Книги з теми "Method of equivalent charges"

This chapter discusses the law on the free movement of goods in the EU. Free movement of goods is one of the four ‘freedoms’ of the internal market. Obstacles to free movement comprise tariff barriers to trade (customs duties and charges having equivalent effect), non-tariff barriers to trade (quantitative restrictions and measures having equivalent effect), and discriminatory national taxation. The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) prohibits all kinds of restrictions on trade between Member States. Article 30 (ex Article 25 EC) prohibits customs duties and charges having equivalent effect; Article 34 (ex Article 28 EC) prohibits quantitative restrictions and all measures having equivalent effect; and Article 110 (ex Article 90 EC) prohibits discriminatory national taxation.

All books in this flagship series contain carefully selected substantial extracts from key cases, legislation, and academic debate, providing able students with a stand-alone resource. This chapter deals with Member State action that creates barriers to trade. The most obvious form of protectionism occurs through customs duties or charges that have an equivalent effect, with the object of rendering foreign goods more expensive than their domestic counterparts. This is addressed by Articles 28-30 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU). A state may also attempt to benefit domestic goods by taxes that discriminate against imports, which is covered by Articles 110-113 TFEU. These issues are considered within the chapter.

This chapter explains the method initiated by Bloch and Srinivas, which leads to statements of the following: if a smooth projective variety has trivial Chow groups of k-cycles homologous to 0 for k ≤ c − 1, then its transcendental cohomology has geometric coniveau ≤ c. This result is a vast generalization of Mumford's theorem. A major open problem is the converse of this result. It turns out that statements of this kind are a consequence of a general spreading principle for rational equivalence. Consider a smooth projective family X → B and a cycle Z → B, everything defined over C; then, if at the very general point b ∈ B, the restricted cycle Z𝒳b ⊂ X𝒳b is rationally equivalent to 0, there exist a dense Zariski open set U ⊂ B and an integer N such that NZsubscript U is rationally equivalent to 0 on Xsubscript U.

This chapter focuses on magnetoencephalography (MEG) used in brain imaging and its use in localizing the brain sources of externally recorded spontaneous activity and stimulus and task –induced activation. The chapter first describes the instruments used for recording the magnetoencephalographic signals and the neurogenesis of these signals. It then considers proposed solutions for the “inverse” problem and describes approaches for MEG source estimation, including a method that specifies only one or many equivalent current dipoles. It also explains the signal source-localizing technique known as beamforming and concluding with a discussion of practical issues in MEG/MSI, with emphasis on those arising in clinical applications of the method.

The method of the equation of motion is used to derive the Martin–Schwinger hierarchy for the nonequilibrium Green’s functions. The formal closure of the hierarchy is reached by using the selfenergy which provides a recipe for how to construct selfenergies from approximations of the two-particle Green’s function. The Langreth–Wilkins rules for a diagrammatic technique are shown to be equivalent to the weakening of initial correlations. The quantum transport equations are derived in the general form of Kadanoff and Baym equations. The information contained in the Green’s function is discussed. In equilibrium this leads to the Matsubara diagrammatic technique.

This chapter discusses basic techniques from the theory of stationary phase. After giving an overview of the method of stationary phase, the chapter moves on to a discussion of pseudodifferential operators, by going over the basics from the calculus of pseudodifferential operators and their various microlocal properties, in the process obtaining an equivalent definition of wave front sets, before defining pseudodifferential operators on manifolds and going over some of their properties. The chapter then lays out the propagation of singularities as well as Egorov's theorem, which involves conjugating pseudodifferential operators. Finally, this chapter describes the Friedrichs quantization, and differentiates it from the Kohn-Nirenberg quantization presented earlier in the chapter.

This book offers an account of the functioning of the five Agrippan modes of scepticism as presented in the works of Sextus Empiricus. These five modes (of disagreement, hypothesis, infinite regression, reciprocity, and relativity) are analysed, individually, in the book’s first five chapters, and, collectively, in its sixth. Two perspectives on these modes are distinguished from one another—a dogmatic perspective which considers how a dogmatic philosopher might come to suspend judgement on the basis of these modes and a sceptical perspective which considers how a sceptic might come to do so. It is argued that the standard way in which these modes have been understood has been from a dogmatic perspective. The book opens up an alternative sceptical perspective on the modes according to which mode of disagreement (or one version of it) is equivalent to the sceptic’s method of equipollence, and the modes of hypothesis, infinite regression, and reciprocity are different instances of that method (with the mode of hypothesis being a limiting case of the method). It is also argued that the mode of relativity is inconsistent with the mode of disagreement and should be discarded when considering how the modes work together in a combined sceptical strategy. The final chapter offers an account of four different ways in which the modes might be combined together and concludes that each of these ways turns on a number of theoretical assumptions which the sceptic is not in a position to make.

This chapter considers borrowing as an important method of financing a company’s activities, and security as a right of recourse against company property if the loan is not repaid on time. It begins by discussing security for financial obligations, paying particular attention to security contracts, the redemption or discharge of security and the realisation of security. It then turns to the registration of non-possessory security contracts, the priorities of legal and equitable charges and floating charges as a form of security and their crystallisation. The extent to which the assets of a company to which anyone is considering extending credit are already charged as security is also explained. The chapter considers three particularly significant court cases: Evans v Rival Granite Quarries Ltd [1910] 2 KB 979; Re Spectrum Plus Ltd [2005] UKHL 41, [2005] 2 AC 680; and Re Yorkshire Woolcombers Association Ltd [1903] 2 Ch 284.

This chapter considers borrowing as an important method of financing a company’s activities and security as a right of recourse against company property if the loan is not repaid on time. It begins by discussing security for financial obligations, paying particular attention to security contracts, the redemption or discharge of security, and the realisation of security. It then turns to the registration of non-possessory security contracts, the priorities of legal and equitable charges, and floating charges as a form of security and their crystallisation. The extent to which the assets of anyone considering extending credit to a company are already charged as security is also explained. The chapter considers three particularly significant court cases: Evans v Rival Granite Quarries Ltd [1910] 2 KB 979; Re Spectrum Plus Ltd [2005] UKHL 41, [2005] 2 AC 680; and Re Yorkshire Woolcombers Association Ltd [1903] 2 Ch 284.

Psychology is one of the most recent sciences to issue from the mother-tree of philosophy. One of the greatest challenges is that of formulating theories and methodologies that move the field toward theoretical structures that are not only sufficient to explain and predict phenomena but, in some vital sense, necessary for those purposes. Mathematical modeling is perhaps the most promising general strategy, but even under that aegis, the physical sciences have labored toward that end. The present chapter begins by outlining the roots of our approach in 19th century physics, physiology, and psychology. Then, we witness the renaissance of goals in the 1960s, which were envisioned but not usually realizable in 19th century science and methodology. It could be contended that it is impossible to know the full story of what can be learned through scientific method in the absence of what cannot be known. This precept brings us into the slough of model mimicry, wherein even diametrically opposed physical or psychological concepts can be mathematically equivalent within specified observational theatres! Discussion of examples from close to half a century of research illustrate what we conceive of as unfortunate missteps from the psychological literature as well as what has been learned through careful application of the attendant principles. We conclude with a statement concerning ongoing expansion of our body of approaches and what we might expect in the future.

Arterial blood gases allow the assessment of patient oxygenation, ventilation, and acid-base status. Blood gas machines directly measure pH, and the partial pressures of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) and oxygen (PaO2) dissolved in arterial blood. Oxygenation is assessed by measuring PaO2 and arterial blood oxygen saturation (SaO2) in the context of the inspired oxygen and haemoglobin concentration, and the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. Causes of arterial hypoxaemia may often be elucidated by determining the alveolar–arterial oxygen gradient. Ventilation is assessed by measuring the PaCO2 in the context of systemic acid-base balance. A rise in PaCO2 indicates alveolar hypoventilation, while a decrease indicates alveolar hyperventilation. Given the requirement to maintain a normal pH, functioning homeostatic mechanisms result in metabolic acidosis, triggering a compensatory hyperventilation, while metabolic alkalosis triggers a compensatory reduction in ventilation. Similarly, when primary alveolar hypoventilation generates a respiratory acidosis, it results in a compensatory increase in serum bicarbonate that is achieved in part by kidney bicarbonate retention. In the same way, respiratory alkalosis induces kidney bicarbonate loss. Acid-base assessment requires the integration of clinical findings and a systematic interpretation of arterial blood gas parameters. In clinical use, traditional acid-base interpretation rules based on the bicarbonate buffer system or standard base excess estimations and the interpretation of the anion gap, are substantially equivalent to the physicochemical method of Stewart, and are generally easier to use at the bedside. The Stewart method may have advantages in accurately explaining certain physiological and pathological acid base problems.

Markov chain Monte Carlo techniques are developed to compute properties of a variety of quantum field theories. The method is introduced with a simple scalar field theory and used to evaluate the particle spectrum and phase diagram for parity symmetry breaking. The technique of micorcanonical updating is introduced to increase efficiency. The important topic of gauge theory is then introduced via the gauged Z2 model. Development of the gauge theory formalism continues with Abelian gauge theory in two dimensions. The interaction between static charges is computed and compared to the exact result. The string tension in nonableian SU(2) gauge theory is explored with the aid of the renormalization group, which gives an entrée to a discussion of the Higgs mechanism. Finally, the formalism for including fermions is briefly reviewed.

Newman’s Lectures on the Doctrine of Justification are seldom read, but there is perhaps no better place to see his theological reasoning at work. The goals and method of the argument parallel those of Tract 90, which explicitly incorporates the conclusions arrived at in the Lectures. Newman wrote them, initially, to rebut charges of unorthodoxy, as defined by Anglican doctrinal formularies. At issue was whether justification by faith can be reconciled with Tractarian teaching on baptism and obedience as intrinsic to justification. Newman’s endeavour to expound his Church’s official doctrine in a way that minimizes its Reformation origins involves remarkable logical and rhetorical manoeuvres; by the end he appears to have abandoned most of what justification has meant, in favour of a neo-patristic understanding of divine presence, conceived as something like deification.

This epilogue considers the legacy of nineteenth-century sentimentalism, turning to contemporary civic statuary that memorializes nineteenth-century sentimentalists. Juxtaposing this statuary with the hauntingly ephemeral installation The Ghost of Liberty Street Church, the chapter offers postpresentist inquiry as a method that regards the archive as an urgent and poignantly incomplete political project. Where historicist approaches emphasize distance and difference from history through periodization, and charges of presentism name historians’ overidentification with the past, postpresentism holds in view intimacy and distance between past and the present. The epilogue lays out postpresentist readings of sculptures of Harriet E. Wilson in Milford, New Hampshire; Winnemucca Hopkins and Sojourner Truth in the United States Capitol Rotunda; and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Amelia Bloomer, and Susan B. Anthony in Seneca Falls, New York. These statues’ site-specific installations bring into relief the raced, gendered, and colonial legacies of the grounds beneath their podia and feet.

This book seeks to rehabilitate the comparative method in the study of religion by highlighting its fundamental role for the academic mission of religious studies and by proposing both a responsible theoretical approach and a methodological framework. Analyzing the ways in which comparison is used in the study of religion, the book identifies the primary goals of this method and argues that it is constitutive for religious studies as an academic discipline. Revisiting various critiques of comparison—decontextualization and essentialization charges, postcolonialist and postmodernist critiques, and the perspectives of recent naturalistic approaches—the book incorporates insights gained from such debates into an approach that is based upon thorough epistemological analysis of comparison and that takes the scholar’s situatedness and agency seriously. Few scholars have reflected deeply upon how comparison works in practice. The book argues, and tries to demonstrate, that such reflections are useful both for producing and for evaluating comparative studies. It proposes a methodological framework for the analysis of comparison that is meant to prove relevant both for theoretical reflections and for the pragmatics of comparative work. In addition, it suggests a comparative approach—discourse comparison—that helps to confront the omnipresent risks of decontextualization, essentialization, and universalization. Arguing that the comparative method is indispensable for a deeper analytical understanding of what we call religion, this book makes a case for comparison. It seeks to enrich the considerations of both aspiring and seasoned comparativists, stimulate much-needed further discussions about methodology, and encourage scholars to produce responsible comparative studies.

The quality of data collected in official spatial databases is crucial in making strategic decisions as well as in the implementation of planning and design works. Awareness of the level of the quality of these data is also important for individual users of official spatial data. The author presents methods and models of description and evaluation of the quality of spatial data collected in public registers. Data describing the space in the highest degree of detail, which are collected in three databases: land and buildings registry (EGiB), geodetic registry of the land infrastructure network (GESUT) and in database of topographic objects (BDOT500) were analyzed. The results of the research concerned selected aspects of activities in terms of the spatial data quality. These activities include: the assessment of the accuracy of data collected in official spatial databases; determination of the uncertainty of the area of registry parcels, analysis of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network due to the quality of spatial data, construction of the quality model of data collected in official databases and visualization of the phenomenon of uncertainty in spatial data. The evaluation of the accuracy of data collected in official, large-scale spatial databases was based on a representative sample of data. The test sample was a set of deviations of coordinates with three variables dX, dY and Dl – deviations from the X and Y coordinates and the length of the point offset vector of the test sample in relation to its position recognized as a faultless. The compatibility of empirical data accuracy distributions with models (theoretical distributions of random variables) was investigated and also the accuracy of the spatial data has been assessed by means of the methods resistant to the outliers. In the process of determination of the accuracy of spatial data collected in public registers, the author’s solution was used – resistant method of the relative frequency. Weight functions, which modify (to varying degree) the sizes of the vectors Dl – the lengths of the points offset vector of the test sample in relation to their position recognized as a faultless were proposed. From the scope of the uncertainty of estimation of the area of registry parcels the impact of the errors of the geodetic network points was determined (points of reference and of the higher class networks) and the effect of the correlation between the coordinates of the same point on the accuracy of the determined plot area. The scope of the correction was determined (in EGiB database) of the plots area, calculated on the basis of re-measurements, performed using equivalent techniques (in terms of accuracy). The analysis of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network due to the low quality of spatial data is another research topic presented in the paper. Three main factors have been identified that influence the value of this risk: incompleteness of spatial data sets and insufficient accuracy of determination of the horizontal and vertical position of underground infrastructure. A method for estimation of the project risk has been developed (quantitative and qualitative) and the author’s risk estimation technique, based on the idea of fuzzy logic was proposed. Maps (2D and 3D) of the risk of damage to the underground infrastructure network were developed in the form of large-scale thematic maps, presenting the design risk in qualitative and quantitative form. The data quality model is a set of rules used to describe the quality of these data sets. The model that has been proposed defines a standardized approach for assessing and reporting the quality of EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 spatial data bases. Quantitative and qualitative rules (automatic, office and field) of data sets control were defined. The minimum sample size and the number of eligible nonconformities in random samples were determined. The data quality elements were described using the following descriptors: range, measure, result, and type and unit of value. Data quality studies were performed according to the users needs. The values of impact weights were determined by the hierarchical analytical process method (AHP). The harmonization of conceptual models of EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 databases with BDOT10k database was analysed too. It was found that the downloading and supplying of the information in BDOT10k creation and update processes from the analyzed registers are limited. An effective approach to providing spatial data sets users with information concerning data uncertainty are cartographic visualization techniques. Based on the author’s own experience and research works on the quality of official spatial database data examination, the set of methods for visualization of the uncertainty of data bases EGiB, GESUT and BDOT500 was defined. This set includes visualization techniques designed to present three types of uncertainty: location, attribute values and time. Uncertainty of the position was defined (for surface, line, and point objects) using several (three to five) visual variables. Uncertainty of attribute values and time uncertainty, describing (for example) completeness or timeliness of sets, are presented by means of three graphical variables. The research problems presented in the paper are of cognitive and application importance. They indicate on the possibility of effective evaluation of the quality of spatial data collected in public registers and may be an important element of the expert system.