Книги: "Necessity for investigation"

1

Theodoridis, Kyriakos. Kripke on necessity: A metaphysical investigation. Lund: Department of Philosophy, Lund University, 2005.

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2

Theodoridis, Kyriakos. Kripke on necessity: A metaphysical investigation. Lund: Lund University, Dept. of Philosophy, 2005., 2005.

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3

Necessary. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1986.

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4

Crombie, Deborah. Necessary as blood. New York: William Morrow, 2009.

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5

Crombie, Deborah. Necessary as Blood. New York: HarperCollins, 2009.

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6

Necessary as blood. New York: HarperLuxe, 2009.

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7

Heck, Dana B. Phase I, archeological investigations at the maintenance complex/park headquarters, Fort Necessity National Battlefield, Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Alexandria, Va: John Milner Associates, 1992.

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8

Resnick, Benjamin. Archeological investigations at Great Meadows, the Mount Washington Tavern, and other areas of Fort Necessity National Battlefield, Fayette County, Pennsylvania. Silver Spring, Md: Denver Service Center, Applied Archeology Center, 1998.

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9

Chan, Bernard Pin Lwin. An investigation of nucleotide sequences necessary for transcription initiation in Escherichia coli: The caseof the galactose operon promoters. Birmingham: University of Birmingham, 1989.

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10

Town, Pamela. An investigation into the application of information technology necessary for achieving management efficiency in the food and beverage sector of the hotel and catering industry. Poole: Dorset Institute, 1988.

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11

Novikov, Anatoliy, and Natal'ya Novikova. Mathematical methods in psychology (speech therapy). ru: INFRA-M Academic Publishing LLC., 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.12737/1018182.

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The tutorial discusses the necessary mathematical methods and approaches used for investigation and practical applications in psychology (speech therapy). In examples and assignments (with answers) are given found in the practical work of psychologists in various techniques that allow you to master the computational procedures of statistical processing of data. In parallel with manual processing are the processing of data using MS Excel and SPSS. Shows a combination of Excel and SPSS packages. Meets the requirements of Federal state educational standards of higher education of the last generation. Designed for students enrolled in the 37.03.01 direction of training "Psychology". Can also be useful to graduate students and professionals, focused on applied problems in psychology.

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12

Energy, New York (State) Legislature Assembly Standing Committee on. An investigation into the Consolidated Edison Company of New York, inc., relating to infrastructure inspection, maintenance and repair standards necessary to protect public safety: [public hearing]. [New York?]: EN-DE Reporting, 2004.

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13

Energy speculation: Is greater regulation necessary to stop price manipulation? : hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Tenth Congress. Washington: U.S. G.P.O., 2008.

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14

Alexander, Monro. A treatise on theoretical and practical land surveying: Adapted particularly to the purposes of wood-land surveys, to which is added, an investigation and demonstration of the rules given in the work with all the necessary tables. Pictou, N.S: Printed by Geldert & Patterson for the author, 1987.

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15

Alexander, Monro. A treatise on theoretical and practical land surveying: Adapted particularly to the purposes of wood-land surveys, to which is added, an investigation and demonstration of the rules given in the work with all the necessary tables. Pictou, N.S: Printed by Geldert & Patterson for the author, 1987.

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16

Department of Energy oversight: What is necessary to improve project management and mission performance? : hearing before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, first session, July 24, 2013. Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2014.

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17

To permanently authorize certain provisions of the Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT [ACT]) Act of 2001, to reauthorize a provision of the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, to clarify certain definitions in the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978, to provide additional investigative tools necessary to protect the national security: Report together with additional and minority views (to accompany S. 1266). [Washington, D.C: U.S. G.P.O., 2005.

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18

Allsop, Cheryl. Cold Case Reviews. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198747451.001.0001.

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Investigating Cold Cases: DNA, Detective Work, and Unsolved Major Crimes, analyses how long-term unsolved murders and unsolved stranger rapes are investigated years after the crimes were committed. The book examines how and why cold case investigations have become an established component of police investigative practice, the role of specialist expertise used, in particular DNA profiling techniques and technologies, and the investigative skills required to finally detect cold cases. The book is based on original fieldwork with one major crime review team as they investigated cold case murders and cold case stranger rapes, interviews with a variety of experts involved in cold case investigations, and analysis of police case files. Above all else, the book will examine the reliance on advances in DNA profiling techniques, to identify previously unknown offenders and suggests that alongside these technological advances it is traditional detective skills that are also necessary to finally detect these crimes.

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19

Vaidya, Anand Jayprakash. Analytic Essentialist Approaches to the Epistemology of Modality. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198792161.003.0011.

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How can human thinkers come to know whether something is possible or necessary? Conceivability-based theories try to answer the question by appeal to our ability to conceive of alternative scenarios in our imagination, deductive approaches by appeal to our ability to draw deductive inferences. One version of the deductive approach is essentialist-k theory: we can come to have knowledge of possibility and necessity through our knowledge of conditionals that link essences to necessity and possibility and additional information. The chapter offers a critical examination of both Hale’s and Lowe’s explorations of essentialist-k theory. It argues that deductive theories, in general, have some advantages over conceivability-based theories; and that Hale’s version of essentialist-k theory has some advantages over Lowe’s. The chapter closes by articulating a general problem for essentialist-k theories, and calling for more work on the essentialist branch, what is also called the Hale-Branch, of research in the epistemology of modality through investigation of the metaphysics of essence.

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20

Baker, Gordon, and Peter Hacker. Wittgenstein Rules, Grammar and Necessity: An Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations (Wittgenstein Rules, Grammar & Necessity). Blackwell Publishing Limited, 1988.

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21

A necessary end. Severn House, 2014.

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22

Pruss, Alexander R., and Joshua L. Rasmussen. Necessary Existence. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198746898.001.0001.

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A necessary being is a concrete entity that cannot fail to exist. An example of such a being might be the God of classical theism or the universe of necessitarians. Necessary Existence offers and carefully defends a number of novel arguments for the thesis that there exists at least one necessary being, while inviting the reader to a future investigation of what the neccessary being(s) is (are) like. The arguments include a defense of a classic contingency argument, a series of new modal arguments from possible causes, an argument from abstract objects, and a Gödelian argument from perfections. Furthermore, arguments against the possibility of a necessary being are critically examined. Among these arguments are old and new arguments from conceivability, a subtraction argument, problems with causation, and an argument from parsimony. Necessary Existence also includes a defense of the axioms of S5 modal logic, which is a framework for understanding several arguments for necessary existents.

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23

A necessary evil: A novel. 2018.

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24

Necessary as Blood. Avon, 2010.

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25

Necessary as Blood. William Morrow, 2009.

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26

Hemer, Katie A., and Jane A. Evans. The Contribution of Stable Isotope Analysis to the Study of Childhood Movement and Migration. Edited by Sally Crawford, Dawn M. Hadley, and Gillian Shepherd. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199670697.013.27.

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Stable isotope analysis is firmly established as a method for the investigation of past population mobility. The distinction between local and non-local individuals within a cemetery population relies on identifying an individual’s place of childhood residence through the analysis of strontium and oxygen isotopes present in human tooth enamel. Traditionally, studies investigating mobility focus on the analysis of a single tooth. More recently, however, it has become apparent that in order to investigate the mobility of an individual during childhood—and thus to consider the importance of children in the migration process—it is necessary to analyse a series of teeth which form at different stages during the early years of life. This chapter will consider the potential of—and challenges surrounding—this scientific approach to the investigation of childhood mobility in the past.

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27

Bernard, Bruce P. Conducting Worksite Investigations. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190662677.003.0038.

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This chapter focuses on conducting worksite investigations, including walkthrough surveys, and provides occupational health and safety personnel, employees, and employers the opportunity to identify and assess current workplace conditions and employee health concerns and make recommendations on how to reduce or eliminate any identified workplace hazards. The methods described cover ways to implement corrective actions necessary for preventing future adverse incidents and to identify shortcomings in safety and health management programs. Various specific examples are provided. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Hazard Evaluation Program, which has experience with all types of workplace hazards, is described. Preparing for and conducting workplace investigations is described in detail.

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28

Holt, Hazel. Mrs. Malory and a necessary end: A Sheila Malory mystery. 2013.

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29

Pfaller, Robert. The Work of Art that Observes Itself: The Aesthetics of Interpassivity. Edinburgh University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474422925.003.0002.

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This chapter starts with the example that triggered the discovery of interpassivity: TV-SitComs with ‘canned laughter’ - such as Two and a Half Men, The Munsters, Golden Girls and so on. Is it possible that some observers prefer not laughing themselves and seeing their pleasure vicariously fulfilled by the TV program? What can this tell us about pleasure? Why do some people not want to have their pleasure themselves? And if so, why are they still so interested in seeing it experienced by some vicarious agent (a TV program, a friend, an animal, a machine and so on)? The chapter investigates the ethic and aesthetic questions that follow from this, with some guidance from psychoanalysis and philosophy - for example, the necessity of the other in Kant's aesthetics of the sublime, or Ludwig Wittgenstein’s famous investigation whether one can feel pain in someone else’s leg.

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30

The necessary murder of Nonie Blake. 2016.

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31

Ohlin, Jens David, Larry May, and Claire Finkelstein. Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796176.003.0001.

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This volume brings to bear philosophical analysis and normative legal theory to study the value of lives in war. There is already a well-established literature regarding the lives of civilians, but the lives of combatants have generally received far less attention in both the legal and philosophical literatures. Consequently, this volume aims to consider both questions together, analyzing questions of methodology, legal doctrine, and philosophical commitments. The arguments outlined in this volume reveal a set of principles, including necessity and proportionality, whose core essence remains essentially contested. From the secure viewpoint of the purely descriptive, lawyers might confidently describe some of these questions as settled. But many others, even from the vantage point of descriptive theory, remain under-analyzed and radically lacking in clarity and certainty. The results of this collective investigation open up a new research programme regarding the legal and the ethical regulation of war, specifically how the lives of combatants and civilians alike are valued, weighed, balanced, and protected.

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32

Compston, Alastair. A short history of clinical neurology. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198569381.003.0014.

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More than any other branch of medicine, the practice of neurology depends on the classical methods of intuitive conversation, structured examination, and selective investigation. We teach the importance of eliciting an accurate neurological history. The key symptoms at onset are identified and their subsequent course defined. For the experienced clinician, this process becomes routine, efficient, and quick. The competent neurologist is the one who instinctively senses relevant components of the history, appreciates the most likely underlying disease mechanisms, reliably elicits the relevant physical signs, knows which investigations are necessary and assesses their relevance in the clinical context, provides a sensible clinical formulation, and communicates the situation accurately and sensitively to the patient and relatives. Rather than slavishly collecting an encyclopaedia of facts, in which the key issues may be lost in a surfeit of redundant information, the critical components are sifted and the subsequent conversation steered down an algorithm that seeks anatomical, physiological, and pathological explanations for what the patient describes.

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33

Baker, G. P. Wittgenstein - Rules, Grammar & Necessity - Vol II of An Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations, Essays and Exegesis §§185-242. Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.

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34

Cannon Harris, Susan. Introduction. Edinburgh University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.3366/edinburgh/9781474424462.003.0001.

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The introduction identifies the “other revolutions”—the sexual revolution, the socialist revolution, and the ‘free theater’ revolution—that came together in London in the 1890s as the first wave of modern Irish playwrights sought to prove themselves on the London stage. The introduction also explains and justifies the book’s theoretical paradigm and methodologies, arguing for the importance of reading social politics and sexual politics together. It identifies some of the limitations of the “global turn” and its dependence on evolutionary and market-theory based conceptions of “world literature,” arguing that these paradigms obscure the existence of the intentionally anticapitalist systems of exchange that sustained left theater during the period under investigation. It makes the case for reading the intersection of Irish drama and utopian socialism through queer theory, based on their shared ambivalence about what Lee Edelman calls “reproductive futurism,” and draws on the work of Jose Munoz, J. J. Halberstam, and Natalie Melas to elaborate a comparative paradigm which is not defined by developmental logic or capitalist conceptions of value. It argues for the necessity of treating socialism as an embodied praxis, especially in the Irish context. It concludes with summaries of the five chapters and the epilogue.

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35

Hacker, P. M. S., and Gordon P. Baker. Wittgenstein : Rules, Grammar and Necessity: Volume 2 of an Analytical Commentary on the Philosophical Investigations, Essays and Exegesis 185-242. Wiley & Sons, Incorporated, John, 2009.

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36

A Necessary End: An Inspector Banks Novel (Inspector Banks Novels). William Morrow Paperbacks, 2015.

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37

Chambers, John B., Phillipe Pibarot, and Raphael Rosenhek. Replacement heart valves. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198726012.003.0040.

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Echocardiography is the mainstay investigation for assessing replacement valve function and detecting pathology. Transthoracic echocardiography is sufficient for assessing patients routinely with no evidence of pathology. However, in patients with suspected dysfunction, the addition of transoesophageal echocardiography is usually necessary. Stress echocardiography may also be necessary in patients with exertional symptoms unexplained by the resting transthoracic echocardiography. New modalities, notably computed tomography and magnetic resonance, provide complementary information in selected cases. This chapter summarizes the normal appearance of replacement valves by position and also describes the diagnosis of pathology.

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38

van Kempen, PHPHMC. The Right to Fair Preliminary Investigation and Trial for Vulnerable Defendants. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198788478.003.0011.

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Mainly as a result of the nature of criminal procedure in the Netherlands, which until recently could be characterized as a modern moderate inquisitorial system, the fitness-to- plead principle has been rather underdeveloped here. This chapter analyses how the European Convention on Human Rights, EU Directives, and the increase of adversarial elements in an originally inquisitorial criminal justice system are now catalysing the fitness-to-plead principle. Fourteen recommendations will be provided for what is considered a necessary reinforcement of the legal position of defendants who possess insufficient abilities to adequately participate during criminal proceedings—both preliminary investigation and trial—or who are even unfit to stand trial. The recommendations are based on a detailed analyses of criminal procedure law of the Netherlands, case law of the European Court of Human Rights, and several EU Directives that are relevant for the fitness to plead principle..

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39

Silman, Alan J., Gary J. Macfarlane, and Tatiana Macfarlane. Epidemiological Studies: A Practical Guide. Oxford University Press, 2018. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780198814726.001.0001.

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This volume provides a practical, hands on guide to the design, planning, conduct, analysis, and interpretation of epidemiological studies. The learning points are applicable to all human studies of health and disease that require the collection and analysis of data to answer questions on disease risk, health outcomes, and the effects of interventions in ‘real world’ populations. It summarizes the main study designs used in epidemiological from purely quantitative studies to assess incidence and prevalence, to the range of observational studies used in the modern practice of epidemiology. A substantial section is devoted to the practical aspects of conduct of epidemiological studies, balancing scientific quality with practicality: the latter covering issues such as costs and ethics. This book also provides a detailed menu of activities that takes the investigator through all the necessary steps following the collection of individual subject data through to generating the statistically robust results necessary to reach conclusions about the questions asked. It provides insights into how to use existing data (secondary data analysis) to answer epidemiological questions, an increasing activity in this era of ‘big data’. Similarly, with a growing epidemiological literature, with multiple studies seemingly addressing the same question, the volume explores how practically to synthesize the results of such multiple investigations and the role of meta-analysis. The book’s ultimate goal is to provide a practical toolkit to enable the successful completion of questions appropriate for applying epidemiological methods.

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40

Chambers, John B., and Jean-Louis Vanoverschelde. Replacement heart valves. Oxford University Press, 2011. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199599639.003.0017.

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Echocardiography is the gold-standard investigation for assessing replacement valve function and detecting pathology. Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is sufficient for assessing patients routinely with no evidence of pathology. However, in patients with suspected dysfunction, the addition of transoesophageal echocardiography is usually necessary. Stress echocardiography may also be necessary in patients with exertional symptoms unexplained by the resting TTE.There are comprehensive International Guidelines for the echocardiographic assessment of prosthetic valves1 and the management of clinical problems.2,3 Stented valves placed using transcatheter techniques are rapidly becoming established.4 The aim of this chapter is to summarize the normal appearance of replacement valves by position and also to describe the diagnosis of pathology.

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41

Graham, Andrew, and Clare Galton. Nervous system. Oxford University Press, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199642489.003.0018.

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Rheumatological conditions may be complicated by a variety of both central and peripheral nervous system disorder. Common complications such as entrapment neuropathies are familiar to rheumatologists but accurate diagnosis of less common neurological disorders may be challenging; careful clinical reasoning is essential, supplemented where necessary by imaging, neurophysiology, and other special investigations including cerebrospinal fluid examination. Complications vary according to the nature of background condition. In rheumatoid arthritis, neurological involvement is typically related to the mechanical consequences of advancing disease; the commonest complications are carpal tunnel syndrome and cervical myelopathy due to atlantoaxial subluxation. By contrast, neurological involvement in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) tends to occur earlier in the disease course, with a much wider range of manifestations. The management of stroke or seizures in SLE is not necessarily any different from that in the general population, unless complicated by the antiphospholipid syndrome. However, less common neurological syndromes may demand more specific investigation and treatment. For example, longitudinally extensive transverse myelitis and recurrent optic neuritis (neuromyelitis optica, or Devic's disease) is frequently associated with antibodies to aquaporin-4, and is highly likely to relapse unless treated vigorously with humoral immunosuppression. Nervous system involvement in vasculitis is common. Finally, not all neurological disorder in rheumatological disease is necessarily due to the underlying condition; neurological complications of disease-modifying therapy are increasingly recognized, in particular central and peripheral nervous system demyelination associated with TNF-α‎ inhibitors.

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42

Wilson, Alastair. The Nature of Contingency. Oxford University Press, 2020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198846215.001.0001.

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Contingency is everywhere, but what is it? This book defends a radical new theory of contingency as a physical phenomenon. Drawing on the many-worlds approach to quantum theory and on cutting-edge metaphysics and philosophy of science, it argues that quantum theories are best understood as telling us about the space of genuine possibilities rather than as telling us solely about actuality. When quantum physics is taken seriously in the way first proposed by Hugh Everett III, it provides the resources for a new systematic metaphysical framework encompassing possibility, necessity, actuality, chance, counterfactuals, and a host of related modal notions. The framework is a modal realist one, in the tradition of David Lewis: all genuine possibilities are on a par, and the actual world is simply the one that we ourselves inhabit. It departs from Lewisian modal realism in that quantum possible worlds are not philosophical posits but scientific discoveries. Contingency and other modal notions have often been seen as beyond the limits of science. Rationalist metaphysicians argue that the metaphysics of modality is strictly prior to any scientific investigation: metaphysics establishes which worlds are possible, and physics merely checks which of these worlds is actual. Naturalistic metaphysicians respond that science may discover new possibilities and new impossibilities. This book’s quantum theory of contingency takes naturalistic metaphysics one step further, allowing that science may discover what it is to be possible. As electromagnetism revealed the nature of light, as acoustics revealed the nature of sound, as statistical mechanics revealed the nature of heat, so quantum physics reveals the nature of contingency.

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43

Carvalho, Henrique. Civil Society, Dangerousness, and the Ambivalence of Liberal Civil Order. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198737858.003.0005.

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This chapter concludes the book’s investigation into the conceptual foundations of the ambivalence found in contemporary criminal law and subjectivity. It discusses how this ambivalence relates to the liberal social imaginary and to how this imaginary preserves a dichotomy between civil and political society. The chapter argues that this dichotomy allows the criminal law to appear legitimate and necessary even when it becomes authoritarian, and thus goes against the values which it is supposed to protect. The chapter develops this argument through an analysis of the political theories of G.W.F. Hegel and Jeremy Bentham.

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44

William A, Schabas. Part 5 Investigation and Prosecution: Enquête Et Poursuites, Art.56 Role of the Pre-Trial Chamber in relation to a unique investigative opportunity/Rôle de la chambre préliminaire dans le cas où l’occasion d’obtenir des renseignements ne se présentera plus. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198739777.003.0061.

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This chapter comments on Article 56 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. Article 56 provides an exceptional mechanism by which evidence may be collected under judicial oversight and then made available at trial. It authorizes the Pre-Trial Chamber to ‘take such measures as may be necessary to ensure the efficiency and integrity of the proceedings and, in particular, to protect the rights of the defence’. Thus, the focus is on ensuring that the interests of the defence are protected at a stage that may arise even before a defendant has been identified. However, the benefits of article 56 are not reserved to evidence helpful to the defence. The special function of article 56 can be invoked by the Prosecutor or by the Pre-Trial Chamber itself, acting on its own initiative.

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45

Prado, Carlos. História do Trotskismo no Brasil (1928-1936). Brazil Publishing, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.31012/978-65-5861-752-5.

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The present work takes as its object of investigation the first Brazilian organizations linked to Trotskyism, in the period between 1928 and 1936. The Brazilian Trotskyist movement originated from certain historical conditions, from a rupture caused by national, particular factors, but which were directly related to divergences that shook the Russian Revolution and the international communist movement. The Lenine Communist Group (GCL), founded in May of 1930, was the first Brazilian organization to establish contact with the International Left Opposition. The group had a short life, but gave rise to another organization with the same Trotskyist ties. In January 1931, the Communist League (LC) emerged, which in 1933 adopted the name of the Communist Internationalist League (LCI) and operated until the end of 1936. As for methodological procedures, this research sought to dialogue with historiography, but to advance in the investigation a wide search was carried out in all available documentation. From the consultation and analysis of primary sources, we sought to reconstruct the discourse and political positioning of Trotskyist organizations. Despite the fact that the groups and parties that claimed Trotskyism were in general minority, made up of a few dozen militants and sympathizers, it is necessary, even today, due to their impact on militant culture, the depth and penetration of their criticism and theoretical formulation, investigate and discuss the performance of these organizations. In short, it is a question of recovering a debate that is still very current and necessary

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46

Stuart, Ford. Part I Context, Challenges, and Constraints, 5 How Much Money Does the ICC Need? Oxford University Press, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/law/9780198705161.003.0005.

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The ICC’s budget has become a central and often thorny point of discussion between the Court, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and the Assembly of States Parties (ASP). Some states have argued that the Court can make do with its existing budget and have stressed the necessity of zero growth, while the Court and many NGOs argue that it is underfunded. Underlying this debate is the question of whether the Court is efficient. This chapter explores these issues and places ICC performance in relation to the UN ad hoc tribunals (e.g. ICTY). It argues that the ICC may be able to rearrange its spending to devote a larger proportion of its budget to investigations, trials, and appeals, and less of its budget to support functions.

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47

Pieth, Mark. Bribing Foreign Officials. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190458331.003.0007.

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This chapter discusses the application of OECD anticorruption instruments in stopping the bribing of foreign officials. It begins with a discussion of whether bribery is a necessary evil, describes the US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and details the initiative and first steps in the OECD. The chapter then turns to the 1994 Recommendation and its follow-up, including implementation of the Anti-Bribery Convention. Finally it describes the 2005 crisis involving an investigation of a large arms deal between British Aerospace (BAE) and Saudi Arabia. The crisis was ultimately overcome by Britain enacting the UK Bribery Act in 2010 indeed, the toughest law on foreign bribery worldwide.

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48

Wilson, Mark. Believers in The Land of Glory. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198803478.003.0006.

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We employ words like “cause” both to structure an investigative architecture and to register concrete physical data in light of that strategic background. As a result, “cause”’s referential significance becomes very complicated as the word progressively enters fresh patches of application. Jim Woodward’s studies have demonstrated the central role that considerations of manipulative control play in mapping out the contours of these strategic specializations. In contrast, analytic metaphysicians have attempted to carve out an a priori pre-science of causal necessity that falters through ignoring these developmental considerations. All in all, this essay presents a critique of necessitarian thinking not unlike that offered by Quine in his well-known “Two Dogmas of Empiricism.”

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49

Ohlin, Jens David, Larry May, and Claire Finkelstein, eds. Weighing Lives in War. Oxford University Press, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198796176.001.0001.

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This volume combines philosophical analysis with normative legal theory. Although both disciplines have spent the past fifty years investigating the nature of the principles of necessity and proportionality, these discussions were all too often walled off from each other. However, the boundaries of these disciplinary conversations have recently broken down, and this volume continues the cross-disciplinary effort by bringing together philosophers concerned with the real-world military implications of their theories and legal scholars who frequently build doctrinal arguments from first principles, many of which herald from the historical just war tradition or from the contemporary just war literature. What unites the chapters into a singular conversation is their common skepticism regarding whether the traditional doctrines, in both law and philosophy, have correctly valued the lives of civilians and combatants at war. The arguments outlined in this volume reveal a set of principles, including necessity and proportionality, whose core essence remains essentially contested. What does military necessity mean and are soldiers always subject to lethal force? What is proportionality and how should military commanders attach a value to a military target and weigh it against collateral damage? Do these valuations remain the same for both sides of the conflict? From the secure viewpoint of the purely descriptive, lawyers might confidently describe some of these questions as settled. But many others, even from the vantage point of descriptive theory, remain under-analyzed and radically lacking in clarity and certainty.

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50

Ray, Sumantra (Shumone), Sue Fitzpatrick, Rajna Golubic, Susan Fisher, and Sarah Gibbings, eds. Informed consent in a research setting. Oxford University Press, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med/9780199608478.003.0009.

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Informed consent is a legal requirement for all clinical trials conducted on human subjects. This chapter summarises the process for obtaining consent for non-clinical trial research and goes on to describe the more highly regulated consent process for clinical trials in investigational medicinal products (CTIMPs). The chapter defines consent and discusses the requirements for consent in capable adults. The process for CTIMP studies is outlined together with the required elements of consent to be documented in the patient information sheet and the process to be followed with withdrawal of consent is also described. Consent, assent and the concept of legal representatives in vulnerable groups is discussed including children and incapacitated adults. How to assess capacity is described along with consent in emergency situations. Formally documenting the consent process and how the information is given to the patient is vital. The role of the research team in consent is outlined. The investigator is advised to describe the process of consent and should identify which registered health professionals will undertake the process. In some situations a medically qualified person will be required to determine eligibility prior to enrolment, to discuss the study and assess capacity if necessary. A participant's decision to consent for research may be influenced by 'the research culture' in the country or the health care setting. Transparency and providing information continuously to participants throughout the study will re-assure them and reaffirm their willingness to continue.

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