dans lequel la mer Méditerranée ne serait pas « une mer qui sépare, mais une mer qui unit les populations ». Aujourd’hui, les menaces écologiques qui pèsent sur le milieu marin méditerranéen ont su faire réagir les États riverains qui, conscients de leurs origines communes et de leur communauté de destin, ont manifesté leur solidarité et uni leurs efforts pour tenter de sauver la « mare nostrum »<br>No English summary available

Les instruments, satellites ou systèmes aéroportés, actuellement utilisés pour la détection et la caractérisation d'hydrocarbure sur la mer sont basés sur des moyens optiques ou radars. Ces moyens présentent une performance dégradée due à une fréquence encore trop importante de fausses alarmes ou à un temps de traitement des données trop conséquent. Les méthodes de détection, d'identification et de quantification des fuites d'hydrocarbures offshores peuvent donc être améliorées en associant robustesse et réactivité. Cette amélioration suppose une compréhension approfondie des phénomènes océanographiques et électromagnétiques à l'œuvre dans cette scène particulière. La thèse s'appuie sur des données regroupant des images optiques et SAR aéroportées ou satellites ainsi que des mesures réalisées en laboratoire. Ce jeu de données permet de vérifier la cohérence des résultats obtenus par modélisation. L'objectif de la thèse est de distinguer une surface de mer polluée d'une surface de mer propre à l'aide de la signature électromagnétique de la surface totale puis de détailler le type et la quantité d'hydrocarbure présent. La thèse se divise en deux domaines, à savoir modélisation océanographique et modélisation électromagnétique. La modélisation océanographique intègre la simulation de la surface rugueuse imitant une surface de mer propre, et polluée. Cette surface de mer doit être générée sur une superficie importante et doit conserver une résolution restituant les petites vagues avec un temps de génération minimal. La partie électromagnétique est centrée sur les modèles asymptotiques de diffusion des ondes électromagnétiques par une interface rugueuse. Ces modèles sont adaptés au contexte de la thèse, complexité de la scène et rapidité du traitement, mais nécessitent plusieurs hypothèses pour être appliqués<br>Satellites or airborne systems currently used for the detection and characterization of oil slicks on sea surface are based on optical or radar means. These means have a lack of performance due to a too high frequency of false alarms or to an excessively long data processing time. The methods for detecting, identifying and quantifying offshore pollutant can therefore be improved by combining robustness and reactivity. This improvement implies an in-depth understanding of the oceanographic and electromagnetic phenomena at work in this particular scene. The thesis is based on data gathering aerial and satellite images and SAR as well as measurements carried out in laboratory. This dataset makes it possible to check the consistency of the results obtained by modeling. The objective of the thesis is to distinguish a polluted sea surface from a clean sea surface using the electromagnetic signature of the total surface and then to detail the type and quantity of pollutant. The thesis is divided into two domains, namely oceanographic modeling and electromagnetic modeling. Oceanographic modeling integrates the simulation of the rough surface imitating a clean or polluted sea surface. This sea surface must be generated over a large area with a thin resolution. The electromagnetic part is centered on the asymptotic models for the electromagnetic waves diffraction by a rough interface. These models are adapted to the context of the thesis, the complexity of the scene and the speed of processing, but require several hypotheses to be applied

Магістерська дисертація присвячена обґрунтуванню можливості створення нафтового бону який зможе ефективно фільтрувати нафтові плями в поверхневих водах акваторії Чорного моря. Проведено аналіз властивостей, характеристик і складу морської води. Запропоновано концепцію нафтового бону який буде складатись з синтетичних фільтрів, а також з природних матеріалів. Встановлено залежності дії антропогенного впливу на води Чорного моря; залежності від дії синтетичних та природних матеріалів на фільтрацію нафтових плям на поверхні води. Розроблено стартап-проект, основною ідеєю якого є виробництво нафтового бону який завдяки поеднанню двох матеріалів зможе ефективно очищувати воду. Розраховано, що для запуску проекту необхідно 697765 грн інвестицій.<br>The master's dissertation is assigned to the structure of the mobility of the stem of the naphtha bon, which can effectively filter naphtha in the surface waters of the Black Sea. The analysis of authorities, characteristics and warehouse of sea water was carried out. The concept of a naphtha boom, which will be composed of synthetic filters, as well as natural materials, is proponated. Deposits of anthropogenic plants were established in the waters of the Black Sea; deposits of synthetic and natural materials on the filtration of naphtha beaches on the water surface. A start-up project has been broken up, the main idea of which is the production of a naphtha boom, which means that two materials can be eaten efficiently. Rozrakhovano, scho for the launch of the project needs: 697765 UAH investment.

The explosion of the Deepwater Horizon oil platform on April 20, 2010 resulted in the second largest oil spill in history. In this study, the distribution and chemical composition of hydrocarbons within a 45 km radius of the blowout was investigated. A complete set of hydrocarbon data were acquired from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and from BP, including data from 16 research missions collected over eight weeks. The distribution of hydrocarbons was found to be more dispersed over a wider area in subsurface waters than previously predicted or reported. Several hydrocarbon plumes were identified including a near-surface plume (0.5 to 50 m), two small mid-depth plume (240 to 290 m and 850 to 880 m), and a large deepwater plume approximately 1,050 to 1,300 m below surface. Water soluble compounds were preferentially extracted from the rising oil in deepwater, and were found at potentially toxic levels both in and outside of areas previously reported to contain the majority of hydrocarbons. Data collected from different research missions were measured for a wide variety of chemical compounds, but not every sample was analyzed for the same chemical compounds. To overcome the challenge of variability in sample data, a non-parametric method of evaluating the percentage of detectable results, was used for all data analysis in addition to evaluation of total sample concentrations. The two analysis techniques yielded similar results. This approach may be useful in other studies in which samples are measured for varying number of compounds and have varying detection limits. The distribution and toxicity of hydrocarbons in sediments between August and October, 2010 was also investigated and was found to be fairly localized.

碩士<br>國立中央大學<br>環境工程研究所碩士在職專班<br>95<br>Taiwan is surrounded by sea and located in Southeast Asiaandtransported the main channel by sea again on four sides ,adds the international trade prosperity, all kinds ofshipping often pass through in the sea area all around, anduse a large amount of petroleum to rely on shipping to loadand import at home, the accidental event of any shipping, mayall cause the great oil pollution calamities of the sea area and coast near Taiwan . So the oil simulation software byoverflowing, cooperate with the environmental materials ofocean of the sea area and main imported and exported oil kindin the southern sea area (such five counties and cities ast Tainan counties and cities , Kaohsjung counties and cities and Pingdong county ,etc. ), set up this exclusive risk of sea area and assess and overflow the dynamic database of oil , dispose the urgent emergency while happenning with the accident to command and consult with the emergency energy on ordinary days of the profit, enable Is it overflow oil at the accident ,can is it overflow environment that the oil produce is it reduce to most little to bludgon into to enable to happen future. Dynamic database of oil that this planning work content mainly sets up the southern sea area to overflow ( lets out ), include collecting the environmental materials of ocean of every seasons of southern sea area , setting up through the oil database of the southern sea area and using overflowing (let out ) , the oil spread the software , above-mentioned marine environment and oil materials, the possible drift characteristic after going through every period of oil appears to overflow ( lets out ) and spread the coverage in simulation, Israel Set up the dynamic database of oil of a intact overflowing (let out ). Overflow by oil database and the whole world (let out ) ,oil accident materials assess risk frequency, but it is to being risky area (for example trader harbor, industrial area , visit rest the districts, reserve zone not ecological of) propose emergency dispose suggestion of the energies , such as meet an emergency necessary time and meet an emergency apparatus dispose place ,etc.. The achievement that this plan carries out, can estimate and use to every sea area of Taiwan , oil thing that offer the future to overflow So while taking place , implement the important reference basis of the emergency homework.

The Red Sea is one of the warmest, saltiest, and most oligotrophic seas in the world that supports a healthy and extremely diverse coral reef ecosystem. Increasing development along the Saudi Arabian coast may increase eutrophication due to impacts of human population and also oil pollution from increased shipping traffic and refinery activity. The risk of oil pollution combined with increased eutrophication due to coastal development provides a clear stressor interaction which is vastly understudied. Individually, these stressors are known to negatively impact coral reproduction, recruitment, and growth. This study focuses on reef settlement and recovery following experimentally-simulated disturbance scenarios. Carbonate recruitment tiles were placed on the reef and exposed to four treatments: control, nutrient enrichment with slow-release fertilizer, tiles soaked in crude oil, and a combination treatment of nutrient enrichment and oil-coated tiles. At periods of 3, 6, 9, 14, and 17 weeks, tiles were collected to classify the settled community and measure oxygen production. Oil, nitrate, and phosphate were the biggest determining factors predicting settlement and oxygen production of the different treatments. The oil treatment had the least overall settlement and oxygen production, whereas the nutrient treatment had the most turf algal recruitment and oxygen production. The combination treatment had an antagonistic effect on algal growth: the nutrients facilitated growth on the otherwise toxic oiled tiles.

The purpose of this thesis is to explain and evaluate the law concerning compensation for tanker-source oil pollution damage under three different liability regimes: (a) the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969 and the International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, 1971 including the Protocols of 1976, 1984 and 1992 to these Conventions. (b) the Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil Pollution (TOVALOP) and the Contract Regarding a Supplement to Tanker Liability for Oil Pollution (CRISTAL) as at the 20th February, 1994. (c) the United States Oil Pollution Act of 1990 and U.S. State Legislation. In this context the thesis explains inter alia the evolution of law from fault to no-fault liability and from limited to increasingly limitless liability. The thesis examines the notion of damage eligible for compensation, for example, ecological and pure economic damage. Conclusions are reached as to the role increasingly stringent liability provisions may have on the quality of the tanker-process. The impact that the U. S. Oil Pollution Act 1990, and associated U.S. state legislation may have on the international pollution regimes covered by the various international Conventions and associated voluntary agreements is also discussed.<br>Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1994.

The origins of marine salvage law may be traced to a code of Rhodian Sea laws promulgated in 500BC. Presently, while salvage law retains the foundations of this early codification, it has undergone a complete metamorphosis in order to adapt to changing circumstances and new challenges of the 20th and 21st century. Over the past few decades there have been many major oil spills. When they occurred each spill, for different reasons was declared as the most environmentally damaging. In their wake, they leave a trail of death and destruction of the eco-system. As public concern for and awareness of the marine environment increases, governments and salvors face increased pressure to avert wide-scale pollution. In these instances, the stakes are high and the necessity and effectiveness of professional salvage only too clear. This study investigates the role played by the professional salvor and considers how the developments in the law have impacted upon the salvor's role in salvage operations. This work has its genesis with this background in mind. It is essentially a study of the changes and developments in the law of Marine Salvage. The law relating to salvage is dynamic and international in nature. Dynamic in that it needs to adapt to new economic and environmental factors. This study examines and explains how these economic and environmental factors impacted upon and necessitated changes to the law of salvage. It is international, in that salvage operations invariably involve parties from different countries. In some instances of large-scale pollution disasters the physical environment affected may encompass different countries/waters. At times the discussion into the practical aspects of the salvage operations, salvage tugs and the industry as a whole has a tendency to become rather technical. For this I make no apology, for the world of marine salvage has totally fascinated and captured my attention. In the international context the law relating to Salvage may be found in the International Convention on Salvage 1989. Many countries have ratified the convention and have subsequently enacted their own statutes based on the provisions of the Salvage convention. Other countries like South Africa have chosen not to ratify the convention and have formulated their own Statutes relating to the salvage. The salvage laws of the United Kingdom are perhaps mostly widely used. Its popularity may be attributed to London being the salvage arbitration capital of the world as well as the influential use of LOF in salvage operations which stipulates English law as the lex contractus. The United Kingdom has ratified the International Salvage Convention and enacted the Merchant Shipping (Salvage and Pollution) Act 1994 which gave effect to the provisions of the convention. The current statute regulating Salvage is the Merchant Shipping Act of 1995. The principal focus of this work will be English law, as applied in the United Kingdom as well as South African law. Passing reference is also made to the provisions of American law where relevant.<br>Thesis (LL.M.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2003.

Lai Ho-yan.<br>Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1999.<br>Includes bibliographical references (leaves 104-122).<br>Abstracts in English and Chinese.<br>ACKNOWLEDGEMENT --- p.I<br>ABSTRACT (ENGLISH) --- p.II<br>ABSTRACT (CHINESE) --- p.IV<br>TABLE OF CONTENT --- p.VI<br>LIST OF FIGURES --- p.IX<br>LIST OF TABLES --- p.V<br>INTRODUCTION --- p.1<br>Chapter 1.1 --- Background --- p.1<br>Chapter 1.2 --- Sources of oil pollution --- p.1<br>Chapter 1.3 --- Composition of oil --- p.4<br>Chapter 1.4 --- Fate of oil in the environment --- p.6<br>Chapter 1.5 --- Toxic effect of oil on marine ecosystem --- p.8<br>Chapter 1.5.1 --- Acute toxicity --- p.8<br>Chapter 1.5.2 --- Chronic toxicity --- p.9<br>Chapter 1.5.3 --- Carcinogenicity of oil --- p.11<br>Chapter 1.6 --- The origins of ecotoxicology --- p.12<br>Chapter 1.7 --- Need for ecotoxicity tests --- p.13<br>Chapter 1.8 --- Testings in ecotoxicology --- p.15<br>OBJECTIVES --- p.17<br>MATERIALS AND METHODS --- p.18<br>Chapter 1. --- Collection of oily wastes samples --- p.18<br>Chapter 2. --- Preparation of samples --- p.18<br>Chapter 2.1 --- Water-soluble fraction --- p.19<br>Chapter 2.2 --- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.20<br>Chapter 2.2.1 --- Supercritical fluid extraction --- p.20<br>Chapter 2.2.2 --- Silica gel chromatography --- p.22<br>Chapter 2.2.3 --- Sample concentration --- p.22<br>Chapter 3. --- Chemical analyses of oily wastes --- p.26<br>Chapter 3.1 --- Determination of heavy metal concentration in oily waste samples --- p.26<br>Chapter 3.1.1 --- Nitric acid-perchloric acid digestion --- p.26<br>Chapter 3.1.2 --- Inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometric analysis --- p.26<br>Chapter 3.2 --- Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in oily waste samples --- p.28<br>Chapter 3.2.1 --- Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in water- soluble fraction --- p.28<br>Chapter a. --- Liquid-liquid extraction --- p.28<br>Chapter b. --- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of water-soluble fraction --- p.29<br>Chapter 3.2.2 --- Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in crude oily waste samples --- p.32<br>Chapter a. --- Supercritical fluid extraction and silica gel column chromatography --- p.32<br>Chapter b. --- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.33<br>Chapter 4 --- ecotoxicological studies of oily wastes --- p.34<br>Chapter 4.1 --- Toxicity tests and sample preparation --- p.34<br>Chapter 4.2 --- Ecotoxicological studies of water soluble fraction --- p.34<br>Chapter 4.2.1 --- "Growth inhibition test on a marine alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa CU-2" --- p.34<br>Chapter 4.2.2 --- "Survival test on a marine amphipod, Elasmopus rapax" --- p.39<br>Chapter 4.2.3 --- "Survival test on a marine fish, Ambassis gymnocephalus" --- p.41<br>Chapter 4.2.4 --- Microtox® test --- p.43<br>Chapter 4.3. --- Ecotoxicological studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.45<br>Chapter 4.3.1 --- "Growth inhibition test on a marine alga, Chlorella pyrenoidosa CU-2" --- p.45<br>Chapter 4.3.2 --- "Survival test on a amphipod, Parhyale plumulosa" --- p.45<br>Chapter 4.3.3 --- "Survival test on the fish, Sparus sarba" --- p.47<br>Chapter 4.3.4 --- Microtox® test --- p.49<br>Chapter 5. --- Statistical analyses of chemical and ecotoxicological analyses --- p.50<br>RESULTS --- p.51<br>Chapter 1. --- Chemical analyses of oily wastes --- p.51<br>Chapter 1.1 --- Inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometric analysis --- p.51<br>Chapter 1.1.1 --- Heavy metal concentration in crude oily wastes --- p.51<br>Chapter 1.1.2 --- Heavy metal concentration in water-soluble fraction --- p.51<br>Chapter 1.1.3 --- Heavy metal concentration in ploy cyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.54<br>Chapter 1.2 --- Gas chromatography- mass spectrometry analysis --- p.54<br>Chapter 1.2.1 --- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in crude oily wastes --- p.54<br>Chapter 1.2.2 --- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentration in water-soluble fraction --- p.59<br>Chapter 1.2.3 --- Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons concentration in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.61<br>Chapter 2. --- Ecotoxicological studies of oily wastes --- p.63<br>Chapter 2.1 --- Ecotoxicological studies of water-souble fraction --- p.63<br>Chapter 2.1.1 --- Growth inhibition test on Chlorella pyrenoidosa CU-2 --- p.63<br>Chapter 2.1.2 --- Survival test on Elasmopous rapax --- p.63<br>Chapter 2.1.3 --- Survival test on Ambassis gymnocephalus --- p.67<br>Chapter 2.1.4 --- Microtox® test --- p.67<br>Chapter 2.2 --- Ecotoxicological studies of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.70<br>Chapter 2.2.1 --- Growth inhibition test on Chlorella pyrenoidosa CU-2 --- p.70<br>Chapter 2.2.2 --- Survival test on Parhyale plumulosa --- p.70<br>Chapter 2.2.3 --- Survival test on Sparus sarba --- p.74<br>Chapter 2.2.4 --- Microtox® test --- p.74<br>Chapter 3. --- Statistical analyses of chemical and ecotoxicological studies --- p.77<br>Chapter 3.1 --- Statistical analyses of studies on water-soluble fraction --- p.77<br>Chapter 3.1.1 --- Correlation between heavy metal concentration in water-soluble fraction and toxicity tests --- p.77<br>Chapter 3.1.2 --- Correlation between concentration of total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in water-soluble fraction and toxicity tests --- p.80<br>Chapter 3.1.3 --- Correlation among acute toxicity tests --- p.80<br>Chapter 3.2 --- Statistical analyses of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction --- p.84<br>Chapter 3.2.1 --- Correlation between heavy metal level and toxicity tests --- p.84<br>Chapter 3.2.2 --- Correlation between total polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentration in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon fraction and toxicity tests --- p.84<br>Chapter 3.2.3 --- Correlation between four acute toxicity tests --- p.88<br>DISCUSSION --- p.91<br>Chapter 1 --- Chemical analyses of oily wastes --- p.91<br>Chapter 1.1 --- Inductively coupled plasma-emission spectrometric analysis --- p.91<br>Chapter 1.2 --- Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis --- p.93<br>Chapter 2. --- ecotoxicological studies of oily wastes --- p.95<br>Chapter 2.1 --- Growth inhibition test on Chlorella pyrenoidosa CU-2 --- p.95<br>Chapter 2.2 --- Survival tests on Elasmopus rapax and Parhyale plumulosa --- p.96<br>Chapter 2.3 --- Survival test on Ambassis gymnocephalus and Sparus sarba --- p.97<br>Chapter 2.4 --- Microtox® test --- p.98<br>Chapter 3 --- Statistical analyses of chemical and ecotoxicological analyses --- p.99<br>Chapter 4. --- statistical analyses between acute toxicity tests --- p.101<br>CONCLUSION --- p.102<br>REFERENCES --- p.104