Статті в журналах: "Nitric oxide, plant pathogen interaction"

1

Romero-Puertas, María, and Massimo Delledonne. "Nitric Oxide Signaling in Plant-Pathogen Interactions." IUBMB Life 55, no. 10 (January 1, 2004): 579–83. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15216540310001639274.

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Romero-Puertas, María C., Michele Perazzolli, Elisa D. Zago, and Massimo Delledonne. "Nitric oxide signalling functions in plant-pathogen interactions." Cellular Microbiology 6, no. 9 (July 14, 2004): 795–803. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2004.00428.x.

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3

Beligni, V., A. Laxalt, and L. Lamattina. "PUTATIVE ROLE OF NITRIC OXIDE IN PLANT-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS." Japanese Journal of Pharmacology 75 (1997): 92. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0021-5198(19)41763-0.

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4

Martínez-Medina, Ainhoa, Leyre Pescador, Laura C. Terrón-Camero, María J. Pozo, and María C. Romero-Puertas. "Nitric oxide in plant–fungal interactions." Journal of Experimental Botany 70, no. 17 (June 13, 2019): 4489–503. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz289.

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Abstract Whilst many interactions with fungi are detrimental for plants, others are beneficial and result in improved growth and stress tolerance. Thus, plants have evolved sophisticated mechanisms to restrict pathogenic interactions while promoting mutualistic relationships. Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of nitric oxide (NO) in the regulation of plant defence against fungal pathogens. NO triggers a reprograming of defence-related gene expression, the production of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties, and the hypersensitive response. More recent studies have shown a regulatory role of NO during the establishment of plant–fungal mutualistic associations from the early stages of the interaction. Indeed, NO has been recently shown to be produced by the plant after the recognition of root fungal symbionts, and to be required for the optimal control of mycorrhizal symbiosis. Although studies dealing with the function of NO in plant–fungal mutualistic associations are still scarce, experimental data indicate that different regulation patterns and functions for NO exist between plant interactions with pathogenic and mutualistic fungi. Here, we review recent progress in determining the functions of NO in plant–fungal interactions, and try to identify common and differential patterns related to pathogenic and mutualistic associations, and their impacts on plant health.

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5

Ding, Yi, Donald M. Gardiner, Di Xiao, and Kemal Kazan. "Regulators of nitric oxide signaling triggered by host perception in a plant pathogen." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117, no. 20 (May 6, 2020): 11147–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1918977117.

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The rhizosphere interaction between plant roots or pathogenic microbes is initiated by mutual exchange of signals. However, how soil pathogens sense host signals is largely unknown. Here, we studied early molecular events associated with host recognition in Fusarium graminearum, an economically important fungal pathogen that can infect both roots and heads of cereal crops. We found that host sensing prior to physical contact with plant roots radically alters the transcriptome and triggers nitric oxide (NO) production in F. graminearum. We identified an ankyrin-repeat domain containing protein (FgANK1) required for host-mediated NO production and virulence in F. graminearum. In the absence of host plant, FgANK1 resides in the cytoplasm. In response to host signals, FgANK1 translocates to the nucleus and interacts with a zinc finger transcription factor (FgZC1), also required for specific binding to the nitrate reductase (NR) promoter, NO production, and virulence in F. graminearum. Our results reveal mechanistic insights into host-recognition strategies employed by soil pathogens.

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6

Ferrarini, Alberto, Matteo De Stefano, Emmanuel Baudouin, Chiara Pucciariello, Annalisa Polverari, Alain Puppo, and Massimo Delledonne. "Expression of Medicago truncatula Genes Responsive to Nitric Oxide in Pathogenic and Symbiotic Conditions." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 21, no. 6 (June 2008): 781–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-21-6-0781.

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Nitric oxide (NO) is involved in diverse physiological processes in plants, including growth, development, response to pathogens, and interactions with beneficial microorganisms. In this work, a dedicated microarray representing the widest database available of NO-related transcripts in plants has been produced with 999 genes identified by a cDNA amplified fragment length polymorphism analysis as modulated in Medicago truncatula roots treated with two NO donors. The microarray then was used to monitor the expression of NO-responsive genes in M. truncatula during the incompatible interaction with the foliar pathogen Colletotrichum trifolii race 1 and during the symbiotic interaction with Sinorhizobium meliloti 1021. A wide modulation of NO-related genes has been detected during the hypersensitive reaction or during nodule formation and is discussed with special emphasis on the physiological relevance of these genes in the context of the two biotic interactions. This work clearly shows that NO-responsive genes behave differently depending on the plant organ and on the type of interaction, strengthening the need to consider regulatory networks, including different signaling molecules.

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7

Zeier, Jürgen, Massimo Delledonne, Tatiana Mishina, Emmanuele Severi, Masatoshi Sonoda, and Chris Lamb. "Genetic Elucidation of Nitric Oxide Signaling in Incompatible Plant-Pathogen Interactions." Plant Physiology 136, no. 1 (September 2004): 2875–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1104/pp.104.042499.

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8

A.S, Lubaina, and Murugan K. "REACTIVE OXYGEN OR NITROGEN SPECIES (ROS/ RNS) AND RESPONSE OF ANTIOXIDANTS AS SCAVENGERS DURING BIOTIC STRESS IN PLANTS: AN OVERVIEW." Kongunadu Research Journal 4, no. 3 (December 30, 2017): 45–50. http://dx.doi.org/10.26524/krj231.

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Phytopathogens have evolved diverse independent and complex modes of penetrating and accessing plant cellular contents. The synthesis of reactive oxygen or nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) by the utilization of molecular oxygen during plant–pathogen interactions results in to oxidative burst, a signaling cascade to defense. ROS array includes singlet oxygen, the hydroxyperoxyl radical, the superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, the hydroxyl radical and the closely related reactive nitrogen species, nitric oxide. ROS acts synergistically directs to signal amplification to drive the hypersensitive reaction (HR) and initiates systemicdefenses. The role of ROS in successful pathogenesis, it is ideal to inhibit the cell death machinery selectively and simultaneously to monitor other defense and pathogenesis-related processes. With the understanding of the interplay underlying the localized activation of the oxidative burst following perception of pathogen avirulence signals and key downstream responses including gene activation, cell death, and long-distance signaling, novel strategies will be developed for engineering enhanced protection against pathogens by manipulation of the oxidative burst and oxidant-mediated signal pathways. In this over review, it is reported the different roles of ROS/RNS in host–pathogen interactions with example on Alternaria- Sesamum interaction.

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9

Baudouin, Emmanuel, Laurent Pieuchot, Gilbert Engler, Nicolas Pauly, and Alain Puppo. "Nitric Oxide Is Formed in Medicago truncatula-Sinorhizobium meliloti Functional Nodules." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 19, no. 9 (September 2006): 970–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-19-0970.

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Nitric oxide (NO) has recently gained interest as a major signaling molecule during plant development and response to environmental cues. Its role is particularly crucial for plant-pathogen interactions, during which it participates in the control of plant defense response and resistance. Indication for the presence of NO during symbiotic interactions has also been reported. Here, we defined when and where NO is produced during Medicago truncatula-Sinorhizobium meliloti symbiosis. Using the NO-specific fluorescent probe 4,5-diaminofluorescein diacetate, NO production was detected by confocal microscopy in functional nodules. NO production was localized in the bacteroid-containing cells of the nodule fixation zone. The infection of Medicago roots with bacterial strains impaired in nitrogenase or nitrite reductase activities lead to the formation of nodules with an unaffected NO level, indicating that neither nitrogen fixation nor denitrification pathways are required for NO production. On the other hand, the NO synthase inhibitor N-methyl-L-arginine impaired NO detection, suggesting that a NO synthase may participate to NO production in nodules. These data indicate that a NO production occurs in functional nodules. The location of such a production in fully metabolically active cells raises the hypothesis of a new function for NO during this interaction unrelated to defense and cell-death activation.

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10

Meilhoc, Eliane, Yvan Cam, Agnès Skapski, and Claude Bruand. "The Response to Nitric Oxide of the Nitrogen-Fixing Symbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 23, no. 6 (June 2010): 748–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-23-6-0748.

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Nitric oxide (NO) is crucial in animal– and plant–pathogen interactions, during which it participates in host defense response and resistance. Indications for the presence of NO during the symbiotic interaction between the model legume Medicago truncatula and its symbiont Sinorhizobium meliloti have been reported but the role of NO in symbiosis is far from being elucidated. Our objective was to understand the role or roles played by NO in symbiosis. As a first step toward this goal, we analyzed the bacterial response to NO in culture, using a transcriptomic approach. We identified approximately 100 bacterial genes whose expression is upregulated in the presence of NO. Surprisingly, most of these genes are regulated by the two-component system FixLJ, known to control the majority of rhizobial genes expressed in planta in mature nodules, or the NO-dedicated regulator NnrR. Among the genes responding to NO is hmp, encoding a putative flavohemoglobin. We report that an hmp mutant displays a higher sensitivity toward NO in culture and leads to a reduced nitrogen fixation efficiency in planta. Because flavohemoglobins are known to detoxify NO in numerous bacterial species, this result is the first indication of the importance of the bacterial NO response in symbiosis.

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11

Umbreen, Saima, Jibril Lubega, and Gary J. Loake. "Sulfur: the heart of nitric oxide-dependent redox signalling." Journal of Experimental Botany 70, no. 16 (March 26, 2019): 4279–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz135.

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Abstract Nitric oxide (NO), more benign than its more reactive and damaging related molecules, reactive oxygen species (ROS), is perfectly suited for duties as a redox signalling molecule. A key route for NO bioactivity is through S-nitrosation, the addition of an NO moiety to a protein Cys thiol (-SH). This redox-based, post-translational modification (PTM) can modify protein function analogous to more well established PTMs such as phosphorylation, for example by modulating enzyme activity, localization, or protein–protein interactions. At the heart of the underpinning chemistry associated with this PTM is sulfur. The emerging evidence suggests that S-nitrosation is integral to a myriad of plant biological processes embedded in both development and environmental relations. However, a role for S-nitrosation is perhaps most well established in plant–pathogen interactions.

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12

Ding, Li-Na, Yue-Tao Li, Yuan-Zhen Wu, Teng Li, Rui Geng, Jun Cao, Wei Zhang, and Xiao-Li Tan. "Plant Disease Resistance-Related Signaling Pathways: Recent Progress and Future Prospects." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 24 (December 19, 2022): 16200. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms232416200.

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Plant–pathogen interactions induce a signal transmission series that stimulates the plant’s host defense system against pathogens and this, in turn, leads to disease resistance responses. Plant innate immunity mainly includes two lines of the defense system, called pathogen-associated molecular pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI). There is extensive signal exchange and recognition in the process of triggering the plant immune signaling network. Plant messenger signaling molecules, such as calcium ions, reactive oxygen species, and nitric oxide, and plant hormone signaling molecules, such as salicylic acid, jasmonic acid, and ethylene, play key roles in inducing plant defense responses. In addition, heterotrimeric G proteins, the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play important roles in regulating disease resistance and the defense signal transduction network. This paper summarizes the status and progress in plant disease resistance and disease resistance signal transduction pathway research in recent years; discusses the complexities of, and interactions among, defense signal pathways; and forecasts future research prospects to provide new ideas for the prevention and control of plant diseases.

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13

Mur, Luis A. J., Tim L. W. Carver, and Elena Prats. "NO way to live; the various roles of nitric oxide in plant–pathogen interactions." Journal of Experimental Botany 57, no. 3 (December 23, 2005): 489–505. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erj052.

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14

Chakraborty, Nilanjan, Kabita Mukherjee, Anik Sarkar, and Krishnendu Acharya. "Interaction between Bean and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides: Understanding Through a Biochemical Approach." Plants 8, no. 9 (September 12, 2019): 345. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/plants8090345.

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In addition to its role in animals, nowadays nitric oxide (NO) is considered as an emerging signaling molecule in plant systems. It is now believed that NO exerts its pivotal role in various plant physiological processes, such as in seed germination, plant developmental stages, and plant defense mechanisms. In this study, we have taken an initiative to show the biochemical basis of defense response activation in bean leaves during the progression of Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. and Sacc. in detached bean leaves. Stages of pathogen penetration and colonization were successfully established in the detached bean leaves. Results showed up-regulation of different defense-related enzymes and other defense molecules, such as phenols, flavonoids, callose, and lignin molecules, along with NO at early stages of pathogen invasion. Although in the later stages of the disease, development of NO and other defense components (excluding lignin) were down-regulated, the production of reactive oxygen species in the form of H2O2 became elevated. Consequently, other stress markers, such as lipid peroxidation, proline content, and chlorophyll content, were changed accordingly. Correlation between the disease index and other defense molecules, along with NO, indicate that production of NO and reactive oxygen species (ROS) might influence the development of anthracnose in common bean.

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15

Asai, Shuta, and Hirofumi Yoshioka. "Nitric Oxide as a Partner of Reactive Oxygen Species Participates in Disease Resistance to Necrotrophic Pathogen Botrytis cinerea in Nicotiana benthamiana." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 22, no. 6 (June 2009): 619–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-22-6-0619.

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Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential regulatory molecule in plant immunity in synergy with reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, little is known about the role of NO in disease resistance to necrotrophic pathogens. NO and oxidative bursts were induced during necrotrophic fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea and Nicotiana benthamiana compatible interaction. Histochemical analyses showed that both NO and ROS were produced in adjacent cells of invaded areas in N. benthamiana leaves. Activation of salicylic acid–induced protein kinase, which regulates the radical burst, and several defense-related genes were induced after inoculation of B. cinerea. Loss-of-function analyses using inhibitors and virus-induced gene silencing were done to investigate the role of the radical burst in pathogenesis. We showed that NO plays a pivotal role in basal defense against B. cinerea and PR-1 gene expression in N. benthamiana. By contrast, ROS function has a negative role in resistance or has a positive role in expansion of disease lesions during B. cinerea–N. benthamiana interaction.

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16

Xu, Yang Cang, Yuan Lin Cao, Ping Guo, Yi Tao, and Bao Lu Zhao. "Detection of Nitric Oxide in Plants by Electron Spin Resonance." Phytopathology® 94, no. 4 (April 2004): 402–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/phyto.2004.94.4.402.

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Three methods to detect nitric oxide (NO•) are reported here. The first method was determining NO• in extracted plant tissue. NO• was trapped by spin trapping reagent containing diethyldithiocarbamate (DETC) and FeSO4, extracted by ethyl acetate, and determined with an electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometer. The second method was indirectly determining NO• in live wheat leaves. Seedlings were cultured in a medium containing FeSO4, and the leaves were brushed by DETC. Then, the leaves were ground and the complex of (DETC)2-Fe2+-NO was extracted and determined with an ESR spectrometer. The third method was directly determining NO• in live wheat leaves. After treating plant materials as in the second method, part of the water in leaves was transpired, and the leaf disks were inserted directly into quartz tubes to determine NO• with an ESR spectrometer. The NO• scavenger 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5,-tetramethylimidazoline- 1-oxyl 3-oxide (PTIO) decreased NO• signal detected either by an indirect or a direct method. This result indicates that both methods could detect NO• in the live plant. Using the first methods, we detected NO• change in wheat infected by Puccinia striiformis race CY22-2 pathogen (incompatible interaction) at different inoculation times, and it was found that the NO• content dramatically increased at 24 h postinoculation, quickly decreased at 48 h, and increased again at 96 h.

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17

Lee, Wing-Sham, B. Jean Devonshire, Kim E. Hammond-Kosack, Jason J. Rudd, and Kostya Kanyuka. "Deregulation of Plant Cell Death Through Disruption of Chloroplast Functionality Affects Asexual Sporulation of Zymoseptoria tritici on Wheat." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 28, no. 5 (May 2015): 590–604. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-10-14-0346-r.

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Chloroplasts have a critical role in plant defense as sites for the biosynthesis of the signaling compounds salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JA), and nitric oxide (NO) and as major sites of reactive oxygen species production. Chloroplasts, therefore, regarded as important players in the induction and regulation of programmed cell death (PCD) in response to abiotic stresses and pathogen attack. The predominantly foliar pathogen of wheat Zymoseptoria tritici is proposed to exploit the plant PCD, which is associated with the transition in the fungus to the necrotrophic phase of infection. In this study virus-induced gene silencing was used to silence two key genes in carotenoid and chlorophyll biosynthesis, phytoene desaturase (PDS) and Mg-chelatase H subunit (ChlH). The chlorophyll-deficient, PDS- and ChlH-silenced leaves of susceptible plants underwent more rapid pathogen-induced PCD but were significantly less able to support the subsequent asexual sporulation of Z. tritici. Conversely, major gene (Stb6)-mediated resistance to Z. tritici was partially compromised in PDS- and ChlH-silenced leaves. Chlorophyll-deficient wheat ears also displayed increased Z. tritici disease lesion formation accompanied by increased asexual sporulation. These data highlight the importance of chloroplast functionality and its interaction with regulated plant cell death in mediating different genotype and tissue-specific interactions between Z. tritici and wheat.

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18

Perchepied, Laure, Claudine Balagué, Catherine Riou, Clotilde Claudel-Renard, Nathalie Rivière, Bruno Grezes-Besset, and Dominique Roby. "Nitric Oxide Participates in the Complex Interplay of Defense-Related Signaling Pathways Controlling Disease Resistance to Sclerotinia sclerotiorum in Arabidopsis thaliana." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 23, no. 7 (July 2010): 846–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-23-7-0846.

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Studies of the interaction between Arabidopsis thaliana and the necrotrophic fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum have been hampered by the extreme susceptibility of this model plant to the fungus. In addition, analyses of the plant defense response suggested the implication of a complex interplay of hormonal and signaling pathways. To get a deeper insight into this host-pathogen interaction, we first analyzed the natural variation in Arabidopsis for resistance to S. sclerotiorum. The results revealed a large variation of resistance and susceptibility in Arabidopsis, with some ecotypes, such as Ws-4, Col-0, and Rbz-1, being strongly resistant, and others, such as Shahdara, Ita-0, and Cvi-0, exhibiting an extreme susceptibility. The role of different signaling pathways in resistance was then determined by assessing the symptoms of mutants affected in the perception, production, or transduction of hormonal signals after inoculation with S. sclerotiorum. This analysis led to the conclusions that i) signaling of inducible defenses is predominantly mediated by jasmonic acid and abscisic acid, influenced by ethylene, and independent of salicylic acid; and ii) nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species are important signals required for plant resistance to S. sclerotiorum. Defense gene expression analysis supported the specific role of NO in defense activation.

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19

Sun, Yuming, Min Wang, Luis Alejandro Jose Mur, Qirong Shen, and Shiwei Guo. "Unravelling the Roles of Nitrogen Nutrition in Plant Disease Defences." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 2 (January 16, 2020): 572. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21020572.

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Nitrogen (N) is one of the most important elements that has a central impact on plant growth and yield. N is also widely involved in plant stress responses, but its roles in host-pathogen interactions are complex as each affects the other. In this review, we summarize the relationship between N nutrition and plant disease and stress its importance for both host and pathogen. From the perspective of the pathogen, we describe how N can affect the pathogen’s infection strategy, whether necrotrophic or biotrophic. N can influence the deployment of virulence factors such as type III secretion systems in bacterial pathogen or contribute nutrients such as gamma-aminobutyric acid to the invader. Considering the host, the association between N nutrition and plant defence is considered in terms of physical, biochemical and genetic mechanisms. Generally, N has negative effects on physical defences and the production of anti-microbial phytoalexins but positive effects on defence-related enzymes and proteins to affect local defence as well as systemic resistance. N nutrition can also influence defence via amino acid metabolism and hormone production to affect downstream defence-related gene expression via transcriptional regulation and nitric oxide (NO) production, which represents a direct link with N. Although the critical role of N nutrition in plant defences is stressed in this review, further work is urgently needed to provide a comprehensive understanding of how opposing virulence and defence mechanisms are influenced by interacting networks.

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Bennett, Mark, Monaz Mehta, and Murray Grant. "Biophoton Imaging: A Nondestructive Method for Assaying R Gene Responses." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 18, no. 2 (February 2005): 95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-18-0095.

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Plant disease resistance (R) proteins of the nucleotide binding-leucine rich repeat class are responsible for pathogen recognition and activation of defense signaling networks leading to the hypersensitive response (HR). Genetically, R-protein signaling appears to be integrated through a limited set of common downstream components. However, the timing of development of visible HR is unique to individual R proteins. By utilizing the phenomena of ultraweak photon emission from leaves undergoing an incompatible interacttion, a powerful nondestructive and facile assay is described to compare timing of defense responses elicited by different R proteins. We demonstrate that ultraweak photon emission, or “biophoton generation,” is demonstrated to be associated with hypersensitive cell death. Biophoton emission requires an intact R signaling network and increases in cytosolic calcium and nitric oxide, but elevated reactive oxygen species are not necessary. Importantly, the assay is robust and applicable to a range of incompatible interactions in various plant species. The ability to assay R responses nondestructively in real time and a chosen genetic background makes this technique amenable to subtle genetic dissection of plant defense responses.

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Sarkar, Tuhin Subhra, Pranjal Biswas, Subrata Kumar Ghosh, and Sanjay Ghosh. "Nitric Oxide Production by Necrotrophic Pathogen Macrophomina phaseolina and the Host Plant in Charcoal Rot Disease of Jute: Complexity of the Interplay between Necrotroph–Host Plant Interactions." PLoS ONE 9, no. 9 (September 10, 2014): e107348. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0107348.

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22

Poór, Péter, and Irma Tari. "Regulation of stomatal movement and photosynthetic activity in guard cells of tomato abaxial epidermal peels by salicylic acid." Functional Plant Biology 39, no. 12 (2012): 1028. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/fp12187.

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Salicylic acid (SA), a signalling molecule in plant–pathogen interactions induces stomatal closure in intact leaves and it has a direct control over stomatal movement by increasing the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) in guard cells (GC). Stomatal closure on the abaxial epidermal peels of tomato leaves was induced at 10−7 and 10−3 M SA but stomata remained open at 10−4 M. At concentrations that reduced stomatal aperture, the ROS and NO levels were raised. The accumulation of ROS and NO could be prevented by specific scavengers, which were effective inhibitors of the SA-induced stomatal closure. In contrast with other plant species, the guard cells (GCs) of tomato did not show a long-lasting accumulation of ROS in the presence of 10−4 M SA and their NO content decreased to below the control level, leading to stomatal opening. Increasing SA concentrations resulted in a significant decrease in the maximum and effective quantum yields of PSII photochemistry and in the photochemical quenching parameter of GCs. In the presence of 10−7 and 10−4 M SA, the chloroplasts of GCs sustained a higher electron transport rate than in the presence of 10−3 M, suggesting that the SA-induced inhibition of GC photosynthesis may affect stomatal closure at high SA concentrations.

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23

Kretschmer, Matthias, Djihane Damoo, Armin Djamei, and James Kronstad. "Chloroplasts and Plant Immunity: Where Are the Fungal Effectors?" Pathogens 9, no. 1 (December 24, 2019): 19. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pathogens9010019.

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Chloroplasts play a central role in plant immunity through the synthesis of secondary metabolites and defense compounds, as well as phytohormones, such as jasmonic acid and salicylic acid. Additionally, chloroplast metabolism results in the production of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide as defense molecules. The impact of viral and bacterial infections on plastids and chloroplasts has been well documented. In particular, bacterial pathogens are known to introduce effectors specifically into chloroplasts, and many viral proteins interact with chloroplast proteins to influence viral replication and movement, and plant defense. By contrast, clear examples are just now emerging for chloroplast-targeted effectors from fungal and oomycete pathogens. In this review, we first present a brief overview of chloroplast contributions to plant defense and then discuss examples of connections between fungal interactions with plants and chloroplast function. We then briefly consider well-characterized bacterial effectors that target chloroplasts as a prelude to discussing the evidence for fungal effectors that impact chloroplast activities.

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24

Bellin, Diana, Shuta Asai, Massimo Delledonne, and Hirofumi Yoshioka. "Nitric Oxide as a Mediator for Defense Responses." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 26, no. 3 (March 2013): 271–77. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-09-12-0214-cr.

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Sequential recognition of invading microbes and rapid induction of plant immune responses comprise at least two recognition systems. Early basal defenses are initiated by pathogen-associated molecular patterns and pattern recognition receptors (PRR) in the plasma membrane. Pathogens produce effectors to suppress defense but plants, in turn, can sense such effectors by dominant plant resistance (R) gene products. Plant PRR and R proteins modulate signaling networks for defense responses that rely on rapid production of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Recent research has shown that nitric oxide (NO) mainly mediates biological function through chemical reactions between locally controlled accumulation of RNS and proteins leading to potential alteration of protein function. Many proteins specifically regulated by NO and participating in signaling during plant defense response have been identified, highlighting the physiological relevance of these modifications in plant immunity. ROS function independently or in cooperation with NO during defense, modulating the RNS signaling functions through the entire process. This review provides an overview of current knowledge about regulatory mechanisms for NO burst and signaling, and crosstalk with ROS in response to pathogen attack.

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25

Arasimowicz‐Jelonek, Magdalena, and Jolanta Floryszak‐Wieczorek. "Nitric oxide: an effective weapon of the plant or the pathogen?" Molecular Plant Pathology 15, no. 4 (November 26, 2013): 406–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/mpp.12095.

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26

Adimulam, Srivani S., Bhatnagar-Mathur Pooja, and Santisree Parankusam. "Interaction of Nitric Oxide with Phytohormones under Drought Stress." Journal of Plant Studies 6, no. 1 (January 21, 2017): 58. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jps.v6n1p58.

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Plants are often exposed to a plethora of stress conditions such as salinity, extreme temperatures, drought, and heavy metals that can greatly impact farmer’s income. Nitric oxide (NO) has been implicated in resistance to various plant stresses and hence gaining increasing attention from plant researchers. NO mediate various abiotic and biotic stresses in plants including drought stress. However, it is still unclear about the actual involvement of NO in drought stress responses at a whole plant level. Whether NO act alone or in coherence with other phytohormones and signaling molecules is an open question till now. Here we summarized the interaction of NO with the well-known phytohormones in coping with the drought stress.

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Yamamoto, Ayako, Shinpei Katou, Hirofumi Yoshioka, Noriyuki Doke, and Kazuhito Kawakita. "Nitrate reductase, a nitric oxide-producing enzyme: induction by pathogen signals." Journal of General Plant Pathology 69, no. 4 (August 1, 2003): 218–29. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10327-003-0039-x.

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Buet, Agustina, Andrea Galatro, Facundo Ramos-Artuso, and Marcela Simontacchi. "Nitric oxide and plant mineral nutrition: current knowledge." Journal of Experimental Botany 70, no. 17 (March 23, 2019): 4461–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz129.

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Abstract Plants under conditions of essential mineral deficiency trigger signaling mechanisms that involve common components. Among these components, nitric oxide (NO) has been identified as a key participant in responses to changes in nutrient availability. Usually, nutrient imbalances affect the levels of NO in specific plant tissues, via modification of its rate of synthesis or degradation. Changes in the level of NO affect plant morphology and/or trigger responses associated with nutrient homeostasis, mediated by its interaction with reactive oxygen species, phytohormones, and through post-translational modification of proteins. NO-related events constitute an exciting field of research to understand how plants adapt and respond to conditions of nutrient shortage. This review summarizes the current knowledge on NO as a component of the multiple processes related to plant performance under conditions of deficiency in mineral nutrients, focusing on macronutrients such as nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, and magnesium, as well as micronutrients such as iron and zinc.

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29

Clark, Daniel, Jörg Durner, Duroy A. Navarre, and Daniel F. Klessig. "Nitric Oxide Inhibition of Tobacco Catalase and Ascorbate Peroxidase." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 13, no. 12 (December 2000): 1380–84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi.2000.13.12.1380.

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We used a variety of nitric oxide (NO) donors to demonstrate that NO inhibits the activities of tobacco catalase and ascorbate peroxidase (APX). This inhibition appears to be reversible because removal of the NO donor led to a significant recovery of enzymatic activity. In contrast, APX and catalase were irreversibly inhibited by peroxynitrite. The ability of NO and peroxynitrite to inhibit the two major H2O2-scavenging enzymes in plant cells suggests that NO may participate in redox signaling during the activation of defense responses following pathogen attack.

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TURRION-GOMEZ, JUAN L., and ERNESTO P. BENITO. "Flux of nitric oxide between the necrotrophic pathogen Botrytis cinerea and the host plant." Molecular Plant Pathology 12, no. 6 (January 17, 2011): 606–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1364-3703.2010.00695.x.

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31

Wang, Jennifer, and Verna J. Higgins. "Nitric oxide modulates H2O2-mediated defenses in the Colletotrichum coccodes–tomato interaction." Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology 67, no. 3-5 (September 2005): 131–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pmpp.2005.11.002.

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32

Zhao, Zhiguang, Guocang Chen, and Chenglie Zhang. "Interaction between reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide in drought-induced abscisic acid synthesis in root tips of wheat seedlings." Functional Plant Biology 28, no. 10 (2001): 1055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/pp00143.

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Abscisic acid accumulation and oxidative stress are two common responses of plants to environmental stresses. However, little is known about their relationships. The purpose of this article is to investigate the effects of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide on the plant hormone abscisic acid synthesis in root tips of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedlings under drought stress. Detached root tips were subjected to drought stress by naturally evaporating until 20% of their fresh weights were lost. The activities of superoxide synthases and nitric oxide synthase (EC 1.14.13.39) increased after 20 min of treatment and abscisic acid began to accumulate 60 min later. The induction of abscisic acid by drought was strongly blocked by pretreating the root tips with reactive oxygen species eliminators tiron or ascorbate acid, and with nitric oxide synthase inhibitor Nω-nitro-L-arginine or nitric oxide eliminator 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-imidazoline-1-oxyl 3-oxide. Consistent with these results, reactive oxygen species generators diethyldithiocarbamic acid, xanthine–xanthine oxidase and triazole or nitric oxide donor sodium nitroprusside can also induce abscisic acid accumulation in root tips of wheat seedlings. While potentiated by reactive oxygen species, the effect of sodium nitroprusside on abscisic acid accumulation was blocked by 2-phenyl-4,4,5,5-tetramethyl-imidazoline-1-oxyl 3-oxide. Based on these results, we suggest that reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide play important roles in drought-induced abscisic acid synthesis in plant, they may be the signals through which the plant can ‘sense’ the drought condition.

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Edwards, Jennifer L. "Neisseria gonorrhoeae Survival during Primary Human Cervical Epithelial Cell Infection Requires Nitric Oxide and Is Augmented by Progesterone." Infection and Immunity 78, no. 3 (January 4, 2010): 1202–13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/iai.01085-09.

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ABSTRACT Neisseria gonorrhoeae is an obligate human pathogen that causes gonorrhea. We have shown previously that complement receptor 3 and Akt kinase play important roles in mediating cervical infection. At present, there are limited data to indicate how hormonally induced changes to the mucosal epithelia of the female genital tract mediate the course of gonococcal disease. Hence, I have expanded upon previous work to investigate the interaction of gonococci with primary human cervical epithelial (pex) cells under the variable estrogen and progesterone concentrations likely to be encountered in vivo throughout the female menstrual cycle. My data indicated that the ability of gonococci to survive and to replicate within pex cells was increased under progesterone-predominant conditions. Using bacterial survival, immunological, and kinase assays, I show that progesterone functioned in an additive manner with gonococcal phospholipase D to augment Akt kinase activity. This, in turn, resulted in a parallel increase in nitric oxide synthase expression. Nitric oxide production by pex cells was dependent upon Akt activity and was increased under progesterone-predominant conditions. Whereas both inducible and endothelial nitric oxide synthase contributed to nitric oxide production, only inducible nitric oxide synthase activity promoted gonococcal survival within pex cells. Collectively, these data provide the first clues as to how steroid hormones potentially modulate the course of gonococcal disease in women. In addition, these data demonstrate that host-derived nitric oxide likely is not protective against gonococci, in vivo; rather, nitric oxide may be required to sustain cervical bacterial disease.

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Palmieri, Erika M., Christopher McGinity, David A. Wink, and Daniel W. McVicar. "Nitric Oxide in Macrophage Immunometabolism: Hiding in Plain Sight." Metabolites 10, no. 11 (October 26, 2020): 429. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/metabo10110429.

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Nitric Oxide (NO) is a soluble endogenous gas with various biological functions like signaling, and working as an effector molecule or metabolic regulator. In response to inflammatory signals, immune myeloid cells, like macrophages, increase production of cytokines and NO, which is important for pathogen killing. Under these proinflammatory circumstances, called “M1”, macrophages undergo a series of metabolic changes including rewiring of their tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Here, we review findings indicating that NO, through its interaction with heme and non-heme metal containing proteins, together with components of the electron transport chain, functions not only as a regulator of cell respiration, but also a modulator of intracellular cell metabolism. Moreover, diverse effects of NO and NO-derived reactive nitrogen species (RNS) involve precise interactions with different targets depending on concentration, temporal, and spatial restrictions. Although the role of NO in macrophage reprogramming has been in evidence for some time, current models have largely minimized its importance. It has, therefore, been hiding in plain sight. A review of the chemical properties of NO, past biochemical studies, and recent publications, necessitates that mechanisms of macrophage TCA reprogramming during stimulation must be re-imagined and re-interpreted as mechanistic results of NO exposure. The revised model of metabolic rewiring we describe here incorporates many early findings regarding NO biochemistry and brings NO out of hiding and to the forefront of macrophages immunometabolism.

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35

Gupta, Kapuganti Jagadis, Aprajita Kumari, Igor Florez-Sarasa, Alisdair R. Fernie, and Abir U. Igamberdiev. "Interaction of nitric oxide with the components of the plant mitochondrial electron transport chain." Journal of Experimental Botany 69, no. 14 (March 24, 2018): 3413–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/ery119.

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36

Corpas, Francisco J., Salvador González-Gordo, and José M. Palma. "Nitric Oxide (NO) Scaffolds the Peroxisomal Protein–Protein Interaction Network in Higher Plants." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 22, no. 5 (February 28, 2021): 2444. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms22052444.

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The peroxisome is a single-membrane subcellular compartment present in almost all eukaryotic cells from simple protists and fungi to complex organisms such as higher plants and animals. Historically, the name of the peroxisome came from a subcellular structure that contained high levels of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and the antioxidant enzyme catalase, which indicated that this organelle had basically an oxidative metabolism. During the last 20 years, it has been shown that plant peroxisomes also contain nitric oxide (NO), a radical molecule than leads to a family of derived molecules designated as reactive nitrogen species (RNS). These reactive species can mediate post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins, such as S-nitrosation and tyrosine nitration, thus affecting their function. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview of how NO could affect peroxisomal metabolism and its internal protein-protein interactions (PPIs). Remarkably, many of the identified NO-target proteins in plant peroxisomes are involved in the metabolism of reactive oxygen species (ROS), either in its generation or its scavenging. Therefore, it is proposed that NO is a molecule with signaling properties with the capacity to modulate the peroxisomal protein-protein network and consequently the peroxisomal functions, especially under adverse environmental conditions.

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Gupta, Kapuganti J., Luis A. J. Mur, and Yariv Brotman. "Trichoderma asperelloides Suppresses Nitric Oxide Generation Elicited by Fusarium oxysporum in Arabidopsis Roots." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 27, no. 4 (April 2014): 307–14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-06-13-0160-r.

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Inoculations with saprophytic fungus Trichoderma spp. are now extensively used both to promote plant growth and to suppress disease development. The underlying mechanisms for both roles have yet to be fully described so that the use of Trichoderma spp. could be optimized. Here, we show that Trichoderma asperelloides effects include the manipulation of host nitric oxide (NO) production. NO was rapidly formed in Arabidopsis roots in response to the soil-borne necrotrophic pathogen Fusarium oxysporum and persisted for about 1 h but is only transiently produced (approximately 10 min) when roots interact with T. asperelloides (T203). However, inoculation of F. oxysporum–infected roots with T. asperelloides suppressed F. oxysporum–initiated NO production. A transcriptional study of 78 NO-modulated genes indicated most genes were suppressed by single and combinational challenge with F. oxysporum or T. asperelloides. Only two F. oxysporum–induced genes were suppressed by T. asperelloides inoculation undertaken either 10 min prior to or after pathogen infection: a concanavlin A-like lectin protein kinase (At4g28350) and the receptor-like protein RLP30. Thus, T. asperelloides can actively suppress NO production elicited by F. oxysporum and impacts on the expression of some genes reported to be NO-responsive. Of particular interest was the reduced expression of receptor-like genes that may be required for F. oxysporum–dependent necrotrophic disease development.

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38

Huang, Dandan, Wen Tian, Jianrong Feng, and Shuhua Zhu. "Interaction between nitric oxide and storage temperature on sphingolipid metabolism of postharvest peach fruit." Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 151 (June 2020): 60–68. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2020.03.012.

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Blanquet, Pauline, Liliana Silva, Olivier Catrice, Claude Bruand, Helena Carvalho, and Eliane Meilhoc. "Sinorhizobium meliloti Controls Nitric Oxide–Mediated Post-Translational Modification of a Medicago truncatula Nodule Protein." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 28, no. 12 (December 2015): 1353–63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-05-15-0118-r.

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Nitric oxide (NO) is involved in various plant-microbe interactions. In the symbiosis between soil bacterium Sinorhizobium meliloti and model legume Medicago truncatula, NO is required for an optimal establishment of the interaction but is also a signal for nodule senescence. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms responsible for NO effects in the legume-rhizobium interaction. Here, we investigate the contribution of the bacterial NO response to the modulation of a plant protein post-translational modification in nitrogen-fixing nodules. We made use of different bacterial mutants to finely modulate NO levels inside M. truncatula root nodules and to examine the consequence on tyrosine nitration of the plant glutamine synthetase, a protein responsible for assimilation of the ammonia released by nitrogen fixation. Our results reveal that S. meliloti possesses several proteins that limit inactivation of plant enzyme activity via NO-mediated post-translational modifications. This is the first demonstration that rhizobia can impact the course of nitrogen fixation by modulating the activity of a plant protein.

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40

Chang, Xiaoqian, Kathryn L. Kingsley, and James F. White. "Chemical Interactions at the Interface of Plant Root Hair Cells and Intracellular Bacteria." Microorganisms 9, no. 5 (May 12, 2021): 1041. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9051041.

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In this research, we conducted histochemical, inhibitor and other experiments to evaluate the chemical interactions between intracellular bacteria and plant cells. As a result of these experiments, we hypothesize two chemical interactions between bacteria and plant cells. The first chemical interaction between endophyte and plant is initiated by microbe-produced ethylene that triggers plant cells to grow, release nutrients and produce superoxide. The superoxide combines with ethylene to form products hydrogen peroxide and carbon dioxide. In the second interaction between microbe and plant the microbe responds to plant-produced superoxide by secretion of nitric oxide to neutralize superoxide. Nitric oxide and superoxide combine to form peroxynitrite that is catalyzed by carbon dioxide to form nitrate. The two chemical interactions underlie hypothesized nutrient exchanges in which plant cells provide intracellular bacteria with fixed carbon, and bacteria provide plant cells with fixed nitrogen. As a consequence of these two interactions between endophytes and plants, plants grow and acquire nutrients from endophytes, and plants acquire enhanced oxidative stress tolerance, becoming more tolerant to abiotic and biotic stresses.

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Ferreira, Leonardo Cesar, and Ana Catarina Cataneo. "Nitric oxide in plants: a brief discussion on this multifunctional molecule." Scientia Agricola 67, no. 2 (April 2010): 236–43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0103-90162010000200017.

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Several studies were carried out in order to improve the knowledge about the occurrence and activity of nitric oxide (NO) in plants. Thus, this review discusses some aspects related to NO in plants such as chemical properties, synthesis pathways, physiological effects, antioxidant action, signal transduction, interaction with plant hormones and gene expression. In the last years, many advances have been obtained regarding NO synthesis and its physiological effects in plants. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying its effects remain poorly understood. It is signalized that tight interplays among NO, Ca2+, cyclic ADP ribose (cADPR), and protein kinases need to be investigated in details. In addition, it has not yet been possible to identify a plant enzyme displaying a nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-like activity. The elucidation of such aspects represents a challenge to future studies.

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Mur, Luis A. J., Aprajita Kumari, Yariv Brotman, Jurgen Zeier, Julien Mandon, Simona M. Cristescu, Frans Harren, Werner M. Kaiser, Alisdair R. Fernie, and Kapuganti Jagadis Gupta. "Nitrite and nitric oxide are important in the adjustment of primary metabolism during the hypersensitive response in tobacco." Journal of Experimental Botany 70, no. 17 (April 10, 2019): 4571–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erz161.

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Abstract Nitrate and ammonia deferentially modulate primary metabolism during the hypersensitive response in tobacco. In this study, tobacco RNAi lines with low nitrite reductase (NiRr) levels were used to investigate the roles of nitrite and nitric oxide (NO) in this process. The lines accumulate NO2–, with increased NO generation, but allow sufficient reduction to NH4+ to maintain plant viability. For wild-type (WT) and NiRr plants grown with NO3–, inoculation with the non-host biotrophic pathogen Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola induced an accumulation of nitrite and NO, together with a hypersensitive response (HR) that resulted in decreased bacterial growth, increased electrolyte leakage, and enhanced pathogen resistance gene expression. These responses were greater with increases in NO or NO2– levels in NiRr plants than in the WT under NO3– nutrition. In contrast, WT and NiRr plants grown with NH4+ exhibited compromised resistance. A metabolomic analysis detected 141 metabolites whose abundance was differentially changed as a result of exposure to the pathogen and in response to accumulation of NO or NO2–. Of these, 13 were involved in primary metabolism and most were linked to amino acid and energy metabolism. HR-associated changes in metabolism that are often linked with primary nitrate assimilation may therefore be influenced by nitrite and NO production.

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Rüger, Nancy, Hicham Sid, Jochen Meens, Michael P. Szostak, Wolfgang Baumgärtner, Frederik Bexter, and Silke Rautenschlein. "New Insights into the Host–Pathogen Interaction of Mycoplasma gallisepticum and Avian Metapneumovirus in Tracheal Organ Cultures of Chicken." Microorganisms 9, no. 11 (November 22, 2021): 2407. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9112407.

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Respiratory pathogens are a health threat for poultry. Co-infections lead to the exacerbation of clinical symptoms and lesions. Mycoplasma gallisepticum (M. gallispeticum) and Avian Metapneumovirus (AMPV) are two avian respiratory pathogens that co-circulate worldwide. The knowledge about the host–pathogen interaction of M. gallispeticum and AMPV in the chicken respiratory tract is limited. We aimed to investigate how co-infections affect the pathogenesis of the respiratory disease and whether the order of invading pathogens leads to changes in host–pathogen interaction. We used chicken tracheal organ cultures (TOC) to investigate pathogen invasion and replication, lesion development, and selected innate immune responses, such as interferon (IFN) α, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and IFNλ mRNA expression levels. We performed mono-inoculations (AMPV or M. gallispeticum) or dual-inoculations in two orders with a 24-h interval between the first and second pathogen. Dual-inoculations compared to mono-inoculations resulted in more severe host reactions. Pre-infection with AMPV followed by M. gallispeticum resulted in prolonged viral replication, more significant innate immune responses, and lesions (p < 0.05). AMPV as the secondary pathogen impaired the bacterial attachment process. Consequently, the M. gallispeticum replication was delayed, the innate immune response was less pronounced, and lesions appeared later. Our results suggest a competing process in co-infections and offer new insights in disease processes.

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Lu, Yan, and Jian Yao. "Chloroplasts at the Crossroad of Photosynthesis, Pathogen Infection and Plant Defense." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 19, no. 12 (December 5, 2018): 3900. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms19123900.

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Photosynthesis, pathogen infection, and plant defense are three important biological processes that have been investigated separately for decades. Photosynthesis generates ATP, NADPH, and carbohydrates. These resources are utilized for the synthesis of many important compounds, such as primary metabolites, defense-related hormones abscisic acid, ethylene, jasmonic acid, and salicylic acid, and antimicrobial compounds. In plants and algae, photosynthesis and key steps in the synthesis of defense-related hormones occur in chloroplasts. In addition, chloroplasts are major generators of reactive oxygen species and nitric oxide, and a site for calcium signaling. These signaling molecules are essential to plant defense as well. All plants grown naturally are attacked by pathogens. Bacterial pathogens enter host tissues through natural openings or wounds. Upon invasion, bacterial pathogens utilize a combination of different virulence factors to suppress host defense and promote pathogenicity. On the other hand, plants have developed elaborate defense mechanisms to protect themselves from pathogen infections. This review summarizes recent discoveries on defensive roles of signaling molecules made by plants (primarily in their chloroplasts), counteracting roles of chloroplast-targeted effectors and phytotoxins elicited by bacterial pathogens, and how all these molecules crosstalk and regulate photosynthesis, pathogen infection, and plant defense, using chloroplasts as a major battlefield.

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Garcia-Brugger, Angela, Olivier Lamotte, Elodie Vandelle, Stéphane Bourque, David Lecourieux, Benoit Poinssot, David Wendehenne, and Alain Pugin. "Early Signaling Events Induced by Elicitors of Plant Defenses." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 19, no. 7 (July 2006): 711–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-19-0711.

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Plant pathogen attacks are perceived through pathogen-issued compounds or plant-derived molecules that elicit defense reactions. Despite the large variety of elicitors, general schemes for cellular elicitor signaling leading to plant resistance can be drawn. In this article, we review early signaling events that happen after elicitor perception, including reversible protein phosphorylations, changes in the activities of plasma membrane proteins, variations in free calcium concentrations in cytosol and nucleus, and production of nitric oxide and active oxygen species. These events occur within the first minutes to a few hours after elicitor perception. One specific elicitor transduction pathway can use a combination or a partial combination of such events which can differ in kinetics and intensity depending on the stimulus. The links between the signaling events allow amplification of the signal transduction and ensure specificity to get appropriate plant defense reactions. This review first describes the early events induced by cryptogein, an elici-tor of tobacco defense reactions, in order to give a general scheme for signal transduction that will be use as a thread to review signaling events monitored in different elicitor or plant models.

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46

Drozda, Andżelika, Barbara Kurpisz, Magdalena Arasimowicz-Jelonek, Daniel Kuźnicki, Przemysław Jagodzik, Yufeng Guan, and Jolanta Floryszak-Wieczorek. "Nitric Oxide Implication in Potato Immunity to Phytophthora infestans via Modifications of Histone H3/H4 Methylation Patterns on Defense Genes." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 23, no. 7 (April 6, 2022): 4051. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms23074051.

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Nitric oxide (NO) is an essential redox-signaling molecule operating in many physiological and pathophysiological processes. However, evidence on putative NO engagement in plant immunity by affecting defense gene expressions, including histone modifications, is poorly recognized. Exploring the effect of biphasic NO generation regulated by S-nitrosoglutathione reductase (GNSOR) activity after avr Phytophthora infestans inoculation, we showed that the phase of NO decline at 6 h post-inoculation (hpi) was correlated with the rise of defense gene expressions enriched in the TrxG-mediated H3K4me3 active mark in their promoter regions. Here, we report that arginine methyltransferase PRMT5 catalyzing histone H4R3 symmetric dimethylation (H4R3sme2) is necessary to ensure potato resistance to avr P. infestans. Both the pathogen and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO) altered the methylation status of H4R3sme2 by transient reduction in the repressive mark in the promoter of defense genes, R3a and HSR203J (a resistance marker), thereby elevating their transcription. In turn, the PRMT5-selective inhibitor repressed R3a expression and attenuated the hypersensitive response to the pathogen. In conclusion, we postulate that lowering the NO level (at 6 hpi) might be decisive for facilitating the pathogen-induced upregulation of stress genes via histone lysine methylation and PRMT5 controlling potato immunity to late blight.

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47

Khan, Murtaza, Sajid Ali, Tiba Nazar Ibrahim Al Azzawi, and Byung-Wook Yun. "Nitric Oxide Acts as a Key Signaling Molecule in Plant Development under Stressful Conditions." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 24, no. 5 (March 1, 2023): 4782. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms24054782.

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Nitric oxide (NO), a colorless gaseous molecule, is a lipophilic free radical that easily diffuses through the plasma membrane. These characteristics make NO an ideal autocrine (i.e., within a single cell) and paracrine (i.e., between adjacent cells) signalling molecule. As a chemical messenger, NO plays a crucial role in plant growth, development, and responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Furthermore, NO interacts with reactive oxygen species, antioxidants, melatonin, and hydrogen sulfide. It regulates gene expression, modulates phytohormones, and contributes to plant growth and defense mechanisms. In plants, NO is mainly produced via redox pathways. However, nitric oxide synthase, a key enzyme in NO production, has been poorly understood recently in both model and crop plants. In this review, we discuss the pivotal role of NO in signalling and chemical interactions as well as its involvement in the mitigation of biotic and abiotic stress conditions. In the current review, we have discussed various aspects of NO including its biosynthesis, interaction with reactive oxygen species (ROS), melatonin (MEL), hydrogen sulfide, enzymes, phytohormones, and its role in normal and stressful conditions.

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Fu, Li-Jun, Kai Shi, Min Gu, Yan-Hong Zhou, De-Kun Dong, Wu-Sheng Liang, Feng-Ming Song, and Jing-Quan Yu. "Systemic Induction and Role of Mitochondrial Alternative Oxidase and Nitric Oxide in a Compatible Tomato–Tobacco mosaic virus Interaction." Molecular Plant-Microbe Interactions® 23, no. 1 (January 2010): 39–48. http://dx.doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-23-1-0039.

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The role of mitochondrial alternative oxidase (AOX) and the relationship between AOX and nitric oxide (NO) in virus-induced systemic defense to Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) were investigated in susceptible tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants. TMV inoculation to the lower leaves induced a rapid NO synthesis and AOX activation in upper uninoculated leaves as early as 0.5 day postinoculation. Application of exogenous potassium cyanide (KCN, a cytochrome pathway inhibitor) at nonlethal concentrations and NO donor diethylamine NONOate (DEA/NO) to the upper uninoculated leaves greatly induced accumulation of AOX transcript, reduced TMV viral RNA accumulation, and increased the leaf photochemical quantum yield at photosystem II. Pretreatment with NO scavenger almost completely blocked TMV-induced AOX induction and substantially increased TMV susceptibility. Salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM, an AOX inhibitor) pretreatment reduced the DEA/NO-induced cyanide-resistant respiration and partially compromised induced resistance to TMV. Conversely, KCN and SHAM pretreatment had very little effect on generation of NO, and pretreatment with NO scavenger did not affect KCN-induced AOX induction and TMV resistance. These results suggest that TMV-induced NO generation acts upstream and mediates AOX induction which, in turn, induces mitochondrial alternative electron transport and triggers systemic basal defense against the viral pathogen.

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Karpets, Yu V., Yu E. Kolupaev, A. A. Lugovaya, N. V. Shvidenko, M. A. Shkliarevskyi, and T. O. Yastreb. "Functional Interaction of ROS and Nitric Oxide during Induction of Heat Resistance of Wheat Seedlings by Hydrogen Sulfide Donor." Russian Journal of Plant Physiology 67, no. 4 (July 2020): 653–60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s1021443720030140.

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50

Lawrence, Sheldon R., Meghan Gaitens, Qijie Guan, Craig Dufresne, and Sixue Chen. "S-Nitroso-Proteome Revealed in Stomatal Guard Cell Response to Flg22." International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 5 (March 1, 2020): 1688. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ijms21051688.

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Nitric oxide (NO) plays an important role in stomata closure induced by environmental stimuli including pathogens. During pathogen challenge, nitric oxide (NO) acts as a second messenger in guard cell signaling networks to activate downstream responses leading to stomata closure. One means by which NO’s action is achieved is through the posttranslational modification of cysteine residue(s) of target proteins. Although the roles of NO have been well studied in plant tissues and seedlings, far less is known about NO signaling and, more specifically, protein S-nitrosylation (SNO) in stomatal guard cells. In this study, using iodoTMTRAQ quantitative proteomics technology, we analyzed changes in protein SNO modification in guard cells of reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana in response to flg22, an elicitor-active peptide derived from bacterial flagellin. A total of 41 SNO-modified peptides corresponding to 35 proteins were identified. The proteins cover a wide range of functions, including energy metabolism, transport, stress response, photosynthesis, and cell–cell communication. This study creates the first inventory of previously unknown NO responsive proteins in guard cell immune responses and establishes a foundation for future research toward understanding the molecular mechanisms and regulatory roles of SNO in stomata immunity against bacterial pathogens.

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