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Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 14 березня 2023

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1

Raciti, B., Y. Gao, R. Schimassek, A. Andreazza, Z. Feng, H. Fox, Y. Han, et al. "Characterisation of HV-MAPS ATLASPix3 and its applications for future lepton colliders." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 09 (September 1, 2022): C09031. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09031.

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Анотація:

Abstract HV-MAPS are a novel type of CMOS depleted active pixel sensors for ionizing particles, implemented in standard CMOS processes, that have been proposed in several future particle physics experiments for particle tracking. In depleted monolithic sensors, the sensor element is the n-well/p-substrate diode. The sensor matrix and the readout are integrated in one single piece of silicon and the electronics is embedded in shallow wells inside deep n-wells, isolated from the substrate. High voltage biasing increases the depth of the depletion region, improving sensor properties as signal amplitude, charge collection speed and radiation tolerance. ATLASPix3 is the first full reticle size high voltage Monolithic Active Pixel CMOS sensor, designed to meet the specifications of the outer layers of the ATLAS inner tracker (ITk). Its thin design, the excellent position resolution, high readout rate and high radiation tolerance make ATLASPix3 an ideal candidate for large-area tracking detector R&D of future collider experiments such as the Circular Electron Positron Collider (CEPC) silicon tracker.

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2

Velthuis, Jaap, Yutong Li, Jordan Pritchard, Chiara De Sio, Lana Beck, and Richard Hugtenburg. "Performance of a Full-Scale Upstream MAPS-Based Verification Device for Radiotherapy." Sensors 23, no. 4 (February 6, 2023): 1799. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s23041799.

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Intensity-modulated radiotherapy is a widely used technique for accurately targeting cancerous tumours in difficult locations using dynamically shaped beams. This is ideally accompanied by real-time independent verification. Monolithic active pixel sensors are a viable candidate for providing upstream beam monitoring during treatment. We have already demonstrated that a Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS)-based system can fulfill all clinical requirements except for the minimum required size. Here, we report the performance of a large-scale demonstrator system consisting of a matrix of 2 × 2 sensors, which is large enough to cover almost all radiotherapy treatment fields when affixed to the shadow tray of the LINAC head. When building a matrix structure, a small dead area is inevitable. Here, we report that with a newly developed position algorithm, leaf positions can be reconstructed over the entire range with a position resolution of below ∼200 μm in the centre of the sensor, which worsens to just below 300 μm in the middle of the gap between two sensors. A leaf position resolution below 300 μm results in a dose error below 2%, which is good enough for clinical deployment.

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3

Ren, W., J. Baudot, L. Federici, C. Finck, C. Hu-Guo, M. Kachel, C. A. Reidel, et al. "CMOS pixel sensors optimized for large ionizing dynamic." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 09 (September 1, 2022): C09015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09015.

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Abstract Monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) are now well established as a technology for tracking charged particles, especially when low material budget is desirable. For such applications, sensors focus on spatial resolution and pixels with digital output or modest charge measurement ability are well suited. Within the European Union STRONG-2020 project, which focuses on experiments using hadrons, the TIIMM (Tracking and Ions Identifications with Minimal Material budget) joint research activity intends to expand granular MAPS capacity to energy-loss (ΔE) measurement for ion species identification. The TIIMM prototypes are developed in the Tower Jazz 180 nm CMOS image sensor (CIS) process. The Time-Over-Threshold (ToT) method is applied to the sensor for the energy-loss measurement. The main design details and the preliminary test results from laboratory measurements of the initial TIIMM prototype are presented in this work.

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4

Vančura, P., J. Gečnuk, Z. Janoška, J. Jirsa, O. Korchak, A. Kostina, V. Kafka, et al. "SpacePix2: SOI MAPS detector for space radiation monitoring." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 01 (January 1, 2023): C01002. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/01/c01002.

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Abstract The SpacePix2 monolithic active pixel sensor (MAPS) is a novel ASIC for space radiation monitoring designed in a 180 nm SOI CMOS technology. The active sensor area is 3.84 × 3.84 mm2, pixel matrix is arranged as a 64 × 64 array with 60 µm pitch. The pixel front-end amplifier signal range is 2–80 ke−, extended up to 30 Me− using a backside channel. Diodes integrated in the handle wafer in each pixel are biased at −150 V. Impinging particle generates a charge pulse converted to voltage pulse by charge sensitive amplifier (CSA). Maximum voltage memorized by the peak detector hold (PDH) circuit is digitized using on-chip 10-bit asynchronous column SAR ADCs. Two readout interfaces are available, 400 MHz LVDS and 50 MHz SPI. Total power consumption is 43 mA from a 1.8 V power supply. The ASIC has been tested in space in low Earth orbit (LEO) and sample data are shown.

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5

Brau, James E., Martin Breidenbach, Alexandre Habib, Lorenzo Rota, and Caterina Vernieri. "The SiD Digital ECal Based on Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors." Instruments 6, no. 4 (September 23, 2022): 51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/instruments6040051.

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The SiD detector concept capitalizes on high granularity in its tracker and calorimeter to achieve the momentum resolution and particle flow calorimetry physics goals in a compact design. The collaboration has had a long interest in the potential for improved granularity in both the tracker and ECal with an application of monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) and a study of MAPS in the SiD ECal was described in the ILC TDR. Work is progressing on the MAPS application in an upgraded SiD design with a prototyping design effort for a common SiD tracker/ECal design based on stitched reticules to achieve 10 × 10 cm2 sensors with 25 × 100 micron2 pixels. Application of large area MAPS in these systems would limit delicate and expensive bump-bonding, provide possibilities for better timing, and should be significantly cheaper than the TDR concept due to being a more conventional CMOS foundry process. The small pixels significantly improve shower separation. Recent simulation studies confirm previous performance projections, indicating electromagnetic energy resolution based on digital hit cluster counting provides better performance than the SiD TDR analog design based on 13 mm2 pixels. Furthermore, the two shower separation is excellent down to the millimeter scale. Geant4 simulation results demonstrate these expectations.

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6

Bui, Tuan A., Geoffrey K. Reeves, Patrick W. Leech, Anthony S. Holland, and Geoffrey Taylor. "TCAD simulation of a single Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors based on High Voltage CMOS technology." MRS Advances 3, no. 51 (2018): 3053–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1557/adv.2018.417.

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Анотація:

ABSTRACTA model of a High Voltage CMOS (HV-CMOS) Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) has been modelled using Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD). The model has incorporated both the active region and the on-pixel readout circuits which were comprised of a source follower amplifier and an integrated charge amplifier. The simulation has examined the electrical characteristics and response output of a HV-CMOS MAPS sensor using typical dimensions, levels of doping in the structural layers and bias conditions for this sensor. The performance of two alternate designs of amplifier have been examined as a function of the operating parameters. The response of the sensor to the incidence of Minimum Ionizing Particles (MIPs) at different energies has been included in the model.

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7

Yang, B., J. Duan, L. Jing, Y. Wang, F. Fu, B. Cao, and C. Zhao. "Therapeutic carbon-ion effects on monolithic active pixel sensor with 130 nm high-resistivity process." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 01 (January 1, 2022): C01059. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/01/c01059.

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Abstract A Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) is currently being designed in a new 130 nm high-resistivity (>1 kΩ·cm) CMOS process for full image beam monitoring in the carbon-ion therapeutic facility. The charge sensing node collects the charge deposited by the carbon ions that pass through the MAPS. A 3-dimensional TCAD model of the pixel has been established to study the carbon-ion induced process in the MAPS. This paper will discuss the thickness of the depletion layer, the charge collection efficiency, the charge collection time, and the characteristics of NMOS devices with different bias voltages and carbon-ion hitting locations.

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8

Neubüser, C., T. Corradino, S. Mattiazzo, and L. Pancheri. "Impact of X-ray induced radiation damage on FD-MAPS of the ARCADIA project." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 01 (January 1, 2022): C01035. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/01/c01035.

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Abstract Recent advancements in Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) demonstrated the ability to operate in high radiation environments of up to multiple kGy’s, which increased their appeal as sensors for high-energy physics detectors. The most recent example in such application is the new ALICE inner tracking system, entirely instrumented with CMOS MAPS, that covers an area of about 10 m2. However, the full potential of such devices has not yet been fully exploited, especially in respect of the size of the active area, power consumption, and timing capabilities. The ARCADIA project is developing Fully Depleted (FD) MAPS with an innovative sensor design, that uses a proprietary processing of the backside to improve the charge collection efficiency and timing over a wide range of operational and environmental conditions. The innovative sensor design targets very low power consumption, of the order of 20 mW cm−2 at 100 MHz cm−2 hit flux, to enable air-cooled operations of the sensors. Another key design parameter is the ability to further reduce the power regime of the sensor, down to 5 mW cm−2 or better, for low hit rates like e.g. expected in space experiments. In this contribution, we present a comparison between the detector characteristics predicted with Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) simulations and the ones measured experimentally. The comparison focuses on the current-voltage (IV) and capacitance-voltage (CV) characteristics, as well as noise estimated from in-pixel capacitances of passive/active pixel matrices. In view of the targeted applications of this technology, an emphasis is set on the modeling of X-ray induced radiation damage at the Si-SiO2 interface and the impact on the in-pixel sensor capacitance. The so-called new Perugia model has been used in the simulations to predict the sensor performance after total ionizing doses of up to 10 Mrad.

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9

Yelkenci, A., S. Qui, M. J. Rossewij, A. Grelli, D. Gajanana, and V. Gromov. "Bandgap reference, temperature sensor and low drop-out regulator circuits monolithic sensors in TPSCo 65 nm ISC technology." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 02 (February 1, 2023): C02017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/02/c02017.

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Abstract With Inner Tracking System v3 (ITS3), the ALICE experiment is pursuing a wafer-scale Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS). The chip is being developed in TPSCo 65 nm ISC technology which is under study in the framework of CERN EP R&D on monolithic sensors for High Energy Physics (HEP) applications. This contribution presents designs and measurement results of building blocks needed for this chip, in particular bandgap references and temperature sensors. In addition, simulation results of the design of Low Drop-out Regulator (LDO) to be submitted for the next prototyping run will be discussed.

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10

Han, Yongchao, Shoulong Xu, and Youjun Huang. "Real-Time Monitoring Method for Radioactive Substances Using Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS)." Sensors 22, no. 10 (May 22, 2022): 3919. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22103919.

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This study presents a real-time monitoring technique for radioactive substances that meets safety management needs. We studied the accumulation characteristics of radiation response signals of monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPSs) based on their response and discrimination ability to gamma (γ) photon or neutron radiation. The radiation status of the radioactive substances was determined by monitoring the accumulation data of radiation responses. As per the results, Am-Be and 252Cf radiation response signals are primarily concentrated in the range of 0–70 pixels. Response signals of 60Co and 137Cs γ-ray were concentrated in two regions; there was a peak in the region with a pixel value of less than 50, and a plateau in the region with a pixel value of more than 75. Therefore, the results are able to discriminate between spectra. Furthermore, we designed a radioactivity monitoring system that is able to examine multiple radioactive materials. Its working principle is that a change in the accumulation of radioactivity monitoring data indicates a radiation change during the last accumulation cycle. This study provides vital technical support for the long-term supervision of radioactive substances.

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11

Turchetta, R. "CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) for future vertex detectors." Journal of Instrumentation 1, no. 08 (August 22, 2006): P08004. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/1/08/p08004.

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12

Turchetta, R., M. French, S. Manolopoulos, M. Tyndel, P. Allport, R. Bates, V. O’Shea, G. Hall, and M. Raymond. "Monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) in a VLSI CMOS technology." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 501, no. 1 (March 2003): 251–59. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(02)02043-0.

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13

Turchetta, R., A. Fant, P. Gasiorek, C. Esbrand, J. A. Griffiths, M. G. Metaxas, G. J. Royle, et al. "CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS): Developments and future outlook." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 582, no. 3 (December 2007): 866–70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.07.112.

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14

Turchetta, R., P. P. Allport, G. Casse, A. Clark, J. Crooks, A. Evans, A. Fant, et al. "CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS): New ‘eyes’ for science." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 560, no. 1 (May 2006): 139–42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2005.11.241.

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15

Kröger, Jens. "Performance Studies of the ATLASpix HV-MAPS Prototype for Different Substrate Resistivities." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2374, no. 1 (November 1, 2022): 012176. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2374/1/012176.

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The ATLASpix high-voltage monolithic active pixel sensor (HV-MAPS) was designed as a technology demonstrator for the ATLAS ITk Upgrade and the CLIC tracking detector. In this contribution new results from laboratory-based energy calibration measurements using fluorescence X-rays are presented for the ATLASpix_Simple matrix. These findings are complemented by new results from test-beam studies with inclined tracks, in which the active charge collection depth is determined.

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16

Neubüser, C., T. Corradino, G. F. Dalla Betta, S. Mattiazzo, and L. Pancheri. "First characterization results of ARCADIA FD-MAPS after X-ray irradiation." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 01 (January 1, 2023): C01066. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/01/c01066.

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Abstract The ARCADIA collaboration is developing fully-depleted (FD) Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) in a 110 nm CMOS process in collaboration with LFoundry. The sensor design incorporates an n+ collection node within a n-type epi-layer on top of a high-resistivity n-type substrate and p+ backside. Thus, the pn-junction sits on the backside and through an applied backside bias, the full substrate gets depleted. The targeted applications of this technology range from future high energy physics experiments to space applications, and medical and industrial scanners. Together, these applications set the minimum requirements on the detector: data collection at hit rates of (10–100) MHz/cm2, full signal processing within (1–10) μs, maximum power consumption (5–20) mW/cm2 and radiation tolerances of up to 3.4 Mrad or 6.2 × 1012 1 MeV neutron equivalent fluence. In order to proof the performance of the technology, a demonstrator chip of 512 × 512 pixels with 25 μm pitch was designed and fabricated in a first engineering run in 2021, together with additional test structures of pixel and strip arrays with different pitches and sensor geometries. The production run has produced functional passive and active pixel matrices. Earlier studies have shown that positive oxide charges and traps at the Si-SiO2 interface, introduced by ionising radiation, affect the depletion region around the collection electrode, increasing the pixel capacitance. By varying the gap size between collection node and pwells, the geometry can be optimised to keep the capacitance low also after irradiation. To study the performance after irradiation, of the optimised diode designs, the passive pixel matrices were irradiated with doses up to 10 Mrad (SiO2) using a X-ray tube with a Tungsten anode. The measurements are complemented by TCAD simulations. The maximum capacitance increase after irradiation was found to reach 6 and 12 fF/pixel for pixel pitches of 25 and 50 μm, respectively. The relative capacitance increase after irradiation has hereby been found to reach up to 250% after a dose of 10 Mrad.

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17

Allport, Philip Patrick, Seddik Benhammadi, Robert Ross Bosley, Jens Dopke, Lucian Fasselt, Samuel Flynn, Laura Gonella, et al. "DECAL: A Reconfigurable Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor for Tracking and Calorimetry in a 180 nm Image Sensor Process." Sensors 22, no. 18 (September 10, 2022): 6848. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22186848.

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In this paper, we describe DECAL, a prototype Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) device designed to demonstrate the feasibility of both digital calorimetry and reconfigurability in ASICs for particle physics. The goal of this architecture is to help reduce the development and manufacturing costs of detectors for future colliders by developing a chip that can operate both as a digital silicon calorimeter and a tracking chip. The prototype sensor consists of a matrix of 64 × 64 55 μm pixels, and provides a readout at 40 MHz of the number of particles which have struck the matrix in the preceding 25 ns. It can be configured to report this as a total sum across the sensor (equivalent to the pad of an analogue calorimeter) or the sum per column (equivalent to a traditional strip detector). The design and operation of the sensor are described, and the results of chip characterisation are reported and compared to simulations.

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18

Li, Xuan, Zhehui Wang, Pinghan Chu, Cesar da Silva, Melynda Brooks, Christopher M. O’Shaughnessy, Chris Morris, et al. "Feasibility of hard X-ray imaging using monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS)." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 954 (February 2020): 161243. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2018.09.078.

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19

Villania, Enrico Giulio, R. Turchetta, and M. Tyndel. "Analysis and simulation of charge collection in monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS)." Nuclear Physics B - Proceedings Supplements 125 (September 2003): 184–88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0920-5632(03)90988-1.

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20

de Acedo, L. Flores Sanz, P. Allport, I. Asensi Tortajada, D. Bortoletto, C. Buttar, R. Cardella, F. Dachs, et al. "Latest developments and characterisation results of DMAPS in TowerJazz 180nm for High Luminosity LHC." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2374, no. 1 (November 1, 2022): 012169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2374/1/012169.

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The last couple of years have seen the development of Depleted Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (DMAPS) fabricated in TowerJazz 180nm with a process modification to increase the radiation tolerance. While many of MAPS developments focus on low radiation environment, we have taken the development to high radiation environment like pp-experiments at High Luminosity LHC. DMAPS are a cost effective and lightweight alternative to state-of-the-art hybrid detectors if they can fulfil the given requirements for radiation hardness, signal response time and hit rate capability. The MALTA and Mini-MALTA sensors have shown excellent detection efficiency after irradiation to the life time dose expected at the outer layers of the ATLAS pixel tracker Upgrade. Our development focuses on providing large pixel matrixes with excellent time resolution (<2ns) and tracking. This publication will discuss characterisation results of the DMAPS devices with special focus on the new MALTA2 sensor and will show the path of future developments

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21

Corradino, T., G. F. Dalla Betta, C. Neubüser, and L. Pancheri. "ARCADIA MAPS process qualification through the electrical characterization of passive pixel arrays." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 02 (February 1, 2023): C02045. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/02/c02045.

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Анотація:

Abstract The development of novel Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) technologies has been pursued by several collaborations in the last two decades. The ARCADIA project aims to design fully depleted MAPS for medical, space, HEP and X-ray detection applications, that can be produced with a commercial 110 nm CMOS production process. Among the test structures of the first two engineering runs of the project, passive pixel arrays with different pitches and layouts were included. The main characteristics of the produced devices in terms of dark current, depletion voltage, punch through current and pixel capacitance have been evaluated from IV and CV characteristics of the pixel arrays. Groups of four samples have been extracted from as many different positions within each wafer and electrically characterized to obtain information on the variability in the pixel operating voltage range and in the pixel dark current, reflecting variations related to the employed production process. The experimental data demonstrated a good uniformity in the considered parameters for different sample positions within the produced wafers, as well as for samples extracted from different wafers with the same substrate type.

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22

Chakir, Mostafa, Hicham Akhamal, and Hassan Qjidaa. "A Design of a New Column-Parallel Analog-to-Digital Converter Flash for Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor." Scientific World Journal 2017 (2017): 1–15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2017/8418042.

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Анотація:

The CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) for the International Linear Collider (ILC) vertex detector (VXD) expresses stringent requirements on their analog readout electronics, specifically on the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). This paper concerns designing and optimizing a new architecture of a low power, high speed, and small-area 4-bit column-parallel ADC Flash. Later in this study, we propose to interpose an S/H block in the converter. This integration of S/H block increases the sensitiveness of the converter to the very small amplitude of the input signal from the sensor and provides a sufficient time to the converter to be able to code the input signal. This ADC is developed in 0.18 μm CMOS process with a pixel pitch of 35 μm. The proposed ADC responds to the constraints of power dissipation, size, and speed for the MAPS composed of a matrix of 64 rows and 48 columns where each column ADC covers a small area of 35 × 336.76 μm2. The proposed ADC consumes low power at a 1.8 V supply and 100 MS/s sampling rate with dynamic range of 125 mV. Its DNL and INL are 0.0812/−0.0787 LSB and 0.0811/−0.0787 LSB, respectively. Furthermore, this ADC achieves a high speed more than 5 GHz.

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23

Blidaru, B. M. "Testbeam performance results of bent ALPIDE monolithic active pixel sensors in view of the ALICE Inner Tracking System 3." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 09 (September 1, 2022): C09006. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/09/c09006.

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Abstract The ALICE Inner Tracking System has been recently upgraded to a full silicon detector consisting entirely of monolithic active pixel sensors, arranged in seven concentric layers around the LHC beam pipe. Further ahead, during the LHC Long Shutdown 3, the ALICE collaboration is planning to replace the three innermost layers of this new ITS with a novel vertex detector. The proposed design features wafer-scale, ultra-thin, truly cylindrical MAPS. The new sensors will be thinned down to 20–40 µm, featuring a material budget of less than 0.05% x/X 0 per layer, unprecedented low, and will be arranged concentrically around the beam pipe, as close as 18 mm from the interaction point. Anticipating the first prototypes in the new 65 nm CMOS technology node, an active R&D programme is underway to test the response to bending of existing 50 µm thick ALPIDE sensors. A number of such chips were successfully bent, even below the targeted innermost radius, without signs of mechanical damage, while retaining their full electrical functionality in laboratory tests. The curved detectors were subsequently tested during particle beam campaigns, where their particle detection performance was assessed. In this contribution, testbeam highlights from the data analysis of bent ALPIDE sensors, will be presented. It was proved that the current ALPIDE produced in the 180 nm CMOS technology retains its properties after bending. The results show an inefficiency that is generally below 10−4, independent of the inclination and position of the impinging beam with respect to the sensor surface. This encouraging outcome proves that the use of curved MAPS is an exciting possibility for future silicon detector designs, as not only the sensor can survive the bending exercise mechanically, but the enticing attributes that make it attractive for use in the inner tracking layers are comparable to the flat state.

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24

Ratsuntia, N., A. Songmunnak, N. Ritjoho, T. Sanghangthum, and C. Kobdaj. "Study of imaging system in proton computed tomography with data acquisition from a monolithic active pixel sensor." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2431, no. 1 (January 1, 2023): 012093. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2431/1/012093.

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Abstract The first proton therapy system in Thailand has been installed at King Chulalongkorn Memorial Hospital (KCMH) since 2019. Apart from its clinical usage, Suranaree University of Technology (SUT) has initiated the collaborative research work with KCMH to explore a possibility of developing a proton computed tomography (pCT) prototype. Due to the proton’s depth-dose properties, this technique is more effective than photon treatment. Prior to proton therapy, pCT could help with the treatment planning. This technique simplifies proton treatment calculations since both processes involve the same particle interaction with matter. We simulated the experiment setup using G4beamline with the proton beam using a monolithic active pixel sensor (MAPS) as a proton tracker. The sensor’s output revealed that the ratio of data from protons interacting on the sensor was low, so we pre-processed the data with MATLAB by applying a mean filter to replace any empty pixels with the average of their nearby pixels. A 3D reconstruction was performed by stacking all the axial images reconstructed by the back projection method. The result shows that the material densities of reconstructed samples can be identified, however, it is still in the preliminary stage and not yet suitable for clinical trials. It is, however, possible to improve the quality of images and obtain a better 3D reconstruction for the pCT prototype by using a back-projection method.

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25

Raskina, Valentina, and Filip Křížek. "Characterization of Highly Irradiated ALPIDE Silicon Sensors." Universe 5, no. 4 (April 14, 2019): 91. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/universe5040091.

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The ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment) experiment at CERN will upgrade its Inner Tracking System (ITS) detector. The new ITS will consist of seven coaxial cylindrical layers of ALPIDE silicon sensors which are based on Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) technology. We have studied the radiation hardness of ALPIDE sensors using a 30 MeV proton beam provided by the cyclotron U-120M of the Nuclear Physics Institute of the Czech Academy of Sciences in Řež. In this paper, these long-term measurements will be described. After being irradiated up to the total ionization dose 2.7 Mrad and non-ionizing energy loss 2.7 × 10 13 1 MeV n eq · cm - 2 , ALPIDE sensors fulfill ITS upgrade project technical design requirements in terms of detection efficiency and fake-hit rate.

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26

Xu, Shoulong, Jaap Velthuis, Qifan Wu, Yongchao Han, Kuicheng Lin, Lana Beck, Shuliang Zou, Yantao Qu та Zengyan Li. "Effect of Commercial Off-The-Shelf MAPS on γ-Ray Ionizing Radiation Response to Different Integration Times and Gains". Sensors 19, № 22 (13 листопада 2019): 4950. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s19224950.

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We report the γ-ray ionizing radiation response of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) monolithic active-pixel sensors (MAPS) with different integration times and gains. The distribution of the eight-bit two-dimensional matrix of MAPS output frame images was studied for different parameter settings and dose rates. We present the first results of the effects of these parameters on the response of the sensor and establish a linear relationship between the average response signal and radiation dose rate in the high-dose rate range. The results show that the distribution curves can be separated into three ranges. The first range is from 0 to 24, which generates the first significant low signal peak. The second range is from 25 to 250, which shows a smooth gradient change with different integration times, gains, and dose rates. The third range is from 251 to 255, where a final peak appears, which has a relationship with integral time, gain, and dose rate. The mean pixel value shows a linear dependence on the radiation dose rate, albeit with different calibration constants depending on the integration time and gain. Hence, MAPS can be used as a radiation monitoring device with good precision.

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27

Cao, B., Y. Wang, Y. Wen, Y. Tian, J. Liao, W. Lu, H. Wang, et al. "Design of a 9-bit column-parallel ADC in the MAPS for real-time beam monitoring." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 01 (January 1, 2022): C01021. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/01/c01021.

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Abstract This paper describes a 2 Msps 9-bit column-parallel ADC for monolithic active pixel sensor. It is designed in fully differential cyclic architecture and takes eight clock cycles to perform a 9-bit conversion. This ADC is fabricated in a 130 nm CMOS process. Each ADC covers a small area of 100 µm × 300 µm and consumes ∼5 mW. The measurement results show that this ADC has a signal-to-noise and distortion ratio (SNDR) of 46.8 dB. The DNL (Differential Nonlinearity) and (Integral Nonlinearity) INL are 0.168 LSB and 0.112 LSB, respectively. The effective number of bits (ENOB) is 7.48 bits.

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28

Deveaux, M., S. Amar, A. Besson, J. Baudot, G. Claus, C. Colledani, G. Deptuch, et al. "Charge collection properties of Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) irradiated with non-ionising radiation." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 583, no. 1 (December 2007): 134–38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.08.189.

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29

Turchetta, R. "CMOS monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) for scientific applications: Some notes about radiation hardness." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 583, no. 1 (December 2007): 131–33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.08.226.

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30

Mager, Magnus. "The novel, truly cylindrical, ultra-thin silicon detector for the ALICE Inner Tracker System." Journal of Physics: Conference Series 2374, no. 1 (November 1, 2022): 012060. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/2374/1/012060.

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The ALICE collaboration is planning to replace its innermost tracking layers during the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) Long Shutdown 3 with a novel detector that will be as close as 18 mm to the interaction point and as thin as <0.05%X 0 per layer. To achieve these numbers, a wafer-scale Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (MAPS) in 65 nm technology is being developed. This sensor, fabricated on 300 mm wafers, will reach dimensions of up to 280 mm by 94 mm. Sensors are subsequently thinned down to values between 20 μm to 40 μm, where they become flexible and are bent into truly cylindrical half-barrels. Following the publication of a Letter of Intent by ALICE and the endorsement by the Large Hadron Collider Committee (LHCC) end of 2019, a very active research and development programme on bent silicon detectors has started. This contribution reviews the detector concept, the physics motivations, and lays out the R&D path. Mechanical integration tests with ultra-thin silicon wafers as well as electrical test of bent MAPS, including beam test results, will be shown and demonstrate the feasibility of this new class of tracking detectors.

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31

Hammerich, J. "Towards MightyPix, an HV-MAPS for the LHCb Mighty Tracker upgrade." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 10 (October 1, 2022): C10005. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/10/c10005.

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Abstract The Mighty Tracker is a proposed upgrade to the downstream tracking system of LHCb for operations at luminosities of up to 1.5 × 1034 cm−2 s−1 starting with the LHC Run 5 data taking period. It foresees the replacement of the most central area of the current scintillating fibre tracker with High Voltage CMOS (HV-CMOS) pixel sensors. Due to the increased luminosity, occupancy will be too high for track reconstruction in the fibre tracker and the fibres would no longer withstand the radiation damage. HV-CMOS sensors have demonstrated a significant radiation tolerance and good performance making them an ideal choice of technology for the LHCb experiment. Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) fabricated in HV-CMOS processes provide fast charge collection via drift and allow the implementation of the readout on the same die as the sensitive volume. Due to the use of commercial processes, these sensors can be fabricated at low cost as no hybridisation with bump bonds is required. Since they are not fully depleted, the inactive volume can be reduced by thinning to achieve a total die thickness of 50 to 100 microns. A dedicated sensor called the MightyPix is developed for this programme. It is based on the HV-MAPS families MuPix and ATLASPix and tailored to the requirements of LHCb. To demonstrate the feasibility of this technology for the LHCb environment, prototypes have been irradiated. These sensors are tested in terms of efficiency, time resolution and power dissipation in temperature controlled environments.

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32

Mulliri, A., M. Arba, P. Bhattacharya, E. Casula, C. Cicalò, A. De Falco, M. Mager, et al. "Pixel chamber: a solid-state active-target for 3D imaging of charm and beauty." Journal of Instrumentation 16, no. 12 (December 1, 2021): C12029. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/16/12/c12029.

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Abstract The aim of the pixel chamber project is to develop the first “solid-state bubble chamber” for high precision measurement of charm and beauty. In this paper we will describe the idea for the first silicon active target conceived as an ultra-high granular stack of hundreds of very thin monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS), which provides continuous, high-resolution 3D tracking of all of the particles produced in proton-silicon interactions occurring inside the detector volume, including open charm and beauty. We will also discuss the high-precision tracking and vertexing performances, showing that the vertex resolution can be up to one order of magnitude better than state-of-the-art detectors like the LHCb one.

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33

Vigani, L., and T. Rudzki. "The Mu3e detector." Journal of Instrumentation 17, no. 05 (May 1, 2022): C05024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/17/05/c05024.

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Abstract The Mu3e experiment searches for the lepton flavour violating decay μ → eee with an ultimate sensitivity of 1 event in 1016 decays. This goal can only be achieved by reducing the material budget per tracking layer to X/X 0 ≈ 0.1%. For this purpose, the tracking detector is based on High Voltage Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (HV-MAPS) thinned to 50 µm. The powering and data transmission is performed by means of polyimide-aluminum HDIs, which serve as mechanical support as well. The detector concept is presented, focusing on the technical aspects of the pixel tracker and the associated challenges.

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34

Ballin, Jamie, Jamie Crooks, Paul Dauncey, Anne-Marie Magnan, Yoshiari Mikami, Owen Miller, Matthew Noy, et al. "Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) in a Quadruple Well Technology for Nearly 100% Fill Factor and Full CMOS Pixels." Sensors 8, no. 9 (September 2, 2008): 5336–51. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s8095336.

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35

Qin, Zhiwei, Shoulong Xu, Hanfeng Dong, and Yongchao Han. "Research on Calculation Method of Radiation Response Eigenvalue of a Single-Chip Active Pixel Sensor." Sensors 22, no. 13 (June 25, 2022): 4815. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22134815.

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In this paper, we present a calculation method for the radiation response eigenvalue based on a monolithic active pixel sensor. By comparing the statistical eigenvalues of different regions of a pixel array in bright and dark environments, the linear relationship between the statistical eigenvalues obtained by different algorithms and the radiation dose rate was studied. Additionally, a dose rate characterization method based on the analysis of the eigenvalues of the MAPS response signal was proposed. The experimental results show that in the dark background environment, the eigenvalues had a good linear response in the region of any gray value in the range of 10–30. In the color images, due to the difference in the background gray values in adjacent color regions, the radiation response signal in dark regions was confused with the image information in bright regions, resulting in the loss of response signal and affecting the analysis results of the radiation response signal. For the low dose rate radiation field, as the radiation response signal was too weak and there was background dark noise, it was necessary to accumulate frame images to obtain a sufficient response signal. For the intense radiation field, the number of response events in a single image was very high, and only two consecutive frames of image data needed to be accumulated to meet the statistical requirements. The binarization method had a good characterization effect for the radiation at a low dose rate, and the binarization processing and the total gray value statistics of the response data at a high dose rate could better characterize the radiation dose rate. The calibration experiment results show that the binarization processing method can meet the requirements of using a MAPS for wide-range detection.

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36

Allport, P. P., R. Bates, G. Casse, J. Crooks, A. Evans, L. Jones, V. O’Shea, et al. "R&D on monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS): Towards large-area CMOS sensors for particle physics." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 573, no. 1-2 (April 2007): 16–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2006.10.387.

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37

Corradino, Thomas, Gian-Franco Dalla Betta, Lorenzo De Cilladi, Coralie Neubüser, and Lucio Pancheri. "Design and Characterization of Backside Termination Structures for Thick Fully-Depleted MAPS." Sensors 21, no. 11 (May 31, 2021): 3809. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21113809.

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Fully Depleted Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (FD-MAPS) represent an appealing alternative to hybrid detectors for radiation imaging applications. We have recently demonstrated the feasibility of FD-MAPS based on a commercial 110 nm CMOS technology, adapted using high-resistivity substrates and backside post-processing. A p/n junction diode, fabricated on the detector backside using low-temperature processing steps after the completion of the front-side Back End of Line (BEOL), is reverse-biased to achieve the full depletion of the substrate and thus fast charge collection by drift. Test diodes including termination structures with different numbers of floating guard rings and different pitches were fabricated together with other Process Control Monitor structures. In this paper, we present the design of the backside diodes, together with results from the electrical characterization of the test devices, aiming to improve understanding of the strengths and limitations of the proposed approach. Characterization results obtained on several wafers demonstrate the effectiveness of the termination rings in increasing the breakdown voltage of the backside diodes and in coping with the variability of the passivation layer characteristics. A breakdown voltage exceeding 400 V in the worst case was demonstrated in devices with 30 guard rings with 6 μm pitch, thus enabling the full depletion of high-resistivity substrates with a thickness larger than or equal to 300 μm. Additionally, we show the first direct comparison for this technology of measured pixel characteristics with 3D TCAD simulations, proving a good agreement in the extracted operating voltages.

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38

Han, Yongchao, Shoulong Xu, Yang Liu, Ling Xu, Dawei Gong, Zhiwei Qin, Hanfeng Dong, and Huaiqing Yang. "Strong Radiation Field Online Detection and Monitoring System with Camera." Sensors 22, no. 6 (March 16, 2022): 2279. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s22062279.

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Herein, we report the γ-ray ionizing radiation response of a commercial monolithic active-pixel sensor (MAPS) camera under strong-dose-rate irradiation with an online detection and monitoring system for strong radiation conditions. We present the first results of the distribution of three types of MAPS camera and establish a linear relationship between the average response signal and radiation dose rate in the strong-dose-rate range. There is an obvious response signal in the video frames when the camera module parameters are set to automatic, but the linear response is very poor. However, the fixed image parameters are not good at adapting to the changes of the environment and affect the quality of the video frames. A dual module online radiation detection and monitoring probe was made to carry out effective video monitoring and radiation detection at the same time. The measurement results show that the dose rate detection error is less than 5% with a dose rate in the range of 60 to 425 Gy/h, and the visible light image does not have obvious distortion, deformation, or color shift due to the interference of the radiation response event and radiation damage. Hence, the system test results show that it can be used for online detection and monitoring in a strong radiation environment.

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39

Faruqi, A. R., and G. McMullan. "Electronic detectors for electron microscopy." Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics 44, no. 3 (April 28, 2011): 357–90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0033583511000035.

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AbstractElectron microscopy (EM) is an important tool for high-resolution structure determination in applications ranging from condensed matter to biology. Electronic detectors are now used in most applications in EM as they offer convenience and immediate feedback that is not possible with film or image plates. The earliest forms of electronic detector used routinely in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were charge coupled devices (CCDs) and for many applications these remain perfectly adequate. There are however applications, such as the study of radiation-sensitive biological samples, where film is still used and improved detectors would be of great value. The emphasis in this review is therefore on detectors for use in such applications. Two of the most promising candidates for improved detection are: monolithic active pixel sensors (MAPS) and hybrid pixel detectors (of which Medipix2 was chosen for this study). From the studies described in this review, a back-thinned MAPS detector appears well suited to replace film in for the study of radiation-sensitive samples at 300 keV, while Medipix2 is suited to use at lower energies and especially in situations with very low count rates.The performance of a detector depends on the energy of electrons to be recorded, which in turn is dependent on the application it is being used for; results are described for a wide range of electron energies ranging from 40 to 300 keV. The basic properties of detectors are discussed in terms of their modulation transfer function (MTF) and detective quantum efficiency (DQE) as a function of spatial frequency.

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40

Claus, G., C. Colledani, W. Dulinski, D. Husson, R. Turchetta, J. L. Riester, G. Deptuch, G. Orazi, and M. Winter. "Particle tracking using CMOS monolithic active pixel sensor." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 465, no. 1 (June 2001): 120–24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0168-9002(01)00368-0.

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41

Velthuis, J. J., R. Kohrs, M. Mathes, A. Raspereza, L. Reuen, L. Andricek, M. Koch, et al. "DEPFET, a monolithic active pixel sensor for the ILC." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 579, no. 2 (September 2007): 685–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2007.05.278.

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42

Deng, W., G. Aglieri Rinella, M. Aresti, J. Baudot, F. Benotto, S. Beole, W. Bialas, et al. "Design of an analog monolithic pixel sensor prototype in TPSCo 65 nm CMOS imaging technology." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 01 (January 1, 2023): C01065. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/01/c01065.

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Abstract A series of monolithic active pixel sensor prototypes (APTS chips) were manufactured in the TPSCo 65 nm CMOS imaging process in the framework of the CERN-EP R&D on monolithic sensors and the ALICE ITS3 upgrade project. Each APTS chip contains a 4 × 4 pixel matrix with fast analog outputs buffered to individual pads. To explore the process and sensor characteristics, various pixel pitches (10 µm–25 µm), geometries and reverse biasing schemes were included. Prototypes are fully functional with detailed sensor characterization ongoing. The design will be presented with some experimental results also correlating to some transistor measurements.

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43

Freeman, P. M. "MALTA: a Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor for tracking in ATLAS." Journal of Instrumentation 15, no. 03 (March 11, 2020): C03019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/15/03/c03019.

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44

Obermann, T., M. Havranek, T. Hemperek, F. Hügging, T. Kishishita, H. Krüger, C. Marinas, and N. Wermes. "Characterization of a Depleted Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor (DMAPS) prototype." Journal of Instrumentation 10, no. 03 (March 27, 2015): C03049. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/10/03/c03049.

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45

Fernandez-Perez, S., M. Backhaus, H. Pernegger, T. Hemperek, T. Kishishita, H. Krüger, and N. Wermes. "Radiation hardness of a 180nm SOI monolithic active pixel sensor." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 796 (October 2015): 13–18. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2015.02.066.

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46

Cecconi, L., F. Piro, J. L. A. de Melo, W. Deng, G. H. Hong, W. Snoeys, M. Mager, et al. "Design and readout architecture of a monolithic binary active pixel sensor in TPSCo 65 nm CMOS imaging technology." Journal of Instrumentation 18, no. 02 (February 1, 2023): C02025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/18/02/c02025.

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Abstract The Digital Pixel Test Structure (DPTS) is a monolithic active pixel sensor prototype chip designed to explore the TPSCo 65 nm ISC process in the framework of the CERN-EP R&D on monolithic sensors and the ALICE ITS3 upgrade. It features a 32 × 32 binary pixel matrix at 15 μm pitch with event-driven readout, with GHz range time-encoded digital signals including Time-Over-Threshold. The chip proved fully functional and efficient in testbeam allowing early verification of the complete sensor to readout chain. This paper focuses on the design, in particular the digital readout and its perspectives with some supporting results.

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47

Havránek, M., T. Hemperek, H. Krüger, Y. Fu, L. Germic, T. Kishishita, C. Marinas, T. Obermann, and N. Wermes. "DMAPS: a fully depleted monolithic active pixel sensor—analog performance characterization." Journal of Instrumentation 10, no. 02 (February 27, 2015): P02013. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/10/02/p02013.

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48

Šuljić, M. "ALPIDE: the Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor for the ALICE ITS upgrade." Journal of Instrumentation 11, no. 11 (November 21, 2016): C11025. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/1748-0221/11/11/c11025.

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49

Yang, Ping, Weiping Ren, Xiangming Sun, Guangming Huang, Le Xiao, Chaosong Gao, Xing Huang, et al. "A Monolithic Active Pixel Sensor prototype for the CEPC vertex detector." Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment 924 (April 2019): 82–86. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nima.2018.10.006.

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50

Niemiec, H., A. Bulgheroni, M. Caccia, P. Grabiec, M. Grodner, M. Jastrzab, W. Kucewicz, et al. "Monolithic active pixel sensor realized in SOI technology—concept and verification." Microelectronics Reliability 45, no. 7-8 (July 2005): 1202–7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.microrel.2004.10.014.

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