Книги з теми "Movement parameter"

This book develops a minimalist approach to cross-linguistic morphosyntactic variation. The principal claim is that the essential insight of the principles-and-parameters approach to variation can be maintained—albeit in a somewhat different guise—in the context of the minimalist programme for linguistic theory. The central idea is to organize the parameters of Universal Grammar (UG) into hierarchies which define the ways in which properties of individually variant categories and features may act in concert. The hierarchies define macro-, meso-, and microparameters as a function of the position of parametric options in a given hierarchy. A further leading idea, which is consistent with the overall goal of the minimalist programme to reduce the content of UG, is that the parameter hierarchies are not directly determined by UG. They are emergent properties stemming from the interaction of the three factors in language design. Universal Grammar, the first factor, provides a template for the underspecification of the formal features in terms of which parameters are defined. The second and third factors determine the organization of these formal options into hierarchies: two third-factor effects (Feature Economy and Input Generalization) play a central role. Cross-linguistic variation in word order, null subjects, incorporation, verb-movement, case/alignment, wh-movement, and negation are all analysed in the light of this approach. This book represents a significant new contribution to the formal study of cross-linguistic morphosyntactic variation on both the empirical and theoretical levels.

This chapter posits a parameter hierarchy to capture micro-parametric variation in ergative (or rather non-accusative) alignment, building on the proposal that ergative is an inherent case, assigned by little vs. Initial parameters determine the distribution of this inherent case across instances of little v in a given language, sensitive to various thematic features, and subsequent dependent parameters determine further properties of ergative-assigning vs such as the presence of a movement trigger and the suppression of structural Case features. This gives rise to a number of distinct ergative types depending on the distribution of ergative case, the presence/absence of syntactic ergativity, and the source of absolutive case in transitive contexts. The resultant parameter hierarchy serves to restrict the space of variation, modeling a number of proposed implicational universals in this domain, and provides a potential solution to the subset problem in acquisition by encoding a notion of relative markedness.

Discontinuous structures produced by edge-fronting represent one distinctive feature of Latin regarding Romance. This difference follows from the head parameter: whereas Romance is consistently head-initial, Latin fluctuates between different settings as a result of its occupying an intermediate position in the gradual shift from head-finality to head-initiality. In turn, this difference in the head parameter is responsible for the observed variation in edge-fronting, since its setting determines the application of antilocality in constraining movement. Concretely, if head-finality is the output of a roll-up operation raising the complement to the specifier to the left of its head, suspension of antilocality constitutes a sine qua non for head-final languages like Latin. In Romance, by contrast, the head parameter is aligned with the head-initial setting such that roll-up (hence antilocal) movement never arises. This investigation thus derives from the different settings of the head parameter a concomitant parametrization in the role of antilocality.

This chapter starts with a description of the core facts concerning the VPAux/AuxVP alternation in the history of Latin. In the case of modal verbs and infinitives, there is a clear decline of the head-final order VPAux, whereas Late Latin BE-periphrases surprisingly prefer this order. Against the backdrop of these observations, the discussion then turns to the analysis of Classical and Late Latin clause structure. It is proposed that during the transition from Classical to Late Latin, a major parametric change took place related to the way the clausal EPP-requirement is satisfied. In the earlier grammar (‘Grammar A’), the entire VP undergoes A-movement to the high T-domain, resulting in the characteristic VPAux word order. In the later grammar (‘Grammar B’) the EPP-requirement is met by means of verb movement, with the VP staying in situ. In this grammar VPAux-orders are derived through roll-up movement, which is incompatible with the VOAux-pattern.

Current understanding of syntactic variation and change relies on the notion of parameters of varying magnitude (micro- and macroparameters). This chapter focuses on the flipside of parameter change, namely the retention and survival of synthetic morphological structure in a context of widespread analyticization. The global effects of synthetic-to-analytic drift are examined in two diachronic scenarios: one in which the process has almost, though not entirely been completed (Coptic Egyptian), and another one in which the process is still under way (Brazilian Portuguese). Coptic has gone very far in abandoning its former synthetic features and thus exhibits a high degree of analyticity. In Brazilian Portuguese, the analyticization process is an advanced state, with synthetically inflected tenses exhibiting a decreasing productivity and gradually being replaced by the corresponding auxiliary verb constructions in the spoken language. The restriction on verb movement is a side effect of ongoing analyticization that affects language’s word order.

This chapter examines how the physical properties of water influence and explain the great diversity of swimming performance and mechanisms - from the scale of spermatozoa on up to whales. The key parameters of inertia, viscosity and their manifestation in the critically important Reynolds number are explained and placed in the context of a range of swimming mechanisms, including undulatory movement and fin-based, jet-based, flagellar and ciliary propulsion. The air-water interface also presents an intriguing mechanical challenge for the many organisms that move on top of the water’s surface. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of the burgeoning field of biorobotic swimmers.

Many of the world’s languages permit or require clause-initial positioning of the primary predicate, potentially alongside some or all of its dependents. While such predicate fronting (where “fronting” may or may not involve movement) is a cross-linguistically widespread phenomenon, it is also subject to intricate and largely unexplained variation. The papers in this volume explore the empirical manifestations and theoretical modelling of predicate fronting across languages. There exists by now a rich literature on predicate fronting, but few attempts have been made at synthesizing the empirical observations and theoretical implementations that have emerged. While individual phenomena have been described in some detail, we are currently far from a complete understanding of the uniformity and variation underlying the wider cross-linguistic picture. The aim of the present volume is to take some steps towards this goal, by showcasing the state of the art in research on predicate fronting and the parameters governing its realization in a range of diverse languages.

Chapter 4 provides an analysis of the patterns of default verb movement identified in Chapters 2 and 3. First, it shows that the attested macro-typologies are not accidental choices of the languages, but rather stem from a compensatory mechanism between syntax and morphology in licensing the Tense, Aspect, and Mood (TAM) interpretation of the verb, whereby verb movement only occurs in cases of poor paradigmatic instantiation of TAM, that is in cases when TAM chief values are not expressed by synthetic and non-syncretic paradigms. Second, a technical implementation of this proposal is offered which allows the modelling of this instance of variation into a parameter hierarchy, along the lines envisaged by the Rethinking Comparative Syntax research group. To conclude, the data from Brazilian Portuguese are assessed against the expectations of the proposed mechanism.

The development of motor skills in the first two years of life are dramatic, and then become more subtle with time. Chapter 4 describes these changes, and explains how these changes take place. Analysis is done via neuro-maturational theories, information processing, and cognitive terms as well as more recent ecological and dynamical systems viewpoints. The bidirectional influence of other faculties like embodied cognition and movement show that motor development does not occur in isolation. Movement skills are essential to daily life and influence our social, emotional, and cognitive being. This process of evolution and refinement is a complex, dynamic, self-organizing system. Theoretical explanations of motor development involve the transaction of children’s resources, the environmental context, and the task at hand. Not all children develop typically, although the influencing parameters are the same for all; rather, it is the metrics within the parameters that differ.

This article gives information on the clinical application of motor-evoked potential (MEP). Transcranial stimulation of the cerebral cortex to elicit MEPs is a noninvasive method for assessing the integrity of the central motor pathway function. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used in diagnosing and monitoring neurological disorders. This article highlights the neurophysiological differences between TMS and transcranial electric stimulation. All the different MEP parameters that can be measured by TMS, the latency of the MEP is generally regarded as the most reliable and useful. TMS studies have been described in many neurological disorders. The sensitivity of TMS in detecting subclinical upper motor neuron lesion varies in different disorders, depending on number of muscles and different parameters used. This article talks about the application of MEP in pathophysiology, multiple sclerosis, motor neuron diseases, meyloptahy, cerebral infarction, movement disorders, epilepsy, Lumbar spinal stenosis and radiculopathies, peripheral nerve disorders etc.

Born into a family of musicians and instrument makers, Élisabeth-Claude Jacquet de La Guerre made her mark early by performing for Louis XIV when she was five years old. By the age of twelve, she was composing as well. Her compositions require the analyst to attend to far more than sight and sound. Like other musicians of her era, she requires us to consider touch, kinetic movement, taste, temporality, color, timbre, space, and even fragrance as we work to bring her notated scores to the ear. This chapter seeks to tease out the ways these parameters intersect to produce their effects in two sarabandes for keyboard.

This essay simultaneously provides a case study of moments of cultural and political crossover between African American liberation movements and the West German public in the Cold War period, and it offers some parameters for how to read the current fraught moment. It argues for a re-centering of African American Studies in the recent scholarly push to internationalize American Studies. It is concerned on many levels with civil rights, going beyond national, ethnic, and religious borders, and it connects some of these struggles to past and current debates about (white) women’s rights and religious freedom.

Deep-brain stimulation is a last resort for the management of dystonia or dystonic movement disorders when oral or injectable therapies do not provide adequate relief to allow an acceptable quality of life. The underlying pathogenesis of dystonia is less well understood than in Parkinson’s disease, in which deep-brain stimulation is generally expected to provide effective and long-lasting benefit. Furthermore, it is likely that dystonia represents a number of different basal ganglia pathologies. The response of dystonia to deep-brain stimulation is typically delayed for up to weeks or months following a change in stimulation parameters. All of these factors make it more difficult to predict outcomes in dystonia following deep-brain stimulation, thus making patient selection all the more important.

Chapter 5 returns to the blueprint for the evolution of sympathy in Darwin’s Descent, picking up at the point where Darwin introduces a paradoxical prediction of degeneration, caused by the same force that inspired social cohesion and moral progress. This chapter analyses the birth of the eugenics movement as a department of statistics, arising directly from a concern for the common good of civilised society – the central tenet of highly evolved sympathy. Unlike most studies of eugenics, this chapter focuses largely on the period before 1900, when the parameters of eugenic thought were being hashed out. It particularly focuses on the problem of degeneration as seen through the eyes of Francis Galton and Karl Pearson, who pointed to the need for social-policy interventions in breeding.

This concluding chapter offers a synthesis of the law around fitness to stand trial drawn from the different jurisdictions surveyed in the book. While individual jurisdictions have crafted their own solutions to questions of definition, procedure, and disposition, a range of specific issues have come to the fore requiring further analysis and resolution. These include the permissibility or otherwise of compulsorily medicating incapacitated defendants to restore competence, the desirability of disaggregating the unitary test for fitness, the movement from cognition to decision-making capacity as the focus of unfitness, the utility of the decisional competence construct, and the parameters of effective participation. While no single jurisdiction offers an entirely satisfactory way of dealing with the unfit to plead, what the differing approaches show is how important it is to endeavour to find approaches to the problems in the law and procedure in this complex area.

Mathematical psychology and systems neuroscience have converged on stochastic accumulator models to explain decision making. We examined saccade decisions in monkeys while neurophysiological recordings were made within their frontal eye field. Accumulator models were tested on how well they fit response probabilities and distributions of response times to make saccades. We connected these models with neurophysiology. To test the hypothesis that visually responsive neurons represented perceptual evidence driving accumulation, we replaced perceptual processing time and drift rate parameters with recorded neurophysiology from those neurons. To test the hypothesis that movement related neurons instantiated the accumulator, we compared measures of neural dynamics with predicted measures of accumulator dynamics. Thus, neurophysiology both provides a constraint on model assumptions and data for model selection. We highlight a gated accumulator model that accounts for saccade behavior during visual search, predicts neurophysiology during search, and provides insights into the locus of cognitive control over decisions.

This chapter lays out the parameters of one developmental approach to sexuality politics in the United States. Whereas much scholarship in LGBTQ politics has focused on public opinion, interest groups, and social movement behavior, this chapter focuses on citizenship as the primary unit of analysis since citizenship, as it connotes a relationship between the individual and the state in which the latter acknowledges the former to fall within its responsibility to regulate and protect, brings the connection between state development and sexual identity to the fore. State institutions have recognized the LGBTQ citizen in distinct ways, often simultaneously, creating frictions among multiple regulatory orders and laws and creating additional opportunity and motivation for social change. The chapter details five such modalities of state recognition and regulation suggesting that the nature of sexual citizenship is contingent on the particular order of authority with which the LGBTQ individual engages.

This chapter analyzes aesthetic treatises that historicize claims that see dance as an art of expression that projects emotions in an immediate fashion. Such a mythical understanding often prevails up to today. It emphasizes that important aspects of a major event in the history of dance—ballet reform in the eighteenth century—were actually prescribed in aesthetic discourse before their implementation on stage. The chapter also provides crucial historical background to the renewed interest in expression in dance after 1900. It shows that, from the eighteenth century onwards, the discourse of dance for the most part ignored the parameters that allow us to perceive the interaction between dancers and audience as immediate, as the double movement of an emotional relationship in motion. This made perfect sense in the context of ballet reform, and the associated paradigm shift toward a sensualist aesthetic, but it has only limited application to later developments in the art of dance.

This chapter revisits the oft-discussed issue of the Hasidic movement’s alleged “conquest” of Eastern Europe and its demographic parameters. How many Hasidim really were there and when did this “conquest” take place? First, by introducing rich quantitative materials and by a close reading of qualitative sources, this chapter arrives at a new scheme of development of Hasidism that challenges much of the accepted knowledge on the Hasidic “conquest” of Eastern Europe. More specifically, it demonstrates that Hasidic penetration into Jewish Eastern Europe reached its peak in the mid- and late-nineteenth century, and not around 1800, as historiography traditionally has claimed. Second, it qualifies the very concept of the Hasidic “conquest” and “dominance” by demonstrating a much more nuanced interrelation between the numbers of Hasidim and their power and influence.

This book reconstructs the first two decades of the feminist magazine Time and Tide, founded in 1920 by Lady Margaret Rhondda and other women who had been involved in the women’s suffrage movement. Unique in establishing itself as the only female-run general-audience intellectual weekly in what press historians describe as the ‘golden age’ of the weekly review, Time and Tide both challenged persistent prejudices against women’s participation in public life and played an instrumental role in redefining women’s gender roles and identities in the interwar period. Drawing on extensive new archival research the book recovers the contributions to this magazine of both well- and lesser-known British women writers, editors, critics and journalists and explores a cultural dialogue about literature, politics and the arts that took place beyond the parameters of modernist ‘little magazines’. Offering insights into the history and workings of this periodical that no one has dealt with to date, the book makes a major contribution to the history of women’s writing and feminism in Britain between the two world wars. The book is organised chronologically in three parts, tracing Time and Tide’s evolution from its ‘Early Years’ as an overtly feminist magazine (1920-28), to its ‘Expansion’ and rebranding in the late 1920s as a more general-audience weekly review (1928-35), and, finally, to its ‘Reorientation’ in the mid-1930s in response to a world in crisis (1935-39).

This book is a ground-breaking study of the phenomenon of migration in and to England over the medieval millennium, between c. AD 500 and c. AD 1500. It reaches across traditional scholarly divides, both disciplinary and chronological, to investigate, for the first time, the different types of data and scholarly methods that reveal evidence of migration and mobility within the medieval kingdom of England. England offers the opportunity for studying migration and migrants over the longue durée, because it has been a recognisable political unit for over a millennium and because a wealth of source material has survived from these centuries. The data vary unevenly in quality and quantity across this period, but become considerably more powerful through multi-disciplinary approaches to data collection and interpretation. Fifteen subject specialists synthesise and extend recent research in a wide range of disciplines, including archaeology, art history, genetics, historical linguistics, history, literature and onomastics. They evaluate the capacity of different genres of evidence for addressing questions around migration and its effects on the identities of groups and individuals within medieval England, as well as methodological parameters and future research potential. The book therefore marks an important contribution to medieval studies, and to modern debates on migration and the free movement of people, arguing that migration in the modern world, and its reverberations, cannot be completely understood without taking a broad historical perspective on the topic.

This book deals with the field of Electroencephalography in the widest possible sense, from the cellular foundations of the electric activities of the brain to a vast number of clinical applications. The basic science sections were up-dated to include advanced computer modeling approaches. The chapters on normal and pathological EEG findings in premature infants, newborns and children were thoroughly revised to keep up with the advances that have taken place recently in studying brain developmental issues. Major advances have taken place in neurophysiological findings in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders, which led to thoroughly revised chapters. Other rapidly changing subjects related to EEG recording/monitoring in ICU's, EMUs, and operating rooms, in patients with epilepsy, head injuries, infectious disorders and those undergoing surgical procedures, led to radically updating a number of chapters and to the addition of a chapter dedicated to invasive recordings for the treatment of patients with movement disorders. A previously missing chapter on the neurophysiology of myoclonus was added. Chapters that deal with automated EEG interpretation techniques and with standardizing EEG reporting using ILAE/IFCN approved terminology, were also added. Many chapters in the on-line version of the book will have the ability to link to a database of over 150 complete EEGs that cover the scope seen in a general EEG Lab. This link will allow the reader to manipulate the EEG display parameters as if they were in their own lab, generate a report and compare it to one generated by a panel of senior EEGers.

This book explores the phenomenon of ‘suicide tourism’. Freedom of movement creates problems with policies constrained by national boundaries and, as more countries contemplate regulating assisted suicide, there is now a pressing need for a theoretical investigation of the issues that provides a thorough appraisal of the global situation. Switzerland is no longer the only country where a person can find assistance for legal suicide. A similar law has been passed in Croatia, and Dutch and Belgian laws do not prohibit assisted suicide for non-residents. Few states in the US provide for physician-assisted suicide for state residents but US citizens from elsewhere can take simple steps to overcome this restriction. As more countries legally permit assisted suicide, suicide tourism will become a larger and more complex global practice. The book sets out the parameters for future debate, first contextualizing the practice and casting light on how it is treated under international and domestic law. It then analyses the ethical ramifications, and considers where the state’s responsibility should lie in dealing with accompanying persons and in regulating contractual agreements. It also contains a sociological and cultural analysis of suicide tourism, a review of policy and media reports on the topic, and interviews with various stakeholders (including policymakers, and medical and patients’ organizations) in Switzerland, Germany, France, Italy, and the UK. The book concludes with a summary of the legal, ethical, political, and sociological dimensions of suicide tourism, offering recommendations for how professionals and policymakers might respond to this evolving phenomenon.

Belief in resurrection of the dead became one of the most adamant conceptual claims of Christianity and rabbinic Judaism. This book provides a focused analysis of the gradual emergence and diverse receptions of the discourse of resurrection within early Jewish literature, from its early emergence within portions of 1 Enoch (c.200 BCE), until its standardization as a non-negotiable eschatological belief in the Mishnah (c.CE 200). Within this historical environment, resurrection emerged as an insurgent and controversial theodicy that challenged more traditional interpretations of death. The study further demonstrates how scribal circles legitimated the controversial eschatological claim by clothing it in the raiment of earlier scriptural language, grounding it in the theology of creation, and insisting that it was essential to the affirmation of divine justice. As resurrection gained a reception in multiple movements within early Judaism, a diverse range of conceptions flourished, including a fascinating variety of assumptions about the embodied character of eschatological life, as well as how resurrection would transpire within larger cosmic-spatial parameters of the world. The hope also maintained a somewhat tensive relationship with belief in the immortality of the soul, another popular approach to the afterlife within early Judaism. Supportive chapters explore the emergence of resurrection within specific literary texts and collections, including 1 Enoch, the Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch, and select inscriptions. As the nascent church and early rabbinic Judaism developed their own approaches to resurrection, they remained both the heirs and creative reinterpreters of earlier Jewish theologies of resurrection.

The aim of the paper was to determine the influence of root systems of chosen tree species found in the Polish Flysch Carpathians on the increase of soil shear strength (root cohesion) in terms of slope stability. The paper's goal was achieved through comprehensive tests on root systems of eight relatively common in the Polish Flysch Carpathians tree species. The tests that were carried out included field work, laboratory work and analytical calculations. As part of the field work, the root area ratio (A IA) of the roots was determined using the method of profiling the walls of the trench at a distance of about 1.0 m from the tree trunk. The width of the. trenches was about 1.0 m, and their depth depended on the ground conditions and ranged from 0.6 to 1.0 m below the ground level. After preparing the walls of the trench, the profile was divided into vertical layers with a height of 0.1 m, within which root diameters were measured. Roots with diameters from 1 to 10 mm were taken into consideration in root area ratio calculations in accordance with the generally accepted methodology for this type of tests. These measurements were made in Biegnik (silver fir), Ropica Polska (silver birch, black locust) and Szymbark (silver birch, European beech, European hornbeam, silver fir, sycamore maple, Scots pine, European spruce) located near Gorlice (The Low Beskids) in areas with unplanned forest management. In case of each tested tree species the samples of roots were taken, transported to the laboratory and then saturated with water for at least one day. Before testing the samples were obtained from the water and stretched in a. tensile testing machine in order to determine their tensile strength and flexibility. In general, over 2200 root samples were tested. The results of tests on root area ratio of root systems and their tensile strength were used to determine the value of increase in shear strength of the soils, called root cohesion. To this purpose a classic Wu-Waldron calculation model was used as well as two types of bundle models, the so called static model (Fiber Bundle Model — FIRM, FBM2, FBM3) and the deformation model (Root Bundle Model— RBM1, RBM2, mRBM1) that differ in terms of the assumptions concerning the way the tensile force is distributed to the roots as well as the range of parameters taken into account during calculations. The stability analysis of 8 landslides in forest areas of Cicikowicleie and Wignickie Foothills was a form of verification of relevance of the obtained calculation results. The results of tests on root area ratio in the profile showed that, as expected, the number of roots in the soil profile and their ApIA values are very variable. It was shown that the values of the root area ratio of the tested tree species with a diameter 1-10 ram are a maximum of 0.8% close to the surface of the ground and they decrease along with the depth reaching the values at least one order of magnitude lower than close to the surface at the depth 0.5-1.0 m below the ground level. Average values of the root area ratio within the soil profile were from 0.05 to 0.13% adequately for Scots pine and European beech. The measured values of the root area ratio are relatively low in relation to the values of this parameter given in literature, which is probably connected with great cohesiveness of the soils and the fact that there were a lot of rock fragments in the soil, where the tests were carried out. Calculation results of the Gale-Grigal function indicate that a distribution of roots in the soil profile is similar for the tested species, apart from the silver fir from Bie§nik and European hornbeam. Considering the number of roots, their distribution in the soil profile and the root area ratio it appears that — considering slope stability — the root systems of European beech and black locust are the most optimal, which coincides with tests results given in literature. The results of tensile strength tests showed that the roots of the tested tree species have different tensile strength. The roots of European beech and European hornbeam had high tensile strength, whereas the roots of conifers and silver birch in deciduous trees — low. The analysis of test results also showed that the roots of the studied tree species are characterized by high variability of mechanical properties. The values Of shear strength increase are mainly related to the number and size (diameter) of the roots in the soil profile as well as their tensile strength and pullout resistance, although they can also result from the used calculation method (calculation model). The tests showed that the distribution of roots in the soil and their tensile strength are characterized by large variability, which allows the conclusion that using typical geotechnical calculations, which take into consideration the role of root systems is exposed to a high risk of overestimating their influence on the soil reinforcement. hence, while determining or assuming the increase in shear strength of soil reinforced with roots (root cohesion) for design calculations, a conservative (careful) approach that includes the most unfavourable values of this parameter should be used. Tests showed that the values of shear strength increase of the soil reinforced with roots calculated using Wu-Waldron model in extreme cases are three times higher than the values calculated using bundle models. In general, the most conservative calculation results of the shear strength increase were obtained using deformation bundle models: RBM2 (RBMw) or mRBM1. RBM2 model considers the variability of strength characteristics of soils described by Weibull survival function and in most cases gives the lowest values of the shear strength increase, which usually constitute 50% of the values of shear strength increase determined using classic Wu-Waldron model. Whereas the second model (mRBM1.) considers averaged values of roots strength parameters as well as the possibility that two main mechanism of destruction of a root bundle - rupture and pulling out - can occur at the same. time. The values of shear strength increase calculated using this model were the lowest in case of beech and hornbeam roots, which had high tensile strength. It indicates that in the surface part of the profile (down to 0.2 m below the ground level), primarily in case of deciduous trees, the main mechanism of failure of the root bundle will be pulling out. However, this model requires the knowledge of a much greater number of geometrical parameters of roots and geotechnical parameters of soil, and additionally it is very sensitive to input data. Therefore, it seems practical to use the RBM2 model to assess the influence of roots on the soil shear strength increase, and in order to obtain safe results of calculations in the surface part of the profile, the Weibull shape coefficient equal to 1.0 can be assumed. On the other hand, the Wu-Waldron model can be used for the initial assessment of the shear strength increase of soil reinforced with roots in the situation, where the deformation properties of the root system and its interaction with the soil are not considered, although the values of the shear strength increase calculated using this model should be corrected and reduced by half. Test results indicate that in terms of slope stability the root systems of beech and hornbeam have the most favourable properties - their maximum effect of soil reinforcement in the profile to the depth of 0.5 m does not usually exceed 30 kPa, and to the depth of 1 m - 20 kPa. The root systems of conifers have the least impact on the slope reinforcement, usually increasing the soil shear strength by less than 5 kPa. These values coincide to a large extent with the range of shear strength increase obtained from the direct shear test as well as results of stability analysis given in literature and carried out as part of this work. The analysis of the literature indicates that the methods of measuring tree's root systems as well as their interpretation are very different, which often limits the possibilities of comparing test results. This indicates the need to systematize this type of tests and for this purpose a root distribution model (RDM) can be used, which can be integrated with any deformation bundle model (RBM). A combination of these two calculation models allows the range of soil reinforcement around trees to be determined and this information might be used in practice, while planning bioengineering procedures in areas exposed to surface mass movements. The functionality of this solution can be increased by considering the dynamics of plant develop¬ment in the calculations. This, however, requires conducting this type of research in order to obtain more data.

The moment of liberation in Western Europe, 1943-1948, regards the final two years of World War II and the immediate post-liberation period as a moment in twentieth century history, when the shape and contours of postwar Western Europe appeared highly uncertain and various alternatives and conflicting visions were up for grabs. After close to six years of total war, Nazi terror and brutal occupation policies, a growing number of Europeans were no longer content solely to fight for national liberation from fascist control. Having staked their lives in military and civilian resistance to Nazism and Italian fascism across the continent, surviving activists were aiming to ensure that such a political and social catastrophe would never befall Europe again. In the closing moments of World War II, hundreds of thousands of antifascist activists had begun to identify with the famous quote penned by the exiled German social theorists, Max Horkheimer, who had boldly proclaimed in early September 1939: ‘Whoever is not prepared to talk about capitalism should also remain silent about fascism.’ The economic and political elites in prewar societies were increasingly regarded as co-responsible for war, fascism and occupation policies, from which many had benefited significantly and often enthusiastically. There were extensive popular social movements at work in almost every single state which aimed to construct postwar societies in which grassroots democracy and the free association of rank-and-file activists would replace the profit principle and the top-down Jacobin orientation by traditional elites. This book for the first time reconstructs the parameters of this contest over the shape of postwar Western Europe from a consistently transnational perspective.

The use of energy in buildings is a complex problem, but it can be reduced and alleviated by making appropriate decisions. Therefore, architects face a major and responsible task of designing the built environment in such a way that its energy dependence will be reduced to a minimum, while at the same time being able to provide comfortable living conditions. Today, architects have many tools at their disposal, facilitating the design process and simultaneously ensuring proper assessment in the early stages of building design. The purpose of this book is to present ongoing research from the universities involved in the project Creating the Network of Knowledge Labs for Sustainable and Resilient Environments (KLABS). This book attempts to highlight the problem of energy use in buildings and propose certain solutions. It consists of nine chapters, organised in three parts. The gathering of chapters into parts serves to identify the different themes that the designer needs to consider, namely energy resources, energy use and comfort, and energy efficiency. Part 1, entitled “Sustainable and Resilient Energy Resources,” sets off by informing the reader about the basic principles of energy sources, production, and use. The chapters give an overview of all forms of energies and energy cycle from resources to end users and evaluate the resilience of renewable energy systems. This information is essential to realise that the building, as an energy consumer, is part of a greater system and the decisions can be made at different levels. Part 2, entitled “Energy and Comfort in the Built Environment”, explain the relationship between energy use and thermal comfort in buildings and how it is predicted. Buildings consume energy to meet the users’ needs and to provide comfort. The appropriate selection of materials has a direct impact on the thermal properties of a building. Moreover, comfort is affected by parameters such as temperature, humidity, air movement, air quality, lighting, and noise. Understanding and calculating those conditions are valuable skills for the designers. After the basics of energy use in buildings have been explained, Part 3, entitled “Energy Saving Strategies” aims to provide information and tools that enable an energy- and environmentally-conscious design. This part is the most extensive as it aims to cover different design aspects. Firstly, passive and active measures that the building design needs to include are explained. Those measures are seen from the perspective of heat flow and generation. The Passive House concept, which is explained in the second chapter of Part 3, is a design approach that successfully incorporates such measures, resulting in low energy use by the building. Other considerations that the following chapters cover are solar control, embodied energy and CO2 emissions, and finally economic evaluation. The energy saving strategies explained in this book, despite not being exhaustive, provide basic knowledge that the designer can use and build upon during the design of new buildings and existing building upgrades. In the context of sustainability and resilience of the built environment, the reduction of energy demand is crucial. This book aims to provide a basic understanding of the energy flows in buildings and the subsequent impact for the building’s operation and its occupants. Most importantly, it covers the principles that need to be taken into account in energy efficient building design and demonstrates their effectiveness. Designers are shaping the built environment and it is their task to make energy-conscious and informed decisions that result in comfortable and resilient buildings.