Дисертації з теми "Natural Marine Reserve"

2006/2007
L’obiettivo di tale studio è stato quello di implementare un Sistema di Informazione Geografica (GIS) per il monitoraggio dell’attività di pesca e delle risorse alieutiche, considerando le marinerie delle Isole Egadi, a rappresentanza di alcune tipologie di base dell’attività di pesca artigianale e per i diversi vincoli ambientali che in quest’area insistono quali la Riserva Naturale Marina e i Siti Natura 2000, al fine di suggerire opportune strategie di protezione sia per le risorse pescabili che per l’ambiente. Quindi un sistema esperto a supporto delle decisioni, che consenta di visualizzare i complessi scenari nell’ambito della valutazione delle risorse alieutiche nella dimensione spazio-temporale (Spatial Decision Support System), orientato alla pianificazione territoriale per un uso sostenibile delle risorse naturali, sinergica e coordinata tra i vari enti territoriali preposti. Nel corso di tale studio è stato messo a punto un data-warehouse, orientato alla pianificazione territoriale contenente differenti tipologie di dati ambientali, un database relazionale (RDBMS) contenente i dati riguardanti la pesca e la flotta, e un GIS in grado di gestire, analizzare, integrare dati eterogenei, riferendoli alle rispettive posizioni geografiche, finalizzato nello specifico ai seguenti obiettivi: - Studio delle caratteristiche ambientali dell’area di interesse; - Caratterizzazione della struttura della flotta per ciascun porto; - Variabilità degli attrezzi utilizzati nel tempo e nello spazio in ciascun porto; - Indagine delle specie catturate, qualitativamente e quantitativamente; - Indagine dello sforzo di pesca e cattura per unità di sforzo (CPUE), nello spazio e nel tempo; - Analisi dei principali parametri chimico-fisici ambientali (temperatura, salinità, ossigeno, etc); - Rilevazione delle condizioni climatiche e meteo-marine; - Individuazione di specie e habitat di elevato valore ecologico; - Valutazioni ambientali e indicazioni gestionali. In particolare, è stata indagata l’area di studio, gli aspetti geologici, biologici, con particolare rilievo ad habitat e specie di interesse scientifico e/o ecologico, mediante ricerche bibliografiche e campagne sperimentali in mare. Sono state realizzate le indagini inerenti la pesca e la flotta mediante i seguenti metodi: metodo indiretto e metodo diretto. Il metodo indiretto ha compreso la raccolta dei dati settimanalmente mediante rilevazione allo sbarco, per un intero anno. Il metodo diretto ha compreso la realizzazione di campagne sperimentali opportunamente pianificate, utilizzando come campionatore diverse tipologie di imbarcazioni e attrezzi delle marinerie dell’area, per la raccolta diretta di dati, sempre nell’arco di un anno. Durante le pescate sperimentali si è fatto uso di strumentazione GPS (Global Positioning System) per registrare le coordinate geografiche del punto iniziale, medio e finale dell’attrezzo in pesca. La profondità, a cui sono state effettuate le pescate, è stata registrata mediante ecoscandaglio. I dati oceanografici sono stati prelevati in situ, mediante sonde multiparametriche. Sono state rilevate informazioni riguardo le condizioni climatiche e meteo-marine. E’ stato realizzato un GIS facendo uso del software ArcGIS 9.1 della ESRI. Per la definizione dei temi e per uniformare le informazioni raccolte e catalogate nel datawarehouse, questo è stato strutturato in accordo ad un Thesaurus di Riferimento per Applicazioni ambientali (Environmental Applications Reference Thesaurus, EARTh). I dati riguardanti la pesca e la flotta sono stati elaborati e organizzati in un Database relazionale (RDBMS), che ha permesso la gestione dell’informazione geografica assicurando caratteristiche quali efficienza nelle prestazioni, controllo degli accessi, controllo delle ridondanze, conferendo una formidabile elasticità alla struttura e quindi di analisi spaziale, permettendo così di analizzare i diversi aspetti dei fenomeni. Questo è stato arricchito con collegamenti (hyperlink) a documenti utili (leggi, direttive, vincoli territoriali), immagini (foto di barche, coste, specie, attrezzi), pagine web. Infine, il sistema è stato organizzato in modo che, effettuando differenti interrogazioni ed operazioni quali analisi di dati spaziali (interpolazioni, operazioni di overlay, raster calculator), analisi degli attributi (query o funzioni di ricerca, SQL, summarize, statistics) e analisi integrata (spaziali e attributi), ha permesso di ottenere differenti informazioni nella dimensione spazio-temporale. In conclusione, il sistema è stato predisposto per analizzare e visualizzare i complessi scenari esistenti nell’ambito della valutazione delle risorse alieutiche nella dimensione spazio-temporale (monitoraggio), considerando le caratteristiche ambientali e le diverse problematiche dell’area, in modo da prevedere i possibili scenari futuri (forecasting) creando una modellizzazione della realtà, al fine di: fornire indicazioni nel pianificare una gestione ottimale delle risorse, razionale, integrata e sostenibile, quindi fornire spazialmente una scelta di soluzioni al decisore (Spatial Decision Support System) per la conservazione degli stock ma anche per preservare gli ecosistemi marini; avviare in caso di un’area sottoposta a più vincoli (Riserva Marina, Sito Natura 2000, IBA) una pianificazione concertata e sinergica tra i diversi livelli istituzionali preposti (governance multilivello e interscalare) ed evitare quindi una pianificazione conflittuale o ridondante. Il sistema realizzato potrebbe vedere applicazione nell’ambito delle seguenti pianificazioni: per la realizzazione dei piani di gestione pesca regionali, inerenti il Programma Operativo Pesca - FEP nazionale (Fondo Europeo per la Pesca); per l’elaborazione dei piani di gestione dei Siti Natura 2000; per la predisposizione delle varie fasi della Valutazione Ambientale Strategica (VAS); per la predisposizione di piani territoriali di Gestione Integrata della Fascia Costiera GIZC; nell’istituzione di Aree Marine Protette o Riserve Naturali Marine, Parchi, ed in particolare risulterebbe utile nella pianificazione della zonazione, soprattutto quando in tali aree è presente come forte componente l’attività di pesca, ricoprendo un elevato valore in termini di occupazione, commercio, attività ricreative e quindi di benessere economico.
The objective of this study was to implement a Geographic Information System (GIS) for the monitoring of fishing activities and alieutic resources in the Egadi Islands, as being representative of a few fundamental kinds of small-scale fishing and for various existing environmental restrictions such as the Marine Reserve and Natura 2000 sites. The purpose was to suggest appropriate conservation strategies for both alieutic resources and the environment. In other words, an expert system to decision support, making it possible to visualize complex scenarios in the assessment of alieutic resources in a space-time dimension (Spatial Decision Support System), geared towards spatial planning -for a sustainable use of natural resources- in synergy and coordination among the various authorities in charge. In the study a data-warehouse was set up, geared towards spatial planning and containing various categories of environmental data, a relational database (RDBMS) containing data on fishing and fleets, and a GIS capable of processing, analyzing and integrating heterogeneous data in reference to their respective geographical locations, with the following specific objectives: - Study of the environmental characteristics of the area of focus; - Characterization of the structure of the fleet for each port; - Investigating fishing gear changes in time and space in each port; - Quantitative and qualitative investigation of the species caught; - Analysis of fishing effort and catch per unit effort (CPUE), in time and space; - Analysis of the main environmental -physical and chemical- parameters (temperature, salinity, oxygen, etc.); - Survey of climatic and sea weather conditions; - Identification of species and habitats of high ecological value; - Environmental assessment and management guidelines. In particular, the investigation was carried out on the area of focus, its geological and biological aspects, with special attention to habitats and species of scientific/ecological interest, through bibliographic research and experimental sampling at sea. The investigation on fishing and fleets has been carried out with the following methods: indirect method and direct method. The indirect method has involved weekly collection of data from interviews at landing, over a whole year. The direct method has involved carefully planned sampling trips, using various types of boats and gear of the local fisheries for direct collection of data, also over a whole year. In the sampling process, a GPS (Global Positioning System) was used to record the initial, middle and final geographical coordinates of the fishing gear. Depths of experimental fishing were recorded with an echo sounder. Oceanographical data were obtained on site, with the use of multiparametric probes. Information has been recorded on climatic and sea weather conditions. The GIS was set up using ArcGIS 9.1 software by ESRI. For definitions of topics and to standardize the information collected and filed in the data-warehouse, this has been structured in accordance to the Environmental Applications Reference Thesaurus (EARTh). Data regarding fishing and fleets have been processed and organized in a relational database (RDBMS), which has made it possible to manage geographical information as well as assuring characteristics such as efficiency of performance, access control, redundancy control, thus giving the structure remarkable flexibility also in terms of spatial analysis and the possibility of looking at the various aspects of events. The database has also been enriched with hyperlinks to useful documents (laws, directives, planning restrictions), images (photos of boats, coastlines, species, gear), and web pages. Finally, the system has been organized so as to be able to obtain various kinds of information in a space-time dimension through operations and procedures such as spatial data analysis (interpolation, overlay, raster calculator), analysis of attributes (query or search functions, SQL, summarize, statistics) and integrated analysis (spatial data and attributes). In conclusion, the system has been set to analyze and visualize complex scenarios in the assessment of fishable resources in a space-time dimension (monitoring), taking into consideration the environmental characteristics and various critical factors of the area, so as to forecast possible scenarios and create models of reality with the purpose of: providing indications for optimal, rational, integrated and sustainable resource management, as well as a range of spatial options for decision-makers (Spatial Decision Support System) for the conservation of stock and marine ecosystems; in the case of areas subjected to multiple restrictions [Marine Reserve, Natura 2000 site, IBA (Important Bird Areas)], giving way to a concerted, synergic planning activity among the various authorities in charge (multi-level and inter-scalar governance) and thus avoiding any conflictual, redundant planning. Such system could be applied in the following planning situations: implementation of regional fishing management plans within the national Operational Programme – EFF (European Fisheries Fund); preparing of management plans for Natura 2000 sites; preparation of the various phases of Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA); preparing of plans for the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM); institution of Marine Protected Areas or Marine Reserves, Parks, in particular, it would be useful to plan the zoning of this areas protected, especially when fishing activity is strong and of high value for occupation, trade, recreational activities and hence economic welfare.
XX Ciclo
1971

En el extenso espacio marino chileno, se han creado áreas marinas protegidas de diverso tipo y con diferente dependencia institucional. El estudio revisa experiencias internacionales de redes de áreas marinas protegidas (AMP) y de formas de Buena Gobernanza en áreas protegidas y redes o sistemas de áreas protegidas; describe las características del mar chileno, en particular su biodiversidad, amenazas y la institucionalidad pública relacionada a las áreas marinas protegidas, reconociendo el modelo de gobernanza existente. Se elabora un cuestionario con preguntas respecto a percepciones sobre el estado de la biodiversidad marina; el rol de diferentes tipos de AMP en la conservación marina; el rol del Estado en su financiamiento; el liderazgo más deseable de un sistema de AMP en el país; y se seleccionó a personas clave de actores participantes en el establecimiento de AMP para que reaccionaran a las afirmaciones/preguntas. El procesamiento estadístico de las respuestas al cuestionario, permitió reconocer las percepciones de los actores clave. Esos resultados, junto a los provenientes del estudio de la experiencia internacional sobre redes de AMP, Buena Gobernanza, las particularidades del mar chileno y la institucionalidad existente permitieron diseñar un modelo de cómo pudiera organizarse un sistema, que articulara y condujera, con Buena Gobernanza, las AMP del país. Un sistema de AMP debiera ser parte de un sistema de áreas protegidas que articulara también a las terrestres, manteniendo cierta autonomía decisional. Se reconocen tres niveles de toma de decisión como deseables: local, regional y nacional. Cada uno de los cuales debe tener un ámbito de temas que resuelve, de modo participativo, con representantes de actores de su nivel, públicos y privados. Las AMP de alta mar deben ser supervisadas desde el nivel nacional. Y las que se ubiquen en la Zona Litoral por la instancia local y regional.
In the vast Chilean sea space, have created marine protected areas of various kinds and with different institucional dependancy. The study reviews international experience of networks of marine protected areas (MPAs) and forms of Good Governance in protected areas and in networks of protected areas or systems, describes the characteristics of the Chilean sea, including its biodiversity, threats and public institutions related to marine protected areas; recognizing the existing governance model. It develops a questionnaire with questions regarding perceptions about the state of marine biodiversity; the role of different types of MPAs in marine conservation; the role of the state in funding; the most desirable leadership of a system of MPAs in the country; and selected key personnel of stakeholders participating in the establishment of MPAs to react to statements /questions. The statistical processing of the responses to the questionnaire helped to identify the perceptions of key stakeholders. These results, together with those from the study of international experience on MPA networks; Good Governance; the particularities of Chilean sea and existing institutions allowed to design a model of how a system could be organized, that articulate and lead, with Good Governance MPAs in the country. A system of MPAs should be part of a system of protected areas that well as articulate theterrestrial, maintaining a certain decisional autonomy. It recognizes three levels of decision making as desirable: local, regional and national levels. Each one of them must have a scope of issues that resolves in a participatory way, with representatives from its level, public and private. Offshore MPAs should be monitored from the national level. And those that are located in the Coastal Zone by the local and regional levels.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of California, San Diego, 2005.
Title from first page of PDF file (viewed January 11, 2006). Available via ProQuest Digital Dissertations. Vita. Includes bibliographical references ( p. 303-315).

Marine populations worldwide are in decline due to anthropogenic effects. Spatial management via marine reserves may be an effective conservation method for many species, but the requisite theory is still underdeveloped. Integrodifference equation (IDE) models can be used to determine the critical domain size required for persistence and provide a modelling framework suitable for many marine populations. Here, we develop a novel spatially implicit approximation for the proportion of individuals lost outside the reserve areas which consistently outperforms the most common approximation. We examine how results using this approximation compare to the existing IDE results on the critical domain size for populations in a single reserve, in a network of reserves, in the presence of alongshore currents, and in structured populations. We find that the approximation consistently provides results which are in close agreement with those of an IDE model with the advantage of being simpler to convey to a biological audience while providing insights into the significance of certain model components. We also design a stochastic individual based model (IBM) to explore the probability of extinction for a population within a reserve area. We use our spatially implicit approximation to estimate the proportion of individuals which disperse outside the reserve area. We then use this approximation to obtain results on extinction using two different approaches, which we can compare to the baseline IBM; the first approach is based on the Central Limit Theorem and provides efficient simulation results, and the second modifies a simple Galton-Watson branching process to include loss outside the reserve area. We find that this spatially implicit approximation is also effective in obtaining results similar to those produced by the IBM in the presence of both demographic and environmental variability. Overall, this provides a set of complimentary methods for predicting the reserve area required to sustain a population in the presence of strong fishing pressure in the surrounding waters.

Marine protected areas are recognized as an important approach to conserve marine ecosystems and biodiversity as well as to manage costal and marine resource. This thesis addresses the development and management of marine protected areas in Australia and in China. Australia and China are major maritime countries with diverse marine creatures and ecosystems. Both countries have adopted marine protected areas as a management tool to protect the marine environment. This thesis introduces their marine environment and threats, and then makes a close study of the development, legislation and management of marine protected areas in both Australia and China. Two case studies, Jervis Bay Marine Park in Australia, and Shankou Mangrove Marine Nature Reserve in China provide examples of the management strategies and lessons learnt. In order to improve the management of marine protected areas in China, the thesis analyzes the conflicts in the development of marine protected areas in China and prescribes community participation and the marine special reserve as solutions to promote the development of marine protected areas. This study also examines how the Australian Defence Force, an important stakeholder, manages its activities in the marine protected areas.

Trans-frontier conservation areas (TFCAs), large cross-border areas dedicated to biodiversity conservation, multi-national co-operation and development are expanding in southern Africa, fast becoming the dominant conservation solution in the region. TFCAs adopt a celebratory discourse of ecological, community, economic and political gains, while the reality is often far more complicated. This thesis situates the expansion of TFCAs within a critical political ecology approach, and argues that they represent a neoliberal solution to a complex series of development, environment and political challenges. Drawing on five and a half months of fieldwork to Mozambique along with policy and discourse analysis it examines the first marine reserve to be linked to a TFCA in Africa, the Ponta do Ouro Partial Marine Reserve (PPMR) in southern Mozambique. It makes three arguments: First, it argues that Mozambique’s embrace of TFCAs represents the neoliberalisation of conservation through novel tourism-based products, techniques of governance, creation of subject positions based on entrepreneurialism, and new arrangements of space. At the same time, the adoption of TFCAs also stems from Mozambique’s post-war politics, especially the ways in which elite state actors have sought to reconstruct and reorder the country through engagement with donors. Second, the thesis uses a combined governmentality and assemblage framework to explore how neoliberal conservation is made to cohere as a truth discourse, how it materially co-produces human and non-human life in the marine reserve, and how it is fragile, partial and contested. Third, it critiques the increasingly close relationship between the extractive and conservation sector at a policy, state and donor level, exploring how and why marine conservation is increasingly intertwined with Mozambique’s resources boom through its green economy discourse. Through these three points of engagement, the thesis contributes to debates around the intensifying relationship between extraction and conservation, Mozambique’s post-war development, and processes of neoliberalisation of nature.

With an increasing understanding for the impacts of scuba dive tourism on the marine environments and local communities world-wide, research has recently expanded to include the perspectives of ecology, socio-culture and economy. However, due to the common lack of a transdisciplinary view, the following research aims at fulfilling the gap by viewing the management of scuba dive tourism at the two marine reserves of Bongoyo and Mbudya, Tanzania, through a sustainable perspective. Thereby, the research examines the ecological state of the marine environment as perceived by the scuba divers, the operation of scuba diving, as well as how scuba dive tourism relates to the major possibilities and challenges of the marine reserves. Supported in nature-based tourism management and the theories of recreation specialization and recreational succession, questionnaires were handed out to divers and interviews were conducted with stakeholders of the marine reserves, including a scuba dive operator, conservation groups and a private interest. The results portrayed degradation of the coral reef, with scuba diving constituting a minor influence, in comparison to the greater challenges of destructive fishing methods and lack of regulations. Thereby, the research illustrates scuba diving as a positive contributor to the marine environment, raising awareness on the need for conservation within both the local and the scuba diving community. Finally, the research concludes with proposals of sustainable management strategies for the operation of scuba diving within the marine reserves.

This dissertation investigates social and ecological factors that facilitate effective management of coral reefs as social-ecological systems. Meta-analytical and field-based methods were employed to examine current management challenges and identify strategies that improve management effectiveness and coral reef health. A meta-analysis was used to evaluate biological indicators of reef health in relation to the types of fishing regulations in place (no-take areas, gear restriction areas, and periodic closures) and the actor groups (community-based, co-management, state, private) involved in management efforts for coral reef fisheries throughout the world. Other than enhancement of fish biomass within no-take areas that was significantly greater than in gear restriction areas, most biological indicators benefitted similarly from management techniques of no-take areas and gear restriction areas. Community-based and co-management were the best performing management arrangements for some biological outcomes but require further case studies to verify findings. Investigation of management effects by region indicated that previously degraded reefs received fewer benefits from management implementation than did relatively healthier reefs. For field investigations, the Comoros islands in the Western Indian Ocean served as a model for tropical coral reefs with challenging socioeconomic contexts, high biodiversity, and high vulnerability to coral reef degradation. Empirical study at 21 sites was used to identify the relative effects of natural and anthropogenic threats to coral reefs of the Comoros. Most previous studies of reef health focus on primarily natural factors or a single anthropogenic threat. This study examined suites of natural factors and human activities to identify the relative importance of each on reef health. Human activities including fishing, sand extraction, and beachfront housing and development were the best predictors of reef health status. Most notably, human population and fishing predicted fish richness, abundance, and biomass with seasonal variation in the effects, while site orientation strongly predicted benthic cover. Field studies in the Comoros were also used to investigate the roles of community and state actors in co-management and compare effectiveness of comanagement across sites with varying levels of actor participation. Effective management was found to occur with community or `meta-community' (in this case, a Marine Protected Area in which the efforts of several communities were organized) participation in governance and support of state or external agents, while resilient management that overcame considerable challenges was found to occur only with strong community participation and leadership in governance. External agents were found to contribute to development of meta-community governance structure and initiation of community participation through education and capacity building. The findings from these studies reveal that coral reef management can be improved through context appropriate regulations that address detrimental human activities and through wide acceptance and participation in governance with cooperation among states, communities, and external agents.

This thesis examines a participatory approach to interpretive planning, employed in the Shark Bay World Heritage Area, Western Australia. At the project outset relations between the conservation agency responsible for administering World Heritage and the local community were strained, and complicated by a history of conflict over the World Heritage listing and subsequent management of the area. A participatory approach to interpretive planning was adopted in the hope that doing so would achieve the following: improved relations between polarised stakeholder groups, increased community support for the plan and its implementation, and improved access to the variety of knowledge pools within the Shark Bay community. Effectively ongoing and integrating the interests of the area's polarised stakeholders meant that their social, political, organisational and disciplinary divisions had to be overcome. To do this, a novel participatory interpretive planning method was developed using action research. This method employed a combination of techniques, including a modified Delphi Technique based on indepth interviews, key informants, and direct prolonged emersion of the researcher in the community. The practical results of the project were the production of a stakeholder-derived communications strategy and interpretive plan for the World Heritage Area. These products embodied the collective social, cultural, economic and environmental interests of Shark Bay stakeholders, and included agreed-upon objectives, messages, stories for representing Shark Bar to the outside world. The participatory planning process also resulted in a number of instrumental and transformative outcomes including: surfacing of latent community issues, quieting of dominant rhetoric, identification of common values among stakeholders, collection of knowledge from multiple sources and contexts, equalisation of power between community segments, empowerment of marginalised community members, creation of social capital, and generation of support and commitment to plan implementation. In addition, the study demonstrated that participatory processes are vulnerable to cooption and manipulation by powerful stakeholders, and that the success of such processes relies more on the creation of trusting relationships (i.e. social capital) between stakeholders and facilitators than on the application of formulaic group techniques used to garner public input. With respect to interpretive planning, this project showed how a participatory approach to interpretive planning can be used as an ethical means to develop multiple narratives for interpretation that are just and legitimate representations of the community’s interests and stories. Other implications of this project, particularly in relation to the creation of social capital and horizontal and vertical relationships between community and agency groups, indicate that participatory interpretive planning can be used as an intervention in situations where conservation initiatives have resulted in conflict with local communities. Positive change is achieved through the creation of a common platform of values, mutual understanding and knowledge, from which further dialogue and reciprocal cooperation can take place. The evidence presented suggest that the stakeholder-centred approach to interpretive planning used in Shark Bay may form a useful basis for collaborative environmental management in a range of contexts and landscapes where new conservation initiatives are being contemplated. Lessons learned through application of this novel approach to interpretive planning may prove useful to interpretive professionals, environmental managers, governments and businesses attempting cross-disciplinary integration of multiple stakeholder interests.

Although the marine environment has generally been considered to be less in need of attention from conservationists, politicians and managers than the terrestrial environment, there has been an increasing appreciation that there is little left in the marine environment that can be considered unaltered by humans. Conservation action is therefore urgently needed to protect marine populations, species and environments from anthropogenic pressures. Since overharvesting seems to be the main cause of the collapse in coastal ecosystems, areas need to be protected so that stocks can recover. However, the proclamation of such marine protected areas (MPAs) need to be well planned to ensure that species are well represented and that their biological requirements are met in the long term. While terrestrial conservation planners have started to incorporate biological, social and economic information into so-called systematic conservation plans, marine planners have been more hesitant to use these approaches due to the greater openness of the ocean (with the associated greater dispersal of marine organisms and propogules, lower levels of endemism, and lack of ownership) and the paucity of available information. The current study aimed to investigate the applicability of systematic approaches to the process of selecting sites for a network of potential replenishment zones for seabream species that could supplement protection already afforded by existing no-fishing reserves. Since many of these seabream species are popular targets in both the recreational and commercial linefishery sectors, they have been overexploited and are in need of additional protection. Information on these species and the diversity of their associated reefs were obtained through consultations with scientists, managers and resource-users (namely SCUBA divers, spearfishers as well as recreational and commercial fishers). These data were obtained during workshops where Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) scoring and mapping methods were applied. Although ordinal-scale, rather than interval-or ratio-scale data were obtained, these data could be used in an interactive selection process. Because these methods require relatively cheap materials and few personnel, they could be used to collect information where limited budgets are available. Quantitative targets for the protection of individual species were set on the basis of their status in the Marine Living Resource Act, since this reflected their different requirements for protection. A preliminary investigation indicated that the current no-fishing reserves effectively achieved most of these goals for seabream species. The selection of sites for the replenishment network was based on irreplaceability analyses, while decisions between sites with lower irreplaceability values were based on explicit design rules. A total of 26 sites were required to achieve targets for all species. These replenishment zones could potentially be established, managed and monitored by voluntary community groups. This study therefore indicated that systematic conservation planning can successfully be applied to the marine environment, while the involvement of stakeholders is crucial to ensure that conservation action is supported.

This study aimed to analyse the potential and challenges for ecotourism development and how it can be applied as an integrated tool to provide economic incentives and better opportunities for community development, while improving natural resource management and conservation in Isimangaliso. The capital assets, the context of vulnerability of the local communities along with other significant attributes of the supply side were investigated in-depth. In addition, the potentials and challenges for ecotourism development in the selected Isimangaliso, Khula Village were studied. The impacts of ecotourism on local livelihood improvement, biodiversity resources and natural environment, and management and conservation of the area were also explored through sustainability concepts. However, the focus of the study was not only on ecotourism potentials and opportunities but was also on the development of sound guiding principles for planning and management of ecotourism development in Isimangaliso in a sustainable manner. It was found that community‟s willingness to participate in local development and natural resource management remains a questionable issue to be achieved. This is because local communities are strongly influenced by vertical network of the state administration. The study reveals that there is a strong interaction and interdependency between local livelihoods or poverty and the status and effectiveness of natural resource management in Isimangaliso. The study indicates that the area has plenty of potential natural and cultural resources. These resources signify three fundamental elements for ecotourism destination: quantity, quality, and fascination. The natural attractions consist of vital and sensitive biological and scenic values of the destination area.

Orientadores: Cristiana Simão Seixas, Célia Regina Tomiko Futemma
Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Filosofia e Ciências Humanas
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Resumo: Esta tese versa sobre o papel de pessoas-chave e inovações institucionais na governança, com efeitos na capacidade de governar (governabilidade) áreas marinhas protegidas. Apresentamos um estudo de caso empírico sobre o litoral centro-sul do Estado de Santa Catarina (Brasil) onde indicações preliminares (2007) apontavam que a governabilidade sobre o território se destacava nacionalmente, em parte pelo protagonismo de pessoas-chave em um sistema governante com jurisdição regional denominado Área de Proteção Ambiental da Baleia Franca (APA-BF; criada em 2000 abrangendo 156.000 hectares). Partimos assim da hipótese de que a agência de pessoas-chave em interações governantes (sensu Jan Kooiman) e contextos comunicativos (sensu Gregory Bateson) ligados à APA-BF aumentaram a governabilidade no território centro-sul do estado de Santa Catarina na última década. A pesquisa incluiu dados secundários e primários (entrevistas semi-estruturadas e observação participante). Análises foram feitas sobre a governabilidade estrutural e funcional geral e sobre questões específicas de governança com foco nas questões pesqueiras emergentes no Conselho Gestor da APA-BF (CONAPA-BF). A trajetória da APA-BF demonstrou um caso excepcional de experimentação institucional formal face às condições sociopolíticas operantes no Estado Brasileiro (que criam "problemas perversos", sensu Rittel e Weber, 1979). Observamos que os padrões de inovação são explicados a partir de mudanças na governabilidade em sete fases na trajetória do sistema governante da APA-BF. A identidade transgressiva do CONAPA-BF diferencia-se pela autoafirmação da busca pelo novo, pelo aprendizado e colaboração social gradativamente ampliada em um território em acelerada transformação socioambiental. Descrevemos o aumento gradativo de governabilidade que se iniciou desde o passo-zero (sensu Chuenpagdee et al., 2013) de criação da APA-BF, culminando em 2012 com a abertura de uma janela de oportunidade para inovação estrutural na governança costeira-marinha em nível nacional, i.e. com a designação oficial do processo de elaboração de um Plano de Manejo `Estratégico¿ para a APA-BF como um projeto-piloto para o Estado Brasileiro. Observamos as coerências e desafios surgidos no discurso de inovação e o relevante protagonismo desempenhado pelas pessoas-chave em cada uma das sete fases e em períodos críticos de estruturação e reorganização do sistema governante. As pessoas-chave foram importantes para o tamponamento de distúrbios (sensu Holling 2001) no sistema governante, bem como são responsáveis pela incidência e atração de novos enfoques de ação tendo em vista a colaboração e aprendizado interativo. Tais pessoas-chave tiveram papel fundamental desde a re-estruturação do sistema governante até a abertura de oportunidades para a inovação institucional e a navegação de períodos transformativos neste sistema. Seus atributos pessoais afetaram a capacidade de governanca do sistema, principalmente na melhor formulação da imagem dos problemas a serem enfrentados, contribuindo com as capacidades do sistema governante (governabilidade funcional) e na condutibilidade geral das interações governantes. Oferecemos algumas sugestões gerais para o aumento da governabilidade na APA-BF, incluindo: (i) melhor integração junto as redes sociais virtuais ligadas ao território; (ii) promoção de estruturas interinstitucionais sensíveis à diversidade política no território; (iii) melhor aproveitamento do potencial das artes e atividades lúdicas em interações formais e informais; (iv) emprego de imagens alternativas à da Baleia (como ícone) para a comunicação social relacionada ao sistema governante APA e; (v) reinvidicação de maior amparo do Estado Brasileiro para os processos de experimentação e inovação institucional. Algumas destas sugestões podem ser relevantes também para aumentar a governabilidade de outras áreas marinhas protegidas no Brasil. Por fim, mesmo diante de tantos desafios, concluimos que muitas pessoas-chave e outros atores já compartilham das imagens alternativas de governança necessárias para navegar a transformação rumo a um regime de maior governabilidade. Ao enfrentarem desafios de várias ordens, os atores poderão não apenas manter o desempenho até então alcançado, mas avançarem em padrões de interação criativos e sinérgicos para ampliar e conjugar o potencial contido nas capacidades pessoais, institucionais e políticas de cada um
Abstract: This thesis investigate the role of key-people in institutional innovations in governance systems, particularly their effects on the capacity to govern (governability) marine protected areas. We present an empirical study case on the central-southern coast of Santa Catarina state (Brazil) where preliminary indications (in 2007) signalled that governability over the territory was outstanding nationally, partly due to the agency of key-people in a governing system with regional jurisdiction, namely the Baleia Franca Environmental Protection Area (BF-EPA; designated in 200 encompassing 156.000 hectares). We departed from the hypothesis that the agency of key-people in governing interactions (sensu Jan Kooiman) and communicative contexts (sensu Gregory Bateson) linked to the BF-EPA raised the governability of the above mentioned territory in the past decade. Our research included secondary and primary data (semi-structured interviews and participant observation). Analyses were made over general structural and functional governability as well as on specific governing issues with a focus on emergent fishing issues at the BF-EPA Management Council (BF-EPA MC). The trajectory of BF-EPA demonstrated an exceptional case of formal institutional experimentation in face of the operating sociopolitical conditions of the Brazilian State (which poses "wicked-problems", sensu Rittel and Weber, 1979). We have observed that innovation patterns can be explained through changes in governability in seven phases of the focal governing system. The transgressive identity of the BF-EPA Management Council is differentiated by its self-affirmed search for the new, for learning and social collaboration gradually enhanced in a territory suffering from accelerated social-environmental transformation. We described the gradual governability increase starting from the step-zero (sensu Chuenpagdee et al., 2013) of the BF-EPA designation process, leading all the way to 2012 with the opening of a window of opportunity for structural innovation with potential changes spanning to a national level, i.e. official designation of the process of elaboration of a `Strategic¿ Management Plan for the BF-EPA as a pilot-project for the Brazilian state. We describe the coherence and challenges implicit in the innovation discourse and the relevant agency performed by key-persons in each of the seven phases and in critical periods of systemic structuring and reorganization. Key-people were important buffer of disturbances (sensu Holling, 2001) in the governing system, as well as responsible for the incidence and attraction of new frames for action regarding interactive learning and collaboration. They had a fundamental role from the re-structuring of the governing system until the opening of windows of opportunity for institutional innovation and navigation of systemic transformation periods. Their personal attributes affected governability, mainly in improving the formation of images of problems, contributing to the governing system capacity (functional governability) and general conduciveness of governing interactions. We offer some general suggestions for increasing governability at BF-EPA, including: (i) better integration with virtual social networks bonded to the territory; (ii) promotion of interinstitutional structures sensitive to the political diversity in the territory; (ii) better usage of the potential of arts and ludic activities in formal and informal interactions; (iv) application of alternative images than that of the whale (as an icon) for social communication related to the EPA governing system and; (v) improved support of the Brazilian State to institutional experimentation and innovation processes. Some of these suggestions can be also relevant to improve governability of other marine protected areas in Brazil. Finally, even with so many challenges, we suggest that key-person and other actors already share alternative governing images necessary to navigate transformation towards a higher governability regime. While facing obstacles and risks of various orders, the actors will be successful if they are able to maintain and improve the performance achieved so far while advancing in creative and synergic interaction patterns in order to amplify and conjugate the potential contained in individual, institutional and political capacities of each actor
Doutorado
Aspectos Biológicos de Sustentabilidade e Conservação
Doutor em Ambiente e Sociedade

This research is presented in three sections. Section 1 presents the research report in an Academic Paper format. Section 2 provides a comprehensive literature review and Section 3 describes the research methodology and methods employed. Sustainable management of natural resources is a global imperative. It is particularly significant in a country like South Africa that is blessed with an abundance of biological diversity but faces many socio economic challenges that are associated with developing nations. Toward addressing these issues, diver permit fees were implemented in South Africa in 2005, making it a legal requirement for all scuba divers undertaking a dive in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) to purchase a permit. This pilot study is the first attempt since the inception of the dive permit fees to determine their impact on the demand for diving and the diving industry in the Aliwal Shoal MPA, one of the premier dive destinations in the country. In order to address key questions, qualitative data was gathered during interviews with 12 dive operators active in the MPA and 28 divers that utilised the operators to dive. In addition, independent quantitative data on the number of dive boat launches during the past 20 years was used in conjunction with mean paying diver data obtained from the operators to ascertain the demand for diving at the Aliwal Shoal during the past two decades. Results indicate that were no significant differences (at the 5% level of significance) between paying divers during 2005 compared to 2004 and 2006 [H =.1923366, N= 36, p =0.9083]. Paying diver data for the period 2000 - 2004 were compared to 2005 - 2010 and no significant differences were found at the 5% level of significance (U= 2040, Npost = 72, Npre= 60, p = 0.584981). Diver interviews revealed that only 36% of divers had paid for a permit, representing a loss of R7 438 499 during the past five years, enough to support the current budget of the MPA for 10.6 years. Operator interviews revealed that alternative destinations, economic climate and local competition had the most impact on their businesses, with permit fees having no impact on the 50% of the operators’ businesses. Operators also reported that there was little or no enforcement of the permit fees, 9 of the operators indicated that there has been no improvement in the MPA or its management since the inception of the fees and all were dissatisfied with the current management MPA. Operators and divers complained about the current purchasing and handling practices associated with the permits. Despite offering a world class diving opportunity, the dive operators currently have no incentive to enforce the permit system and due to price pressure in the local market, and have adopted a mute stance on diver permits. Consequently, there has been no significant impact on the demand for diving since the inception of the permits in 2005. The initial hypothesis that the increased costs to divers as a result of the permits would drive down the demand for diving is therefore rejected. If the permits are more strictly enforced, it is likely that more divers may seek alternative destinations due to the perception of poor value as a result of the Sappi Saiccor effluent discharge, existence of shark nets and poor management, in accordance with existing literature. The resultant decrease in demand will be detrimental to the diving industry at Aliwal Shoal. The second hypothesis, that the costs associated with the better enforcement of the MPA regulations-in terms of impacts on the diving industry- might outweigh the benefits, is therefore accepted. All the results produced by this study suggest that authorities may have been too enthusiastic to have all the boxes ticked in order to meet deadlines for international targets for marine conservation and paid little or no attention to lessons learnt from MPAs globally. Every negative aspect highlighted by existing international literature as symptomatic of MPA failure is occurring at Aliwal Shoal MPA, albatrossing it with “paper park” status. Due to the size and scope of this study, the results should be interpreted with caution and not be utilised to guide policy but rather encourage further research.

[EN] The seagrass Posidonia oceanica is an important ecosystem endemic in the Mediterranean Sea and for their rightful protection they have been included as priority habitat in the European Union habitats directive. From the priority lines of investigation proposed by the Ministry of Environment, Rural and Marine care for the conversation of the habitat of communal interest 1120*. In regards to the seagrass Posidonia (Posidonion oceanicae) in Spain, in some of the protected marine spaces and managed by the Generalitat Valenciana, the following have been developed: The line "mapping and cataloging of the habitat type 1120*". The line "effect of invading species". The line "Effects of climate change in the priority habitat of seagrass of Posidonia oceanica". The line "Development and validation of state indicators of the conservation, structure and function of the habitat type 1120*".
[ES] Las praderas de Posidonia oceanica son un importante ecosistema endémico del mar mediterráneo y para su protección ha sido incluido como hábitat prioritario en la Directiva de Hábitats de la Unión Europea. De las líneas prioritarias de investigación propuestas por el Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, y Medio Rural y Marino, para la conservación del hábitat de interés comunitario 1120* Praderas de Posidonia (Posidonion oceanicae) en España, en algunos de los espacios marinos protegido creados y gestionado por la Generalitat Valenciana, se han desarrollado las siguientes: La línea "Cartografiado y catalogación del tipo de hábitat 1120*". La línea "Efecto de las especies invasoras". La línea "Efectos del cambio climático en el hábitat prioritario praderas de Posidonia oceanica". La línea "Desarrollo y validación de indicadores de estado de conservación, estructura y función del tipo de hábitat 1120*" .
[CAT] Els herbers de Posidonia oceanica són un important ecosistema endèmic del mar mediterrani i per a la seua protecció ha sigut inclòs com a hàbitat prioritari en la Directiva d'Hàbitats de la Unió Europea. De les línies prioritàries d'investigació proposades per el Ministeri de Medi Ambient , i Medi Rural i Marí, per a la conservació de l'hàbitat d'interés comunitari 1120* Herbers de Posidonia (Posidonion oceanicae) a Espanya, en alguns dels espais marins protegit creats i gestionat per la Generalitat Valenciana, s'han desenrotllat les següents: La línia "Cartografiat i catalogació del tipus d'hàbitat 1120*". La línia "Efecte de les espècies invasores". La línia "Efectes del canvi climàtic en l'hàbitat prioritari herbers de Posidonia oceanica". La línia "Desenrotllament i validació d'indicadors d'estat de conservació, estructura i funció del tipus d'hàbitat 1120*".
Enguix Egea, A. (2016). Desarrollo de lineas prioritarias de investigación del hábitat de interés comunitario 1120* Praderas de Posidonia (Posidonion oceanicae) en espacios marinos protegidos de la Comunidad Valenciana [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/63242
TESIS

Ce mémoire porte sur l’expérience d’insertion d’une communauté côtière, celle de Río Lagartos, à une aire protégée, la Réserve de biosphère Ría Lagartos (RBRL), Yucatán, Mexique. L’auteure utilise l’approche de la production et de la construction sociale de l’espace pour comprendre, d’une part, comment les habitants du village et les acteurs de la conservation construisent leur rapport à l’environnement et, d’autre part, comment l’introduction de la RBRL influence et transforme la relation que les résidents entretiennent avec leur milieu. On retrouve à Río Lagartos une configuration particulière de l’espace, où les relations entre les acteurs et les différentes activités économiques qu’ils ont développées historiquement sont étroitement liées et s’articulent aux transformations socio-économiques qui ont eu cours simultanément dans le reste de l’état du Yucatán. Malgré l’instabilité indéniable des pêcheries artisanales dans la région, la pêche continue de jouer un rôle clé dans la consolidation de la communauté et demeure à ce jour le vecteur principal des relations socio-environnementales locales et un élément structurant de la vie quotidienne. Depuis sa création en 1979, la RBRL, quant à elle, marque l’organisation sociale de la communauté et induit des transformations dans la façon dont les habitants appréhendent, utilisent et ont accès à l’environnement. Bien que les acteurs locaux ne rejettent pas entièrement certains éléments de la conservation, ceux-ci sont interprétés différemment selon les individus et se voient contestés, questionnés ou négociés, parfois appropriés ou voire même intégrés par ces acteurs. Ainsi, de nouveaux discours, pratiques et savoirs par rapport à l’environnement local émergent de cette nouvelle logique. De même, de nouveaux groupes d’acteurs apparaissent, notamment les guides écotouristiques, qui adoptent de manière instrumentale les discours environnementaux afin de mettre de l’avant leurs propres intérêts. Ainsi, les marqueurs de pouvoirs traditionnels sont progressivement remplacés par de nouveaux marqueurs, comme la capacité de s’approprier et manipuler les discours sur l’environnement promus par les acteurs de la conservation.
This thesis examines the integration experience of a coastal community, that of Río Lagartos, within a protected area, the Ría Lagartos Biosphere Reserve (RBRL), Yucatán, Mexico. Basing its approach on the social production and construction of space, it strives to understand, on the one hand, how the residents and the Reserve’s employees and collaborators each build their relationship to the environment and, on the other hand, how the RBRL influences and transforms the relationship the residents have with their environment. In Río Lagartos there is a particular configuration of space in which the relations between the social actors and the different economic activities they have developed historically are closely linked and relate to the socio-economic transformations that have taken place simultaneously in the rest of the State of Yucatán. Despite the undeniable instability of artisanal fisheries in the region, fishing continues to play a key role in community consolidation and remains the main vector of local socio-environmental dynamics and a structuring element of everyday life. Since it was founded in 1979, the RBRL has influenced the social organization of the community and has led to changes in the way people understand, use and have access to the environment. Although the residents do not completely reject some elements of environmental conservation, these are interpreted differently by individuals and are challenged, questioned or negotiated, sometimes appropriated, or even integrated by these actors. Thus, new discourses, practices and knowledge with respect to the local environment emerge from this new logic. Similarly, new groups of actors are emerging, in particular ecotourism guides, which adopt environmental discourses in an instrumental way only to put forward their own interests. Thus, traditional markers of power within the community are gradually being replaced by new markers, such as the ability to appropriate and manipulate environmental discourses promoted by conservation actors.

This report aims to obtain a master's degree in ecotourism. It reflects a set of skills developed during the internship at the Institute of Forests and Nature Conservation (IFCN), IP-RAM, that manages the protected areas of Madeira's Autonomous Region. Sustainable development is the most significant concern and goal of ecotourism to improve the population's quality of life and guarantee future generations. A way to guarantee a sustainable future is by creating protected areas, which play a significant role in conserving nature. One of the instruments used to define protected areas and usage policies is to characterize their visitors to understand how protected areas are used. The Desertas Islands Nature Reserve is home to important ecological, natural and landscape values, and the last report on the characterization of its visitors is dated from 2010- 2011. Therefore, a new study was carried out in the form of a questionnaire with 20 questions, with the main goal of determining the visitors' profile of this reserve, their satisfaction and opinions related to its management. Subsequently, the results obtained were compared with the previous results. The questionnaire was carried out between July and September 2020, in Funchal and Machico's Ports, on board of the vessels, and online. A total of 385 anonymous questionnaires were collected, of which 204 were completed by Portuguese and 181 by foreign tourists. After statistical analysis, it was possible to conclude that the visitors are mostly women, between 19 and 40 years old, of Portuguese nationality and higher education. The typical tourist visits for the first time with family, by a maritime tourism operator. They spend less than 3 hours on land in Deserta Grande, and the most popular activity is wildlife observation. Visitors see the Nature Reserve classification as an important factor and access this information before travelling via the internet, ending up recommending this visit. The observation of wildlife and the quality of seawater were the most important aspects rated for the trip. The aspect that caused the greatest satisfaction was the cleanliness of the reserve, followed by the information presented on the trail.
A elaboração do presente relatório visa a obtenção do grau de mestre em Ecoturismo. Este reflete um conjunto de competências desenvolvidas durante o estágio no Instituto das Florestas e Conservação da Natureza, IP-RAM instituição que gere as áreas protegidas da Região Autónoma da Madeira. O desenvolvimento sustentável é a maior preocupação e objetivo do ecoturismo, de maneira a melhorar a qualidade de vida das populações e garantir um futuro às gerações vindouras. Uma forma de garantir esse futuro é através da criação de áreas protegidas, que desempenham um papel significativo na conservação da natureza. Um dos instrumentos utilizados para definir as áreas protegidas e as políticas de utilização, passa pela caracterização dos seus visitantes, de forma a entender como são utilizadas as áreas protegidas. A Reserva Natural das Ilhas Desertas possui importantes valores ecológicos, naturais e paisagísticos, sendo que o último relatório de caraterização dos seus visitantes realizado pelo IFCN, IP-RAM é de 2010-2011. Deste modo, realizou-se um estudo em forma de questionário com 20 perguntas com o objetivo principal de determinar o perfil dos visitantes desta reserva, a sua satisfação e as opiniões relativas à sua gestão. Posteriormente, foi efetuada a comparação dos resultados obtidos com os resultados anteriores. O preenchimento dos questionários foi realizado entre Julho e Setembro de 2020, nos Portos do Funchal e de Machico, a bordo de embarcações, bem como online. Foram recolhidos 385 questionários anónimos, dos quais 204 foram preenchidos por portugueses e 181 por estrangeiros. Após uma análise estatística, foi possível concluir que os visitantes são maioritariamente mulheres, entre os 19 e os 40 anos, de nacionalidade portuguesa e com ensino superior. O indivíduo típico, visita pela primeira vez com a família, por uma operadora de turismo marítimo. Na Deserta Grande, passam menos de 3 horas em terra e a atividade popular é a observação da vida selvagem. Os visitantes veem a classificação da Reserva Natural como um fator importante, e acedem a informação antes da viagem pela internet, acabando por fim recomendar esta visita. A observação da vida selvagem e a qualidade da água do mar foram os aspetos mais importantes classificados para a realização da viagem. O aspeto que causou maior satisfação foi a limpeza da reserva, seguido pela informação exposta no percurso.

Dissertação de Mestrado apresentada no ISPA – Instituto Universitário para obtenção de grau de Mestre em Biologia Marinha e Conservação
Os cetáceos, como predadores de topo, são elementos chave do meio marinho e devem ser priorizados em estratégias de conservação marinha. Os projetos de ciência cidadã contam com a participação de qualquer cidadão na recolha de dados científicos, favorecendo assim o avanço da ciência. O presente estudo disponibiliza informação, com base em fontes de informação não-convencionais (ciência cidadã e inquéritos dirigidos), relativa à abundância e distribuição horizontal de cetáceos e avalia o contributo da ciência cidadã para o estudo da ocorrência e distribuição espacial de cetáceos no Parque Marinho Professor Luiz Saldanha (PMPLS) e na Reserva Natural das Berlengas (RNB), em Portugal. O golfinho-comum e o golfinho-roaz foram as espécies mais reportadas via ciência cidadã na plataforma BioDiversity4All (Projeto CETASEE) e mencionadas num maior número de inquéritos, nas AMPs em estudo e zonas adjacentes. Algumas espécies, como o grampo e a orca também foram reportados na plataforma nas áreas de estudo. A ciência cidadã poderá tornar-se uma fonte de recolha de dados sistemáticos sobre a ocorrência e distribuição espaciotemporal de cetáceos e, nesse sentido, deve integrar estudos científicos e ser tida em consideração em medidas de conservação e gestão aplicadas às AMPs. Outras metodologias, como a utilização de DNA ambiental e de censos visuais e a criação de programas de monitorização acústica passiva e de monitorização de populações são também apontadas para preencher a lacuna de conhecimento científico relativa à ocorrência e distribuição de cetáceos em Portugal.
Cetaceans, as top predators, are key elements of the marine environment and should be prioritized in marine conservation strategies. Citizen science projects count on the participation of any citizen in the collection of scientific data, thus favoring the advancement of science. The present study provides information, based on non-conventional sources of information (citizen science and targeted surveys), regarding the abundance and horizontal distribution of cetaceans and assesses the contribution of citizen science to the study of the occurrence and spatial distribution of cetaceans in the Professor Luiz Saldanha Marine Park (PMPLS) and in the Berlengas Nature Reserve (RNB), in Portugal. The common dolphin and bottlenose dolphin were the most reported species via citizen science on the BioDiversity4All platform (CETASEE Project) and mentioned in a greater number of surveys, in the AMPs under study and adjacent areas. Some species, such as the clamp and the orca, were also reported on the platform in the studied areas. Citizen science can become a source of systematic data collection on the occurrence and spatiotemporal distribution of cetaceans and, in this sense, it must integrate scientific studies and be taken into account in conservation and management measures applied to AMPs. Other methodologies, such as the use of environmental DNA and visual censuses and the creation of passive acoustic monitoring and population monitoring programs are also aimed at filling the scientific knowledge gap regarding the occurrence and distribution of cetaceans in Portugal.

Marine Protected Areas (MP As) play an important role in meeting conservation, tourism, and scientific study/education objectives. Most MPAs in Thailand are established as Marine National Parks (MNPs). This study aims to enhance the understanding of the benefits and negative impacts of MNPs in terms of economic, socio-cultural and environmental uses and values, as well as analyse the management status of Mu Ko Chang Marine National Park (MKCMNP), and the effectiveness of existing management objectives in relation to tourism. MKCMNP is located in the Gulf of Thailand. The condition, size and species diversity of its coral reefs are of international significance, and it attracts more than two hundred thousand visitors per year who engage in diving and other activities. Visitor management in the park includes a visitors fee, ferry and boat access, activity management, information centres, zoning management and visitors' services and facilities~ MKCMNP faces management issues relating to tourism development, particularly protection of valued natural resources from over-development by private operators. These issues make achievement of park management objectives difficult. Visitor surveys and an interview with a key informant were conducted to provide information on the effectiveness of tourism management at MKCMNP. Site observation was also undertaken to gain familiarity with the park and to complement the visitor survey data. The visitor survey was administered in two languages (Thai and English) to 162 participants, and assessed visitor behaviour, values and attitudes in order to identify the degree to which existing park management satisfied the needs and expectations of visitors. The survey of visitor attitudes towards management revealed that the communication of management approaches by park education materials and interpretation program are not effective. Visitors perceived that management to achieve the park management objectives was at least partly successful. The worst performing objectives were preventing illegal activities and controlling litter and pollution. The quality of existing visitor facilities should be maintained at the current level, but waste disposal facilities, visitor information centres and information signs should be increased. The interview with the park manager was significant for understanding park management issues related to tourism impacts, sustainable tourism and ecotourism activities. The park manager revealed that the major management problems of MKCMNP were garbage and wastewater, and lack of water supply during the summer. He recommended the four main factors to achieve sustainable tourism development were: firstly, tourists must take any garbage away with them when they leave. Secondly, local people must be able to sustain their livelihood from tourism. Thirdly, tourist activities must not damage natural resources. Finally, co-operation between government agencies and the private sector must form a significant component of future tourism development. Tourism management recommendations were derived from the results to assist the management agency in better achieving ustainable tourism development. More effective tourism management will require visitor education and an interpretation program, waste management strategies and integrated land use planning process. Such strategies need to match visitor needs with protecting the natural resources. In addition, to ensure sustainable tourism public participation and co-management approaches should be incorporated into the management plan.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), especially when set up as marine reserves, have been found beneficial for fish communities and species worldwide. Evaluation of MPA effects needs to be done to understand whether existing protection measures are efficient or not. To detect potential protection effect, we aimed to assess differences in demersal fish and commercial invertebrate community at Ilhotes do Martinhal marine reserve. Based on a comparison between locations situated inside and outside the reserve, differences in richness, abundance, length and biomass were analysed at community and species level. The influence of physical habitat was investigated, as it could get confounded with protection effect. In addition, we wanted to validate the results from Stereo Baited Remote Underwater Video (SBRUV) by another method, being Stereo Diver Operated Video (SDOV). Comparison between methods performance and costs was held to decide on the more efficient monitoring tool. SBRUV results suggest that the marine reserve provides positive effects, especially as it sustains greater biomass of target species and target species above minimum landing size. The reserve was found beneficial for Diplodus sargus, a valuable commercial, and Labrus bergylta, a by-catch species. However, two species showed an opposite pattern, indicating negative protection effect or influence of other habitat characteristics rather than physical complexity. Furthermore, SBRUV results for abundance were non-conclusive of differences, probably due to a delayed response. SDOV showed no signs of positive protection effects, with some results complementary while other contradictory to SBRUV’s ones. This was attributed to the differences in community sampled, reflecting diver and bait effects. As illegal fishing gear was encountered inside the reserve, legal enforcement and active management might play a key role in future reserve success. This study is especially relevant for further monitoring and revaluation of protection measures and zonation of Ilhotes de Martinhal.
As Áreas Marinhas Protegidas (AMPs) são consideradas uma ferramenta de conservação de meio marinho que tem como objetivo principal a proteção de habitats, de ecossistemas e da biodiversidade. Além disso, as AMPs podem promover a pesca sustentável e a recuperação de recursos de pesca. Especialmente quando designadas como reservas marinhas, onde todas as atividades extrativas são proibidas, as AMPs tem sido benéficas para comunidades e espécies de peixes. Os efeitos positivos geralmente associados a AMPs são o aumento de riqueza de espécies, de densidades, de tamanhos e de biomassa de peixes e invertebrados. Para avaliar os efeitos de medidas de proteção, idealmente, são realizadas comparações de dados de antes e de depois da sua implementação. Na ausência de dados anteriores à implementação de uma AMP, uma comparação entre locais com proteção (impacto) e sem proteção (controle) pode usar-se, tendo em conta a influência de habitat que pode confundir-se com efeitos de proteção. Neste estudo, foi comparada a comunidade de peixes demersais e invertebrados comerciais dentro e fora de uma reserva marinha dos Ilhotes do Martinhal em Sagres. Esta zona foi estabelecida em 2011 como área de proteção parcial I (a única atividade extrativa permitida é a apanha de percebe nas arribas da costa por pescadores comerciais, sendo considerada reserva marinha para o subtidal) integrante no Parque Marinho do Parque Natural do Sudoeste Alentejano e Costa Vicentina (PNSACV). Como os dados comparáveis anteriores à implementação da reserva não estavam disponíveis, os dados sobre a comunidade de peixes demersais e invertebrados comerciais foram comparados entre locais da reserva e locais adjacentes (zona complementar ou ‘buffer’) com substrato rochoso. A influência da complexidade física de habitat rochoso foi também considerada na análise porque os efeitos de reserva podem confundir-se com efeitos de habitat. As diferenças na riqueza de espécies foram investigadas. Em relação à abundância e biomassa, as diferenças foram analisadas por grupos de espécies (espécies demersais, espécies comerciais, espécies comerciais acima de tamanho mínimo legal (TML) e abaixo de TML, espécies sem interesse comercial). Ao lado da abundança e da biomassa, as diferenças de tamanhos foram também examinadas nas espécies individuais mais abundantes: comerciais (Diplodus sargus e Diplodus vulgaris) e sem interesse comercial (Coris julis, Serranus cabrilla, Labrus bergylta). Dois métodos estéreo-vídeo de recolha de dados foram usados: as Câmaras Iscadas Estéreo (SBRUV) e o Vídeo Estéreo por Mergulho (SDOV). Estes métodos apresentam uma alternativa ao Censo Visual por Mergulho (UVC) que é o método o mais usado em monitorização de AMPs. Os dois métodos estéreo-vídeo também são de caracter não destrutivo, e por isso podem ser preferíveis a uma monitorização de reservas marinhas quando comparados com as artes de pesca. Os dois métodos permitem estimar tamanhos de organismos mais precisos que os estimados por observações directas em UVC e também oferecem uma gravação permanente que pode ser vista por múltiplos observadores no laboratório. Assim, o erro ligado ao observador é reduzido quando comparado ao UVC. Dado a presença de isco, as SBRUVs servem como ponto de atração para peixes e como resultado, este método é considerado eficiente para a amostragem de riqueza de espécies de peixes, e particularmente de peixes carnívoros de tamanhos grandes. Os resultados de amostragem com SBRUV sugerem que existem efeitos positivos dentro da reserva, visto ter-se encontrado uma maior riqueza e uma maior biomassa da comunidade de peixes demersais e de invertebrados comerciais dentro da reserva em relação à zona adjacente. Principalmente, a biomassa de espécies comerciais e de espécies comerciais acima de TML, os dois grupos que se espera que respondam mais à exclusão de pesca, foi mais alta dentro que fora da reserva. Os resultados sugerem que a espécie D. sargus, uma das principais espécies alvo nesta região, terá beneficiado da proteção em termos de tamanhos e de biomassa. A abundância e a biomassa de L. bergylta, que é uma de espécie de tamanho grande, mas que é capturada de forma acessória, também foram significativamente maiores dentro da reserva em comparação com zona adjacente. No entanto, Diplodus vulgaris (também de interesse comercial) e S. cabrilla (sem ou de baixo interesse comercial) parecem mais associados aos locais fora da reserva, sugerindo uma resposta negativa à proteção. Os resultados negativos nestas espécies podem também estar ligados a características do habitat sem ser a complexidade física. Neste estudo, não se encontraram diferenças significativas entre a complexidade física de habitats dentro e fora da reserva, nem interações significativas entre proteção e habitat. No entanto, algumas espécies apresentaram uma maior afinidade aos habitats de menor (D. sargus) ou de maior complexidade física (D. vulgaris abaixo de TML). Apesar dos resultados significativos para a biomassa, os resultados da abundância de peixes e invertebrados não revelaram diferenças suficientes para apoiar os efeitos positivos de proteção. No geral, os tamanhos e a biomassa fornecem uma resposta mais rápida relativamente as medidas de proteção, resultando diretamente da eliminação da pesca que selecciona os indivíduos de tamanhos maiores. Os efeitos em abundância podem precisar de mais anos de proteção para serem reconhecidos, devido à variabilidade de fatores ambientais que afetam o sucesso de recrutamento em organismos marinhos. Os resultados da abundância podem também ter uma ligação com a pesca ilegal, visto que artes de pesca ilegais (covos) foram encontradas repetidamente dentro da reserva. Neste contexto, a implementação de uma gestão ativa, baseada na participação da comunidade local, na fiscalização e na monitorização ao prazo longo será fundamental para segurar o sucesso da reserva no futuro. Em relação à comparação entre os dois métodos, o SBRUV mostrou-se eficiente para monitorização, visto que este método permitiu a deteção de eventuais efeitos de reserva em riqueza e em biomassa. Os resultados de SDOV não mostraram diferenças entre níveis de proteção que sugerissem efeitos positivos de reserva. Contudo, os resultados do SDOV validaram os resultados de SBRUV ao terem também detetado que os adultos de D. vulgaris preferiam os locais da parte oeste fora da reserva em comparação com os locais dentro da reserva. Ao contrário e como resultado complementar ao SBRUV, o SDOV revelou que, na reserva, foi observada uma maior proporção de juvenis desta espécie que nos locais adjacentes. Estes resultados sugerem que os indivíduos de D. vulgaris partem da reserva quando adultos. Relativamente a comunidade amostrada, o SDOV amostrou as espécies mais comuns e conspícuas (por exemplo D. vulgaris) com sucesso, mas já não foi eficaz na amostragem de espécies mais crípticas (por exemplo Symphodus spp. ou S. cabrilla). No total, o SDOV forneceu uma riqueza de espécies menor quando comparado ao SBRUV. Estes resultados podem ser explicados pelos efeitos negativos da presença de um mergulhador no comportamento de algumas espécies de peixes, em combinação com a visibilidade da água, um outro fator limitante, que influencia mais a deteção do SDOV que do SBRUV. De outro lado, a presença de isco no SBRUV permitiu atrair mais espécies, incuindo os de tamanhos grandes, para perto das câmaras, resultando numa maior riqueza e biomassa. Além destes resultados, o SDOV apresentou custos mais altos que SBRUV, devido à possibilidade de obter um número maior de amostras de SBRUV por dia. Uma comparação com UVC ainda tem que ser considerada para selecionar o melhor método não extrativo para monitorização. O UVC tem um potencial de amostrar uma comunidade de peixes mais ampla que os métodos de vídeo, devido à maior capacidade do olho humano para detetar e identificar espécies crípticas, mas é mais dependente do treino do observador em termos de identificação e capacidade de medição, não permitindo uma validação. O presente estudo fornece conhecimentos importantes sobre dois métodos vídeo-estéreo de amostragem subaquática da biodiversidade marinha, ainda pouco usados em águas temperadas de baixa visibilidade. Este estudo é de alta impôrtancia porque permite avaliar a qualidade e/ou eficiência da reserva de Ilhotes do Martinhal, bem como fornece uma base para sua boa gestão através de monitorização biológica. Neste contexto, os nossos resultados podem servir para reavaliar as medidas e os limites atuais de proteção em comparação com os objetivos específicos desta reserva.
The thesis was cofinanced by MARSW project and CCMAR/FCT/UID/Multi/04326/2019. Diving equipment and part of diving logistics were financed by CCMAR Scientific Dive Center.

abstract: In the face of increasing anthropogenic threats to marine systems, marine reserves have become a popular tool to promote sustainable fisheries management and protect marine biodiversity. However, the governance structures that determine marine reserve success are not well understood. The response of resource users to reserve establishment, as well as the socioeconomic, institutional, and political contexts in which they occur, are rarely considered during reserve implementation. I use the Coupled Infrastructure Systems (CIS) framework to better understand the interdependencies between social, economic, natural, and institutional processes affecting reserve implementation and performance efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico. I used a combination of interviews, qualitative case study comparisons, and systematic conservation planning tools to evaluate the role of different infrastructures, institutions, and governance for marine reserve efficacy in the Gulf of California, Mexico. At a local scale, I assessed stakeholder perceptions, preferences, and knowledge on reserves in the Midriff Islands sub-region of the Gulf. My results show differences in fisher perceptions about the use of reserves for biodiversity conservation and fisheries management, misconceptions about their location, and non-compliance behavior problems. At the regional scale, I explored the trajectories of reserve implementation and performance. I show that capacity-building programs and effective collaboration between non-profit organizations, environmental, fisheries, and other government authorities are essential to coordinate efforts leading to the provisioning of infrastructure that enables effective marine reserves. Furthermore, these programs help facilitate the incorporation of fishers into diversified management and economic activities. Infrastructure provision tradeoffs should be carefully balanced for designing scientifically-sound reserves that can achieve fisheries recovery objectives and incorporating stakeholder engagement processes during the planning phase that allow fishers to include their preferences in a way that complements proposed reserve network solutions. Overall, my results highlight the importance of multiple infrastructures in understanding the dynamics of interacting action situations at various stages of marine reserve implementation and operation. I identify strengths and weaknesses within marine reserve systems that help understand what combinations of infrastructures can be influenced to increase marine reserve effectiveness and robustness to internal and external challenges, as well as delivering benefits for both nature and people.
Dissertation/Thesis
Doctoral Dissertation Environmental and Resource Management 2017