Статті в журналах: "Nucleus hypoglossus"

1

Kruszynski, Sandra, Kornelijus Stanaitis, Janine Brandes, Christian F. Poets, and Henner Koch. "Doxapram stimulates respiratory activity through distinct activation of neurons in the nucleus hypoglossus and the pre-Bötzinger complex." Journal of Neurophysiology 121, no. 4 (April 1, 2019): 1102–10. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00304.2018.

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Doxapram is a respiratory stimulant used for decades as a treatment option in apnea of prematurity refractory to methylxanthine treatment. Its mode of action, however, is still poorly understood. We investigated direct effects of doxapram on the pre-Bötzinger complex (PreBötC) and on a downstream motor output system, the hypoglossal nucleus (XII), in the transverse brainstem slice preparation. While doxapram has only a modest stimulatory effect on frequency of activity generated within the PreBötC, a much more robust increase in the amplitude of population activity in the subsequent motor output generated in the XII was observed. In whole cell patch-clamp recordings of PreBötC and XII neurons, we confirmed significantly increased firing of evoked action potentials in XII neurons in the presence of doxapram, while PreBötC neurons showed no significant alteration in firing properties. Interestingly, the amplitude of activity in the motor output was not increased in the presence of doxapram compared with control conditions during hypoxia. We conclude that part of the stimulatory effects of doxapram is caused by direct input on brainstem centers with differential effects on the rhythm generating kernel (PreBötC) and the downstream motor output (XII). NEW & NOTEWORTHY The clinically used respiratory stimulant doxapram has distinct effects on the rhythm generating kernel (pre-Bötzinger complex) and motor output centers (nucleus hypoglossus). These effects are obliterated during hypoxia and are mediated by distinct changes in the intrinsic properties of neurons of the nucleus hypoglossus and synaptic transmission received by pre-Bötzinger complex neurons.

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2

Lips, Mario B., and Bernhard U. Keller. "Activity-Related Calcium Dynamics in Motoneurons of the Nucleus Hypoglossus From Mouse." Journal of Neurophysiology 82, no. 6 (December 1, 1999): 2936–46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1999.82.6.2936.

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A quantitative analysis of activity-related calcium dynamics was performed in motoneurons of the nucleus hypoglossus in the brain stem slice preparation from mouse by simultaneous patch-clamp and microfluorometric calcium measurements. Motoneurons were analyzed under in vitro conditions that kept them in a functionally intact state represented by rhythmic, inspiratory-related bursts of excitatory postsynaptic currents and associated action potential discharges. Bursts of electrical activity were paralleled by somatic calcium transients resulting from calcium influx through voltage-activated calcium channels, where each action potential accounted for a calcium-mediated charge influx around 2 pC into the somatic compartment. Under in vivo conditions, rhythmic-respiratory activity in young mice occurred at frequencies up to 5 Hz, demonstrating the necessity for rapid calcium elevation and recovery in respiratory-related neurons. The quantitative analysis of hypoglossal calcium homeostasis identified an average extrusion rate, but an exceptionally low endogenous calcium binding capacity as cellular parameters accounting for rapid calcium signaling. Our results suggest that dynamics of somatic calcium transients 1) define an upper limit for the maximum frequency of respiratory-related burst discharges and 2) represent a potentially dangerous determinant of intracellular calcium profiles during pathophysiological and/or excitotoxic conditions.

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Hartmann, Henrik A., Stephanie McMahon, Dexter Y. Sun, James H. Abbs, and Etsuro Uemura. "Neuronal RNA in Nucleus Ambiguus and Nucleus Hypoglossus of Patients with Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis." Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology 48, no. 6 (November 1989): 669–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/00005072-198911000-00008.

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4

Chen, Z., J. Hedner, and T. Hedner. "Substance P in the ventrolateral medulla oblongata regulates ventilatory responses." Journal of Applied Physiology 68, no. 6 (June 1, 1990): 2631–39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1990.68.6.2631.

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Local injection of substance P (SP) into the ventral portion of the nucleus gigantocellularis, nucleus reticularis lateralis, and nucleus retrofacialis of the ventrolateral medulla oblongata (VLM) or direct application on the ventral surface of the medulla oblongata caused marked stimulation of tidal volume (VT) and/or minute ventilation (VE). The ventilatory response to hypoxia was significantly blunted after SP in the VLM but not in the dorsal medulla oblongata (DM) (nucleus tractus solitarius). The SP antagonist [D-Pro2,D-Trp7,9]SP almost completely inhibited this response when applied locally to a wide area of the superficial layer of the VLM but not of the DM. Unilateral or bilateral application of 0.3-1.5 nmol of the SP antagonist in the VLM (corpus trapezoideum and the caudal region extending from the rootlets of the nucleus hypoglossus to the first cervical segment) markedly attenuated the response to a 5% CO2 inhalation. The inhibition of the CO2 response was seen after [D-Pro2,D-Trp7,9]SP in the rostral areas of the medulla oblongata corresponding to the corpus trapezoideum and the caudal region extending from the rootlets of the nucleus hypoglossus to the first cervical segment of the cervical cord. Electric somatosensory-induced ventilatory stimulation could be depressed by approximately 70% by [D-Pro2,D-Trp7,9]SP locally applied on the surface of the VLM. We conclude that SP is involved in the hypoxic, hypercapnic, and somatosensory ventilatory responses in the rat. However, these respiratory reflexes are mediated via different neuronal pools in the medulla oblongata, mainly the VLM.

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5

Lips, Mario B., and Bernhard U. Keller. "Endogenous calcium buffering in motoneurones of the nucleus hypoglossus from mouse." Journal of Physiology 511, no. 1 (August 1998): 105–17. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7793.1998.105bi.x.

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6

Cifra, Alessandra, Francesca Nani, Elina Sharifullina, and Andrea Nistri. "A repertoire of rhythmic bursting produced by hypoglossal motoneurons in physiological and pathological conditions." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 364, no. 1529 (September 12, 2009): 2493–500. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0071.

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The brainstem nucleus hypoglossus contains motoneurons that provide the exclusive motor nerve supply to the tongue. In addition to voluntary tongue movements, tongue muscles rhythmically contract during a wide range of physiological activities, such as respiration, swallowing, chewing and sucking. Hypoglossal motoneurons are destroyed early in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a fatal neurodegenerative disease often associated with a deficit in the transport system of the neurotransmitter glutamate. The present study shows how periodic electrical discharges of motoneurons are mainly produced by a neuronal network that drives them into bursting mode via glutamatergic excitatory synapses. Burst activity is, however, modulated by the intrinsic properties of motoneurons that collectively synchronize their discharges via gap junctions to create ‘group bursters’. When glial uptake of glutamate is blocked, a distinct form of pathological bursting spontaneously emerges and leads to motoneuron death. Conversely, H 2 O 2 -induced oxidative stress strongly increases motoneuron excitability without eliciting bursting. Riluzole (the only drug currently licensed for the treatment of ALS) suppresses bursting of hypoglossal motoneurons caused by blockage of glutamate uptake and limits motoneuron death. These findings highlight how different patterns of electrical oscillations of brainstem motoneurons underpin not only certain physiological activities, but also motoneuron death induced by glutamate transporter impairment.

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7

Donato, Roberta, and Andrea Nistri. "Relative Contribution by GABA or Glycine to Cl−-Mediated Synaptic Transmission on Rat Hypoglossal Motoneurons In Vitro." Journal of Neurophysiology 84, no. 6 (December 1, 2000): 2715–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.2000.84.6.2715.

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The relative contribution by GABA and glycine to synaptic transmission of motoneurons was investigated using an hypoglossus nucleus slice preparation from neonatal rats. Spontaneous, miniature, or electrically evoked postsynaptic currents (sPSCs, mPSCs, ePSCs, respectively) mediated by glycine or GABA were recorded under whole cell voltage clamp after blocking excitatory glutamatergic transmission with kynurenic acid. The overall majority of Cl−-mediated sPSCs was glycinergic, while only one-third was GABAergic; 70 ± 10% of mPSCs were glycinergic while 22 ± 8% were GABAergic. Tetrodotoxin (TTX) application dramatically reduced the frequency (and slightly the amplitude) of GABAergic events without changing frequency or amplitude of glycinergic sPSCs. These results indicate that, unlike spontaneous GABAergic transmission, glycine-mediated neurotransmission was essentially independent of network activity. There was a consistent difference in the kinetics of GABAergic and glycinergic responses as GABAergic events had significantly slower rise and decay times than glycinergic ones. Such a difference was always present whenever sPSCs, mPSCs, or ePSCs were measured. Finally, GABAergic and glycinergic mPSCs were differentially modulated by activation of glutamate metabotropic receptors (mGluRs), which are abundant in the hypoglossus nucleus. In fact, the broad-spectrum mGluR agonist (±)-1-aminocyclopentane- trans-1,3-dicarboxylic acid (50 μM), which in control solution increased the frequency of both GABAergic and glycinergic sPSCs, enhanced the frequency of glycinergic mPSCs only. These results indicate that on brain stem motoneurons, Cl−-mediated synaptic transmission is mainly due to glycine rather than GABA and that GABAergic and glycinergic events differ in terms of kinetics and pharmacological sensitivity to mGluR activation or TTX.

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8

Haller, M., S. L. Mironov, and D. W. Richter. "Intrinsic Optical Signals in Respiratory Brain Stem Regions of Mice: Neurotransmitters, Neuromodulators, and Metabolic Stress." Journal of Neurophysiology 86, no. 1 (July 1, 2001): 412–21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.2001.86.1.412.

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In the rhythmic brain stem slice preparation, spontaneous respiratory activity is generated endogenously and can be recorded as output activity from hypoglossal XII rootlets. Here we combine these recordings with measurements of the intrinsic optical signal (IOS) of cells in the regions of the periambigual region and nucleus hypoglossus of the rhythmic slice preparation. The IOS, which reflects changes of infrared light transmittance and scattering, has been previously employed as an indirect sensor for activity-related changes in cell metabolism. The IOS is believed to be primarily caused by cell volume changes, but it has also been associated with other morphological changes such as dendritic beading during prolonged neuronal excitation or mitochondrial swelling. An increase of the extracellular K+ concentration from 3 to 9 mM, as well as superfusion with hypotonic solution induced a marked increase of the IOS, whereas a decrease in extracellular K+ or superfusion with hypertonic solution had the opposite effect. During tissue anoxia, elicited by superfusion of N2-gassed solution, the biphasic response of the respiratory activity was accompanied by a continuous rise in the IOS. On reoxygenation, the IOS returned to control levels. Cells located at the surface of the slice were observed to swell during periods of anoxia. The region of the nucleus hypoglossus exhibited faster and larger IOS changes than the periambigual region, which presumably reflects differences in sensitivities of these neurons to metabolic stress. To analyze the components of the hypoxic IOS response, we investigated the IOS after application of neurotransmitters known to be released in increasing amounts during hypoxia. Indeed, glutamate application induced an IOS increase, whereas adenosine slightly reduced the IOS. The IOS response to hypoxia was diminished after application of glutamate uptake blockers, indicating that glutamate contributes to the hypoxic IOS. Blockade of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ouabain did not provoke a hypoxia-like IOS change. The influences of KATP channels were analyzed, because they contribute significantly to the modulation of neuronal excitability during hypoxia. IOS responses obtained during manipulation of KATP channel activity could be explained only by implicating mitochondrial volume changes mediated by mitochondrial KATP channels. In conclusion, the hypoxic IOS response can be interpreted as a result of cell and mitochondrial swelling. Cell swelling can be attributed to hypoxic release of neurotransmitters and neuromodulators and to inhibition of Na+/K+-pump activity.

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9

Ramirez, J. M., U. J. A. Quellmalz, and B. Wilken. "Developmental Changes in the Hypoxic Response of the Hypoglossus Respiratory Motor Output In Vitro." Journal of Neurophysiology 78, no. 1 (July 1, 1997): 383–92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1997.78.1.383.

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Ramirez, J. M., U.J.A. Quellmalz, and B. Wilken. Developmental changes in the hypoxic response of the hypoglossus respiratory motor output in vitro. J. Neurophysiol. 78: 383–392, 1997. The transverse brain stem slice of mice containing the pre-Bötzinger complex (PBC), a region essential for respiratory rhythm generation in vitro, was used to study developmental changes of the response of the in vitro respiratory network to severe hypoxia (anoxia). This preparation generates, at different postnatal stages [postnatal day (P)0–22], spontaneous rhythmic activity in hypoglossal (XII) rootlets that are known to occur in synchrony with periodic bursts of neurons in the PBC. It is assumed that this rhythmic activity reflects respiratory rhythmic activity. At all examined stages anoxia led to a biphasic response: the frequency of rhythmic XII activity initially increased (“primary augmentation”) and then decreased (“secondary depression”). In neonates (P0–7), anoxia did not significantly affect the amplitude of integrated XII bursts. Secondary depression never led to a cessation of rhythmic activity. In mice older than P7, augmentation was accompanied by a significant increase in the amplitude of XII bursts. A significant decrease of the amplitude of XII bursts occurred during secondary depression. This depression led always to cessation of rhythmic activity in XII rootlets. The anoxia-induced response of the respiratory rhythmic XII motor output is biphasic and changes during development in a similar way to the in vivo respiratory network. Whether this biphasic response is due to a biphasic response of the respiratory rhythm generator and/or to a biphasic modulation of the XII motor nucleus remains unresolved and needs further cellular analysis. We propose that the transverse slice is a useful model system for examination of the mechanisms underlying the hypoxic response.

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Ladewig, T., P. Kloppenburg, P. M. Lalley, W. R. Zipfel, W. W. Webb, and B. U. Keller. "Spatial profiles of store-dependent calcium release in motoneurones of the nucleus hypoglossus from newborn mouse." Journal of Physiology 547, no. 3 (January 24, 2003): 775–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2002.033605.

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11

Lape, Remigijus, and Andrea Nistri. "Voltage-Activated K+ Currents of Hypoglossal Motoneurons in a Brain Stem Slice Preparation From the Neonatal Rat." Journal of Neurophysiology 81, no. 1 (January 1, 1999): 140–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1999.81.1.140.

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Lape, Remigijus and Andrea Nistri. Voltage-activated K+ currents of hypoglossal motoneurons in a brain stem slice preparation from the neonatal rat. J. Neurophysiol. 81: 140–148, 1999. Whole cell, patch-clamp recordings were performed on motoneurons of the hypoglossus nucleus in a brain stem slice preparation from the neonatal rat brain. The aim was to investigate transient outward currents activated by membrane depolarization under voltage clamp conditions. In a Ca2+-free medium containing tetrodotoxin and Cs+, depolarizing voltage commands from a holding potential of −50 mV induced slow outward currents ( I slow) with 34 ± 6 ms (SE) onset time constant at 0 mV and minimal decline during a 1 s pulse depolarization. When the depolarizing command was preceded by a prepulse to −110 mV, the outward current became biphasic as it comprised a faster component ( I fast), which could be investigated in isolation by subtracting the two sets of records. I fast showed rapid kinetics (9 ± 4 ms 10–90% rise time and 70 ± 20 ms decay time constant at 0 mV) and strong voltage-dependent inactivation (half inactivation was at −92.9 ± 0.2 mV) from which it readily recovered with a biexponential timecourse (4.4 ± 0.6 and 17 ± 2 ms time constants at −110 mV membrane potential). I slow was selectively blocked by TEA (10–30 mM) while I fast was preferentially depressed by 2–3 mM 4-aminopyridine. Analysis of tail current reversal indicated that both I slow and I fast were predominantly due to K+ with minor permeability to Na+ (92/1 and 50/1, respectively). These results suggest that membrane depolarization activated distinct K+ conductances that, in view of their largely dissimilar kinetics, are likely to play a differential role in regulating the firing behavior of hypoglossal motoneurons.

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Telgkamp, Petra, and Jan-Marino Ramirez. "Differential Responses of Respiratory Nuclei to Anoxia in Rhythmic Brain Stem Slices of Mice." Journal of Neurophysiology 82, no. 5 (November 1, 1999): 2163–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1999.82.5.2163.

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The response of the neonatal respiratory system to hypoxia is characterized by an initial increase in ventilation, which is followed within a few minutes by a depression of ventilation below baseline levels. We used the transverse medullary slice of newborn mice as a model system for central respiratory control to investigate the effects of short-lasting periods of anoxia. Extracellular population activity was simultaneously recorded from the ventral respiratory group (VRG) and the hypoglossus (XII) nucleus (a respiration-related motor output nucleus). During anoxia, respiratory frequency was modulated in a biphasic manner and phase-locked in both the VRG and the XII. The amplitude of phasic respiratory bursts was increased only in the XII and not in the VRG. This increase in XII burst amplitude commenced ∼1 min after the anoxic onset concomitant with a transient increase in tonic activity. The burst amplitude remained elevated throughout the entire 5 min of anoxia. Inspiratory burst amplitude in the VRG, in contrary, remained constant or even decreased during anoxia. These findings represent the first simultaneous extracellular cell population recordings of two respiratory nuclei. They provide important data indicating that rhythm generation is altered in the VRG without a concomitant alteration in the VRG burst amplitude, whereas the burst amplitude is modulated only in the XII nucleus. This has important implications because it suggests that rhythm generation and motor pattern generation are regulated separately within the respiratory network.

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Wouters, J., and J. A. W. M. Weijnen. "Lick-related field-potentials and multi-unit activity in the drinking rat: A depth profile of the nucleus hypoglossus." Behavioural Processes 10, no. 3 (March 1985): 321. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0376-6357(85)90088-9.

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Lohmann, Ragna, and Manfred Gahr. "Muscle-dependent and hormone-dependent differentiation of the vocal control premotor nucleus robustus archistriatalis and the motornucleus hypoglossus pars tracheosyringealis of the zebra finch." Journal of Neurobiology 42, no. 2 (February 5, 2000): 220–31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1097-4695(20000205)42:2<220::aid-neu6>3.0.co;2-e.

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Sreeja, M. T., P. Vatsalaswamy, and A. S. Leo Rathinaraj. "Morphometric study of the neurons in human hypoglossal nerve nucleus during early gestation." Anatomy Journal of Africa 7, no. 2 (August 28, 2018): 1274–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/aja.v7i2.176681.

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Hypoglossal nerve, XII cranial nerve is responsible for the motor innervation of the tongue muscles, which assists in various motor activities such as chewing, swallowing, vocalization. Thus, weakness of this nerve will lead to weakness and deviation of the tongue to one side. Clinically besides these functions it is also responsible for the most important function such as modulation of respiration and drinking behavior. Thus, a detailed study about the cell dynamics, which involves the development of neurons in the hypoglossal nerve nucleus becomes essential. 12 foetuses [Gestational age 10 – 24 weeks] were included in the study. They were divided into 4 groups based on their gestational age and CRL measurements. Hypoglossal nucleus extends throughout the length of medulla oblongata in the para-median plane. Tissues were collected from hind brain section and section of medulla. The tissues will be processed by routine histological procedure were stained with hematoxylin & eosin and also with Holmer’s Silver nitrate to study the histological details. Morphometric study covered the cell dimensions and volumes of hypoglossal neurons and its nucleus. From these data, coefficients were drawn to identify the proportion of growth between cell and nuclear volume. Morphometric analysis of hypoglossal nerve neurons in human from 10th to 24th gestational week concludes that the primitive migratory cells seen in the initial period and later it will become round neuroblast. In the initial 16 weeks nucleus occupied the entire volume of the cell.Keywords: Hypoglossal nerve nucleus, Deglutition, Mastication, Morphometry, Histogenesis

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16

Nottingham, S., J. C. Leiter, P. Wages, S. Buhay, and J. S. Erlichman. "Developmental changes in intracellular pH regulation in medullary neurons of the rat." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 281, no. 6 (December 1, 2001): R1940—R1951. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.2001.281.6.r1940.

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We examined intracellular pH (pHi) regulation in the retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN), a CO2-sensitive site, and the hypoglossal nucleus, a nonchemosensitive site, during development (postnatal days 2–18) in rats. Respiratory acidosis [10% CO2, extracellular pH (pHo) 7.18] caused acidification without pHi recovery in the RTN at all ages. In the hypoglossal nucleus, pHi recovered in young animals, but as animal age increased, the slope of pHi recovery diminished. In animals older than postnatal day 11, the pHi responses to hypercapnia were identical in the hypoglossal nucleus and the RTN, but hypoglossal nucleus and RTN neurons could regulate pHiduring intracellular acidification at constant pHo at all ages. Recovery of pHi from acidification in the RTN depended on extracellular Na+ and was inhibited by amiloride but was unaffected by DIDS, suggesting a role for Na+/H+ exchange. Hence, pHiregulation during acidosis is more effective in the hypoglossal nucleus in younger animals, possibly as a requirement of development, but in older juvenile animals (older than postnatal day 11), pHi regulation is relatively poor in chemosensitive (RTN) and nonchemosensitive nuclei (hypoglossal nucleus).

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Abass, T. A. "Histological study of the Vagus, Accessory and Hypoglossal nerves nuclei in one humped camel Camelus Dromedarius." Iraqi Journal of Veterinary Medicine 32, no. 2 (December 31, 2008): 253–62. http://dx.doi.org/10.30539/iraqijvm.v32i2.757.

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The present work making histological studies of certain part of medullaoblongata on seven one humped camel ( Camelus Dromedarius ) of differentages and sexes. The location of Vagus X, accessory XI and hypoglossal XIInerve nuclei. The hypoglossal nerve XII nucleus consist of two nuclei dorsalgreater and ventral smaller and the dorsal nuclei observed. Connected withdorsal motor vagal nucleus X by specific arch of fiber in many sections andanother observation the root fiber of hypoglossal nucleus XII pass along thelateral border of inferior olivary nucleus and some sections the root fiberpenetrate lateral part of inferior olivary nucleus.

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Behan, Mary, Adam E. Moeser, Cathy F. Thomas, John A. Russell, Hao Wang, Glen E. Leverson, and Nadine P. Connor. "The Effect of Tongue Exercise on Serotonergic Input to the Hypoglossal Nucleus in Young and Old Rats." Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research 55, no. 3 (June 2012): 919–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2011/11-0091).

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Purpose Breathing and swallowing problems affect elderly people and may be related to age-associated tongue dysfunction. Hypoglossal motoneurons that innervate the tongue receive a robust, excitatory serotonergic (5HT) input and may be affected by aging. We used a rat model of aging and progressive resistance tongue exercise to determine whether age-related alterations in 5HT inputs to the hypoglossal nucleus can be modified. We hypothesized that tongue forces would increase with exercise, 5HT input to the tongue would decrease with age, and tongue exercise would augment 5HT input to the hypoglossal nucleus. Method Young (9–10 months), middle-aged (24–25 months), and old (32–33 months) male F344/BN rats received tongue exercise for 8 weeks. Immunoreactivity for 5HT was measured in digital images of sections through the hypoglossal nucleus using ImageJ software. Results Tongue exercise resulted in increased maximum tongue forces at all ages. There was a statistically significant increase in 5HT immunoreactivity in the hypoglossal nucleus in exercised, young rats but only in the caudal third of the nucleus and primarily in the ventral half. Conclusion Specificity found in serotonergic input following exercise may reflect the topographic organization of motoneurons in the hypoglossal nucleus and the tongue muscles engaged in the exercise paradigm.

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Tobin, C., S. J. Fung, M. Xi, and M. H. Chase. "0066 Glycinergic Postsynaptic Inhibition is Responsible for the Suppression of Hypoglossal Motoneuron Activity During Naturally-Occurring REM Sleep." Sleep 43, Supplement_1 (April 2020): A27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa056.064.

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Abstract Introduction The present study was undertaken to explore the role of glycinergic postsynaptic inhibition and monoaminergic disfacilitation (a withdrawal of excitatory noradrenergic and serotonergic inputs) in the control of hypoglossal motoneuron activity during REM sleep. Accordingly, glycinergic, noradrenergic and serotonergic antagonists were microinjected into the hypoglossal nucleus, and their effects on the hypoglossal nerve activity during REM sleep were examined in chronically-instrumented, unanesthetized cats. Methods Adults cats were prepared for monitoring behavioral states of sleep and wakefulness, and for extracellular recordings from hypoglossal nerve. Strychnine (a glycinergic antagonist) and a mixture of prazosin (a noradrenergic antagonist) and methysergide (a serotonergic antagonist) were microinjected, separately, into the hypoglossal nucleus during naturally-occurring states of sleep and wakefulness. Results During REM sleep, compared to non-REM sleep, the hypoglossal nerve activity decreased by 17.4±1.5% (n=17) in the control recordings (prior to the injection of strychnine). Following the microinjection of strychnine, there was only a mean decrease of 7.2±1.2% (n=12) in the nerve activity during REM sleep versus NREM sleep. The strychnine effect was statistically significant compared to control (p<0.001; unpaired t-test), which indicates that strychnine blocks REM sleep-related suppression of hypoglossal nerve activity. In contrast, the microinjection of prazosin and methysergide did not significantly reduce the hypoglossal nerve activity during REM sleep (control: 15.9±2.3, n=9 vs. prazosin+methysergide: 12.6±1.4%, n=10, p=0.229, unpaired t-test). Conclusion The present results demonstrate that the microapplication of strychnine, but not prazosin and methysergide, into the hypoglossal nucleus significantly reduces the suppression of the hypoglossal nerve activity during naturally-occurring REM sleep. We therefore suggest that glycinergic postsynaptic inhibition is primarily responsible for the suppression of hypoglossal motoneuron activity during REM sleep. Support 5R01NS094062

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Axer, Hubertus, Hans-Gert Bernstein, Silke Keiner, Polina Heronimus, Heinrich Sauer, Otto W. Witte, Bernhard Bogerts, and Karl-Jürgen Bär. "Increased neuronal cell number in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus in schizophrenia." Acta Neuropsychiatrica 22, no. 1 (February 2010): 26–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1601-5215.2009.00434.x.

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Axer H, Bernstein H-G, Keiner S, Heronimus P, Sauer H, Witte OW, Bogerts B, Bär K-J. Increased neuronal cell number in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus in schizophrenia.Objective:Recently, a reduction in efferent vagal regulation has been found in schizophrenic patients.Methods:Therefore, the brainstems of nine schizophrenic patients and nine normal controls were stereologically analysed. The number of neurons using the optical fractionator method and nuclear volumes applying the Cavalieri principle was estimated in Nissl stained sections of the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMNV) and the hypoglossal nucleus.Results:The neurons in the right DMNV were significantly increased in the schizophrenic group compared to normal controls (p = 0.047), while the volumes of the DMNV did not differ. In contrast, no such differences were found in the hypoglossal nucleus.Conclusion:Although this pilot study is limited by its small sample size, the analysis of the solitarius–ambiguus–vagus system in schizophrenic patients is an interesting target in schizophrenia research. The most reasonable background for increased neuron numbers in the DMNV could be a system-specific neurodevelopmental disturbance in schizophrenia.

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Yang, C. C., J. Y. Chan, and S. H. Chan. "Central effect of angiotensin III on caudal hypoglossal neurons in rats." American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 268, no. 5 (May 1, 1995): R1242—R1248. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1995.268.5.r1242.

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We communicated the central effect of angiotensin III (ANG III), a potent signal for extracellular dehydration, on single neurons in the caudal hypoglossal nucleus of Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with pentobarbital sodium. A significant number (121 of 168) of caudal hypoglossal neurons responded to intracerebroventricular application of ANG III (80 or 160 pmol), with either an increase (n = 83) or decrease (n = 38) in their spontaneous discharge. These effects of ANG III were significantly reversed by intracerebroventricular application of the nonpeptide angiotensin AT1 receptor antagonist losartan (40 nmol), but not by the AT2 antagonist, PD-123319. The hypoglossal neuronal responses to repeated administration of ANG III (80 pmol), delivered at an interval < or = 18 min, exhibited acute tachyphylaxis. Intracerebroventricular administration of the cholinergic dipsogen, carbachol (50 ng), or the osmotic stimulant, hypertonic saline (0.5 M), also elicited responses in ANG III-responsive hypoglossal neurons. These results suggest that neurons in the caudal hypoglossal nucleus may serve as the final common pathway for extracellular and, possibly, intracellular thirst in the rat. Furthermore, it is likely that the action of ANG III is mediated by the AT1 subtype of angiotensin receptors.

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22

Mameli, Ombretta, and Eusebio Tolu. "Visual input to the hypoglossal nucleus." Experimental Neurology 90, no. 2 (November 1985): 341–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(85)90023-8.

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23

Mameli, O., E. Tolu, F. Melis, and M. A. Caria. "Labyrinthine projection to the hypoglossal nucleus." Brain Research Bulletin 20, no. 1 (January 1988): 83–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0361-9230(88)90011-1.

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24

Aldes, L. D., R. B. Chronister, C. Shelton, J. W. Haycock, L. A. Marco, and D. L. Wong. "Catecholamine innervation of the rat hypoglossal nucleus." Brain Research Bulletin 21, no. 2 (August 1988): 305–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0361-9230(88)90245-6.

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25

Talman, W. T., and S. C. Robertson. "Nucleus prepositus hypoglossi. A medullary pressor region." Hypertension 17, no. 6_pt_2 (June 1991): 1173–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1161/01.hyp.17.6.1173.

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26

Magnin, M., H. Kennedy, and K. P. Hoffmann. "A double-labeling investigation of the pretectal visuo-vestibular pathways." Visual Neuroscience 3, no. 1 (July 1989): 53–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0952523800012505.

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AbstractThe projections of the nucleus of the optic tract were studied in the cat by simultaneous use of two distinct retrograde tracers (Fast Blue and Diamidino Yellow) injected in the inferior olive and the prepositus hypoglossi nucleus. Following injections of diamidino yellow in one structure and fast blue in the other, a significant number of retrogradely labeled neurons projecting to either target were observed dispersed in the nucleus of the optic tract. Three populations of labeled cells were found: one which projected to the inferior olive, a second to the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi, and a third which projected by means of a bifurcating axon to both of these structures. Quantification of these results reveals that 72% of the total number of labeled neurons are labeled by the IO injection, the remaining cells being labeled by the NPH injection. Double-labeled neurons represent more than 7% of the total number of the labeled cells. Tentative inferences as to the electrophysiological properties of the nucleus of the optic tract are discussed in the context of the optokinetic system.

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27

Wenthold, R. J., K. K. Skaggs, and R. R. Reale. "Characterization of retrograde axonal transport of antibodies in central and peripheral neurons." Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry 34, no. 3 (March 1986): 373–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/34.3.3950386.

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Retrograde axonal transport of antibodies against synaptic membrane glycoproteins was studied in the hypoglossal nerve and several CNS pathways of the rat. Injection into the tongue of polyclonal antibodies against synaptic membrane glycoproteins produced immunocytochemically labeled cells in the hypoglossal nucleus 4-5 hr later. Immunoreactive staining increased through 48 hr after injection and then declined. Injections of Fab preparations of the antibody gave labeling patterns indistinguishable from those of the whole antibody. The specificity of this method is shown by control studies in which antibodies against antigens that are not known to be present on the surface of presynaptic membranes were injected and gave no retrograde labeling. Retrograde labeling was also demonstrated in CNS pathways. However, labeling was never as intense as that seen in the hypoglossal nucleus, and some CNS pathways failed to show any retrograde labeling. Furthermore, retrograde labeling after control injections could be demonstrated in some cases. To determine if antibodies were also transported anterogradely, injections were made into the vitreous body of the eye, and the superior colliculus was processed for immunocytochemistry. Unlike wheat-germ agglutinin and several other tracers, antibodies were not found to be anterogradely transported in the optic nerve.

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28

FULLER, D. D., T. L. BAKER, M. BEHAN, and G. S. MITCHELL. "Expression of hypoglossal long-term facilitation differs between substrains of Sprague-Dawley rat." Physiological Genomics 4, no. 3 (January 19, 2001): 175–81. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/physiolgenomics.2001.4.3.175.

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Long-term facilitation (LTF) is a prolonged, serotonin-dependent augmentation of respiratory motor output following episodic hypoxia. Previous observations lead us to hypothesize that LTF is subject to genetic influences and, as a result, differs between Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats from two vendors, Harlan (H) and Charles River Laboratories/Sasco (CRL/S). Using a blinded experimental design, we recorded integrated phrenic (∫Phr) and hypoglossal neurograms in anesthetized, vagotomized, paralyzed, and ventilated rats. At 60 min following three 5-min hypoxic episodes (PaO2 = 40 ± 1 Torr; 5-min hyperoxic intervals), ∫Phr was elevated from baseline in both SD substrains (i.e., LTF; P < 0.05). Conversely, hypoglossal LTF was present in CRL/S but not H rats ( P < 0.05 between substrains). Serotonin immunoreactivity within the hypoglossal nucleus was not different between H and CRL/S rats. We conclude that the expression of hypoglossal LTF differs between SD rat substrains, indicating a difference in their genetic predisposition to neural plasticity.

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29

Singer, Philip A., and Sharon Mehler. "Increased glucose use in the hypoglossal nucleus after hypoglossal nerve transection in aged rats." Experimental Neurology 108, no. 1 (April 1990): 86–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-4886(90)90012-h.

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30

Rukhadze, Irma, and Leszek Kubin. "Mesopontine cholinergic projections to the hypoglossal motor nucleus." Neuroscience Letters 413, no. 2 (February 2007): 121–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2006.11.059.

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31

Mameli, O., S. Stanzani, A. Russo, R. Pellitteri, M. Spatuzza, M. A. Caria, G. Mulliri, and P. L. De Riu. "Hypoglossal nucleus projections to the rat masseter muscle." Brain Research 1283 (August 2009): 34–40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2009.06.004.

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32

Liu, Qiuli, and Margaret T. T. Wong-Riley. "Postnatal developmental expressions of neurotransmitters and receptors in various brain stem nuclei of rats." Journal of Applied Physiology 98, no. 4 (April 2005): 1442–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.01301.2004.

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Previously, we reported that the expression of cytochrome oxidase in a number of brain stem nuclei exhibited a plateau or reduction at postnatal day (P) 3–4 and a dramatic decrease at P12, against a general increase with age. The present study examined the expression of glutamate, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit 1 (NMDAR1), GABA, GABAB receptors, glycine receptors, and glutamate receptor subunit 2 (GluR2) in the ventrolateral subnucleus of the solitary tract nucleus, nucleus ambiguus, hypoglossal nucleus, medial accessory olivary nucleus, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, and cuneate nucleus, from P2 to P21 in rats. Results showed that 1) the expression of glutamate increased with age in a majority of the nuclei, whereas that of NMDAR1 showed heterogeneity among the nuclei; 2) GABA and GABAB expressions decreased with age, whereas that of glycine receptors increased with age; 3) GluR2 showed two peaks, at P3–4 and P12; and 4) glutamate and NMDAR1 showed a significant reduction, whereas GABA, GABAB receptors, glycine receptors, and GluR2 exhibited a concomitant increase at P12. These features were present but less pronounced in hypoglossal nucleus and dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus and were absent in the cuneate nucleus. These data suggest that brain stem nuclei, directly or indirectly related to respiratory control, share a common developmental trend with the pre-Bötzinger complex in having a transient period of imbalance between inhibitory and excitatory drives at P12. During this critical period, the respiratory system may be more vulnerable to excessive exogenous stressors.

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33

Pepper, T. M., J. J. Swanson, M. C. Kuehl-Kovarik, and CD Jacobson. "An Electron Microscopic Study of Developing Synapses in Facial and Hypoglossal Motor Nuclei of the Brazilian Opossum." Microscopy and Microanalysis 3, S2 (August 1997): 181–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1431927600007790.

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Previously, we have shown the apparent development of synapses utilizing immunohistochemistry (IHC) for synapse-associated proteins in the facial and hypoglossal motor nuclei of the Brazilian opossum. This study suggests that synaptogenesis is delayed in the facial motor nucleus (FMN) as compared to the hypoglossal motor nucleus (HMN). In the present study we plan to confirm and extend these findings at the electron microscopic (EM) level.We have examined the ultrastructure of the developing FMN from animals 5 to 25 days of postnatal age (PN). The specific nuclei were identified using methylene blue stained 150 μm thick vibratome cut sections. The FMN and HMN were then dissected out for processing, guaranteeing that visualization at the EM level would be confined to areas specific to the nuclei of interest.Initial analysis of the FMN indicates a marked increase of detectable synapses between 5 and 15PN.

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34

Saito, Yasuhiko, Masato Shino, and Yuchio Yanagawa. "Local excitatory network in rat prepositus hypoglossi nucleus." Neuroscience Research 65 (January 2009): S169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2009.09.887.

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35

Bartz, Jason C., Anthony E. Kincaid, and Richard A. Bessen. "Rapid Prion Neuroinvasion following Tongue Infection." Journal of Virology 77, no. 1 (January 1, 2003): 583–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/jvi.77.1.583-591.2003.

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ABSTRACT Food-borne transmission of prions can lead to infection of the gastrointestinal tract and neuroinvasion via the splanchnic and vagus nerves. Here we report that the transmission of transmissible mink encephalopathy (TME) is 100,000-fold more efficient by inoculation of prions into the tongues of hamsters than by oral ingestion. The incubation period following TME agent (hereinafter referred to as TME) inoculation into the lingual muscles was the shortest among the five nonneuronal routes of inoculation, including another intramuscular route. Deposition of the abnormal isoform of the prion protein, PrPSc, was first detected in the tongue and submandibular lymph node at 1 to 2 weeks following inoculation of the tongue with TME. PrPSc deposits in the tongue were associated with individual axons, and the initial appearance of TME in the brain stem was found in the hypoglossal nucleus at 2 weeks postinfection. At later time points, PrPSc was localized to brain cell groups that directly project to the hypoglossal nucleus, indicating the transneuronal spread of TME. TME PrPSc entry into the brain stem preceded PrPSc detection in the rostral cervical spinal cord. These results demonstrate that TME can replicate in both the tongue and regional lymph nodes but indicate that the faster route of brain invasion is via retrograde axonal transport within the hypoglossal nerve to the hypoglossal nucleus. Topical application of TME to a superficial wound on the surface of the tongue resulted in a higher incidence of disease and a shorter incubation period than with oral TME ingestion. Therefore, abrasions of the tongue in livestock and humans may predispose a host to oral prion infection of the tongue-associated cranial nerves. In a related study, PrPSc was detected in tongues following the intracerebral inoculation of six hamster-adapted prion strains, which demonstrates that prions can also travel from the brain to the tongue in the anterograde direction along the tongue-associated cranial nerves. These findings suggest that food products containing ruminant or cervid tongue may be a potential source of prion infection for humans.

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36

Skulsky, Eric M., Nadir I. Osman, Helen A. Baghdoyan, and Ralph Lydic. "Microdialysis Delivery of Morphine to the Hypoglossal Nucleus of Wistar Rat Increases Hypoglossal Acetylcholine Release." Sleep 30, no. 5 (May 2007): 566–73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/sleep/30.5.566.

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37

Ono, Takashi, Yasuo Ishiwata, Noritaka Inaba, Takayuki Kuroda, and Yoshio Nakamura. "Modulation of the Inspiratory-Related Activity of Hypoglossal Premotor Neurons During Ingestion and Rejection in the Decerebrate Cat." Journal of Neurophysiology 80, no. 1 (July 1, 1998): 48–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.1998.80.1.48.

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Ono, Takashi, Yasuo Ishiwata, Noritaka Inaba, Takayuki Kuroda, and Yoshio Nakamura. Modulation of the inspiratory-related activity of hypoglossal premotor neurons during ingestion and rejection in the decerebrate cat. J. Neurophysiol. 80: 48–58, 1998. Single-unit activities of the bulbar reticular inspiratory neurons directly projecting to hypoglossal motoneurons were studied during fictive ingestion (e.g., swallowing) and rejection elicited by repetitive stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve and by application of water to the pharynx in immobilized decerebrated cats. The single-unit activity was recorded during 113 episodes of fictive ingestion from 25 inspiratory neurons directly projecting to hypoglossal motoneurons (single projection neurons) and 7 inspiratory neurons directly projecting to both hypoglossal and phrenic motoneurons (dual projection neurons) in the regions ventrolateral to the nucleus tractus solitarii and dorsomedial to the nucleus ambiguus. All of single projection neurons ceased inspiratory-related rhythmical discharges coincidentally with the onset of repetitive stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve. The majority of them (19/25, 76%, type A) showed a spike burst during ingestion, whereas the minority (6/25, 24%, type B) kept silent until the end of repetitive stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve. During fictive ingestion elicited by application of water to the pharynx, the type-A neurons showed a spike burst activity, whereas the type-B neurons kept silent. All dual projection neurons (7/7, 100%, type C) ceased inspiratory-related rhythmical discharges at the onset of repetitive stimulation of the superior laryngeal nerve and showed no activity during fictive ingestion. Likewise, the type-C neurons kept silent during fictive ingestion elicited by application of water to the pharynx. A spike burst was induced during 33 episodes of fictive rejection in all of 5 tested type-A, 3 tested type-B, and 6 tested type-C neurons. It is concluded that the premotor neurons involved in the respiratory-related rhythmical activity of hypoglossal motoneurons is responsible for switching from respiration to ingestion and rejection.

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38

Yang, C. C. H., J. Y. H. Chan, and S. H. H. Chan. "Excitatory innervation of caudal hypoglossal nucleus from nucleus reticularis gigantocellularis in the rat." Neuroscience 65, no. 2 (March 1995): 365–74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0306-4522(94)00473-i.

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39

Hinrichsen, C. F. L., and S. Weston. "Substance P in the hypoglossal nucleus of the rat." Archives of Oral Biology 44, no. 8 (August 1999): 683–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0003-9969(99)00040-0.

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40

Okabe, S., M. Mackiewicz, and L. Kubin. "Serotonin receptor mRNA expression in the hypoglossal motor nucleus." Respiration Physiology 110, no. 2-3 (November 1997): 151–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0034-5687(97)00080-7.

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41

Nara, Takahiro, Noboru Goto, and Katsuyuki Yamaguchi. "Development of the Human Hypoglossal Nucleus: A Morphometric Study." Developmental Neuroscience 11, no. 3 (1989): 212–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000111900.

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42

Haiduka, Yoshinori, Toshiyasu Matsui, George Matsumura, and Yasushi Kobayashi. "Origin of C-terminals in the rat hypoglossal nucleus." Neuroscience Research 65 (January 2009): S105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2009.09.465.

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43

Han, Lei, Shuhua Mu, Zhendan He, Zhiwei Wang, Junle Qu, Wencai Ye, and Jian Zhang. "CNQX facilitates inhibitory synaptic transmission in rat hypoglossal nucleus." Brain Research 1637 (April 2016): 71–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2016.02.020.

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44

Laine, Christopher M., and E. Fiona Bailey. "Common Synaptic Input to the Human Hypoglossal Motor Nucleus." Journal of Neurophysiology 105, no. 1 (January 2011): 380–87. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00766.2010.

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The tongue plays a key role in various volitional and automatic functions such as swallowing, maintenance of airway patency, and speech. Precisely how hypoglossal motor neurons, which control the tongue, receive and process their often concurrent input drives is a subject of ongoing research. We investigated common synaptic input to the hypoglossal motor nucleus by measuring the coordination of spike timing, firing rate, and oscillatory activity across motor units recorded from unilateral (i.e., within a belly) or bilateral (i.e., across both bellies) locations within the genioglossus (GG), the primary protruder muscle of the tongue. Simultaneously recorded pairs of motor units were obtained from 14 healthy adult volunteers using tungsten microelectrodes inserted percutaneously into the GG while the subjects were engaged in volitional tongue protrusion or rest breathing. Bilateral motor unit pairs showed concurrent low frequency alterations in firing rate (common drive) with no significant difference between tasks. Unilateral motor unit pairs showed significantly stronger common drive in the protrusion task compared with rest breathing, as well as higher indices of synchronous spiking (short-term synchrony). Common oscillatory input was assessed using coherence analysis and was observed in all conditions for frequencies up to ∼5 Hz. Coherence at frequencies up to ∼10 Hz was strongest in motor unit pairs recorded from the same GG belly in tongue protrusion. Taken together, our results suggest that cortical drive increases motor unit coordination within but not across GG bellies, while input drive during rest breathing is distributed uniformly to both bellies of the muscle.

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45

Kevetter, Golda Anne, Robert B. Leonard, Shawn D. Newlands, and Adrian A. Perachio. "Central distribution of vestibular afferents that innervate the anterior or lateral semicircular canal in the mongolian gerbil." Journal of Vestibular Research 14, no. 1 (April 27, 2004): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.3233/ves-2004-14101.

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The central distribution of afferents that innervate the crista ampullaris of the anterior or lateral semicircular canals was determined in gerbils following the direct injection of tracers into one sensory neuroepithelia. Labeled somata were scattered throughout the superior ganglion. The central distribution of fibers demonstrated extensive overlap. The central branch of afferents innervating either canal was located in the rostral part of the nerve. Nerve fibers divided into ascending and descending branches. Ascending branch ramifications terminated in the superior vestibular nucleus, the magnocellular and parvicellular medial vestibular nuclei, and the cerebellum. Cerebellar terminal areas include the flocculus, nodulus and uvula. Descending branch ramifications terminated in the caudal medial, parvicellular medial and descending vestibular nuclei, and the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi. Lateral canal afferents terminated sparsely in nucleus cuneatus. The anterior canal had sparse innervation in the paratrigeminal and gigantocellular reticular formation. This study has shown many similarities in the central distribution of fibers that innervate the anterior and lateral canals and a few areas of segregated input. Projections outside the vestibular nuclei are more extensive than previously determined, including afferents to prepositus hypoglossi, cochlear nuclei, and reticular formation. Projections to the flocculus appear as numerous as those to the vermis.

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46

Ruhrig, S., B. Kötter, G. Hummel, and H. Goller. "Entwicklung und Zelldifferenzierung des Nucleus nervi hypoglossi beim Rind." Anatomia, Histologia, Embryologia: Journal of Veterinary Medicine Series C 24, no. 1 (March 1995): 53–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0264.1995.tb00009.x.

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47

Martino, Paul F., S. Olesiak, D. Batuuka, D. Riley, S. Neumueller, H. V. Forster, and M. R. Hodges. "Strain differences in pH-sensitive K+ channel-expressing cells in chemosensory and nonchemosensory brain stem nuclei." Journal of Applied Physiology 117, no. 8 (October 15, 2014): 848–56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00439.2014.

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The ventilatory CO2 chemoreflex is inherently low in inbred Brown Norway (BN) rats compared with other strains, including inbred Dahl salt-sensitive (SS) rats. Since the brain stem expression of various pH-sensitive ion channels may be determinants of the CO2 chemoreflex, we tested the hypothesis that there would be fewer pH-sensitive K+ channel-expressing cells in BN relative to SS rats within brain stem sites associated with respiratory chemoreception, such as the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), but not within the pre-Bötzinger complex region, nucleus ambiguus or the hypoglossal motor nucleus. Medullary sections (25 μm) from adult male and female BN and SS rats were stained with primary antibodies targeting TASK-1, Kv1.4, or Kir2.3 K+ channels, and the total (Nissl-stained) and K+ channel immunoreactive (-ir) cells counted. For both male and female rats, the numbers of K+ channel-ir cells within the NTS were reduced in the BN compared with SS rats ( P < 0.05), despite equal numbers of total NTS cells. In contrast, we found few differences in the numbers of K+ channel-ir cells among the strains within the nucleus ambiguus, hypoglossal motor nucleus, or pre-Bötzinger complex regions in both male and female rats. However, there were no predicted functional mutations in each of the K+ channels studied comparing genomic sequences among these strains. Thus we conclude that the relatively selective reductions in pH-sensitive K+ channel-expressing cells in the NTS of male and female BN rats may contribute to their severely blunted ventilatory CO2 chemoreflex.

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48

Yokota, Shigefumi, Toshiko Tsumori, Tatsuro Oka, Jianguo Niu, and Yukihiko Yasui. "Glutamatergic projection from the Kölliker-Fuse nucleus to the hypoglossal nucleus in the rat." Neuroscience Research 65 (January 2009): S218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2009.09.1217.

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49

Sun, Y., G. E. Deibler, and C. Beebe Smith. "Effects of Axotomy on Protein Synthesis in the Rat Hypoglossal Nucleus: Examination of the Influence of Local Recycling of Leucine Derived from Protein Degradation into the Precursor Pool." Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism 13, no. 6 (November 1993): 1006–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/jcbfm.1993.126.

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The quantitative autoradiographic l-[1-14C] leucine method for the determination of regional rates of cerebral protein synthesis (lCPSleu) requires knowledge of the degree of recycling of leucine derived from protein degradation into the precursor pool for protein synthesis, which can be evaluated by measuring λi; the steady-state ratio of the leucine-specific activity in the precursor amino acid pool (tRNA-bound leucine) to that of the arterial plasma. To define the changes in lCPSleu during regeneration of the hypoglossal nerve, we examined the effects of axotomy on the value of λi. Because the concentration of tRNA-bound leucine in the hypoglossal nucleus is too low to measure, we measured the equivalent ratio for the total acid-soluble pool (ψi) and applied the linear relationship between λ and ψ found in the whole brain to calculate a value of λi in the ipsilateral and contralateral hypoglossal nuclei of 22 adult female rats 2, 18, 35, and 60 days after unilateral hypoglossal axotomy. Statistically significant but quantitatively inconsequential effects of axotomy on values of ψi and λi were found. Therefore, the mean value for λi (0.64) of the left and right hypoglossal nuclei in all 22 axotomized rats was used to calculate lCPSleu. In a separate group of 15 unilaterally axotomized rats, lCPSleu was determined by the autoradiographic technique; lCPSleu was increased on the axotomized side by 23% on day 2, 30% on day 18, and 13% on day 35. By postaxotomy day 60, lCPSleu had returned to normal.

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50

Sylvestre, Pierre A., Julia T. L. Choi, and Kathleen E. Cullen. "Discharge Dynamics of Oculomotor Neural Integrator Neurons During Conjugate and Disjunctive Saccades and Fixation." Journal of Neurophysiology 90, no. 2 (August 2003): 739–54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1152/jn.00123.2003.

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Burst-tonic (BT) neurons in the prepositus hypoglossi and adjacent medial vestibular nuclei are important elements of the neural integrator for horizontal eye movements. While the metrics of their discharges have been studied during conjugate saccades (where the eyes rotate with similar dynamics), their role during disjunctive saccades (where the eyes rotate with markedly different dynamics to account for differences in depths between saccadic targets) remains completely unexplored. In this report, we provide the first detailed quantification of the discharge dynamics of BT neurons during conjugate saccades, disjunctive saccades, and disjunctive fixation. We show that these neurons carry both significant eye position and eye velocity-related signals during conjugate saccades as well as smaller, yet important, “slide” and eye acceleration terms. Further, we demonstrate that a majority of BT neurons, during disjunctive fixation and disjunctive saccades, preferentially encode the position and the velocity of a single eye; only few BT neurons equally encode the movements of both eyes (i.e., have conjugate sensitivities). We argue that BT neurons in the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi/medial vestibular nucleus play an important role in the generation of unequal eye movements during disjunctive saccades, and carry appropriate information to shape the saccadic discharges of the abducens nucleus neurons to which they project.

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