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Готові списки джерел за темами / Martian regolith / Статті в журналах

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Статті в журналах з теми "Martian regolith"

Автор: Grafiati

Опубліковано: 13 квітня 2024

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1

Kim, M.-H. Y., S. A. Thibeault, J. W. Wilson, et al. "Development and Testing of in situ Materials for Human Exploration of Mars." High Performance Polymers 12, no. 1 (2000): 13–26. http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0954-0083/12/1/302.

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Interplanetary space radiation poses a serious health hazard in long-term manned space missions. Natural Martian surface materials are evaluated for their potential use as radiation shields for manned Mars missions. The modified radiation fluences behind various kinds of Martian rocks and regolith are determined by solving the Boltzmann equation using NASA Langley’s HZETRN code along with the 1977 Solar Minimum galactic cosmic ray environmental model. To make structural shielding composite materials from constituents of the Martian atmosphere and from Martian regolith for Martian surface habitats, schemes for synthesizing polyimide from the Martian atmosphere and for processing Martian regolith/polyimide composites are proposed. Theoretical predictions of the shielding properties of these composites are computed to assess their shielding effectiveness. Adding high-performance polymer binders to Martian regolith to enhance the structural properties also enhances the shielding properties of these composites because of the added hydrogenous constituents. Laboratory testing of regolith simulant/polyimide composites is planned in order to validate this prediction and also to measure various structural properties.

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2

Oze, Christopher, Joshua Beisel, Edward Dabsys, et al. "Perchlorate and Agriculture on Mars." Soil Systems 5, no. 3 (2021): 37. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/soilsystems5030037.

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Perchlorate (ClO4−) is globally enriched in Martian regolith at levels commonly toxic to plants. Consequently, perchlorate in Martian regolith presents an obstacle to developing agriculture on Mars. Here, we assess the effect of perchlorate at different concentrations on plant growth and germination, as well as metal release in a simulated Gusev Crater regolith and generic potting soil. The presence of perchlorate was uniformly detrimental to plant growth regardless of growing medium. Plants in potting soil were able to germinate in 1 wt.% perchlorate; however, these plants showed restricted growth and decreased leaf area and biomass. Some plants were able to germinate in regolith simulant without perchlorate; however, they showed reduced growth. In Martian regolith simulant, the presence of perchlorate prevented germination across all plant treatments. Soil column flow-through experiments of perchlorate-containing Martian regolith simulant and potting soil were unable to completely remove perchlorate despite its high solubility. Additionally, perchlorate present in the simulant increased metal/phosphorous release, which may also affect plant growth and biochemistry. Our results support that perchlorate may modify metal availability to such an extent that, even with the successful removal of perchlorate, Martian regolith may continue to be toxic to plant life. Overall, our study demonstrates that the presence of perchlorate in Martian regolith provides a significant challenge in its use as an agricultural substrate and that further steps, such as restricted metal availability and nutrient enrichment, are necessary to make it a viable growing substrate.

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3

Kaksonen, Anna H., Xiao Deng, Christina Morris, Himel Nahreen Khaleque, Luis Zea, and Yosephine Gumulya. "Potential of Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to Grow on and Bioleach Metals from Mars and Lunar Regolith Simulants under Simulated Microgravity Conditions." Microorganisms 9, no. 12 (2021): 2416. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9122416.

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The biomining microbes which extract metals from ores that have been applied in mining processes worldwide hold potential for harnessing space resources. Their cell growth and ability to extract metals from extraterrestrial minerals under microgravity environments, however, remains largely unknown. The present study used the model biomining bacterium Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans to extract metals from lunar and Martian regolith simulants cultivated in a rotating clinostat with matched controls grown under the influence of terrestrial gravity. Analyses included assessments of final cell count, size, morphology, and soluble metal concentrations. Under Earth gravity, with the addition of Fe3+ and H2/CO2, A. ferrooxidans grew in the presence of regolith simulants to a final cell density comparable to controls without regoliths. The simulated microgravity appeared to enable cells to grow to a higher cell density in the presence of lunar regolith simulants. Clinostat cultures of A. ferrooxidans solubilised higher amounts of Si, Mn and Mg from lunar and Martian regolith simulants than abiotic controls. Electron microscopy observations revealed that microgravity stimulated the biosynthesis of intracellular nanoparticles (most likely magnetite) in anaerobically grown A. ferrooxidans cells. These results suggested that A. ferrooxidans has the potential for metal bioleaching and the production of useful nanoparticles in space.

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4

Harris, Franklin, John Dobbs, David Atkins, James A. Ippolito, and Jane E. Stewart. "Soil fertility interactions with Sinorhizobium-legume symbiosis in a simulated Martian regolith; effects on nitrogen content and plant health." PLOS ONE 16, no. 9 (2021): e0257053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0257053.

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Due to increasing population growth and declining arable land on Earth, astroagriculture will be vital to terraform Martian regolith for settlement. Nodulating plants and their N-fixing symbionts may play a role in increasing Martian soil fertility. On Earth, clover (Melilotus officinalis) forms a symbiotic relationship with the N-fixing bacteria Sinorhizobium meliloti; clover has been previously grown in simulated regolith yet without bacterial inoculation. In this study, we inoculated clover with S. meliloti grown in potting soil and regolith to test the hypothesis that plants grown in regolith can form the same symbiotic associations as in soils and to determine if greater plant biomass occurs in the presence of S. meliloti regardless of growth media. We also examined soil NH4 concentrations to evaluate soil augmentation properties of nodulating plants and symbionts. Greater biomass occurred in inoculated compared to uninoculated groups; the inoculated average biomass in potting mix and regolith (2.23 and 0.29 g, respectively) was greater than the uninoculated group (0.11 and 0.01 g, respectively). However, no significant differences existed in NH4 composition between potting mix and regolith simulant. Linear regression analysis results showed that: i) symbiotic plant-bacteria relationships differed between regolith and potting mix, with plant biomass positively correlated to regolith-bacteria interactions; and, ii) NH4 production was limited to plant uptake yet the relationships in regolith and potting mix were similar. It is promising that plant-legume symbiosis is a possibility for Martian soil colonization.

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5

Shumway, Andrew O., David C. Catling, and Jonathan D. Toner. "Regolith Inhibits Salt and Ice Crystallization in Mg(ClO₄)₂ Brine, Implying More Persistent and Potentially Habitable Brines on Mars." Planetary Science Journal 4, no. 8 (2023): 143. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/psj/ace891.

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Abstract On Mars, liquid water may form in regolith when perchlorate salts absorb water vapor and dissolve into brine, or when ice-salt mixtures reach their melting temperature and thaw. Brines created in this way can chemically react with minerals, alter the mechanical properties of regolith, mobilize salts in the soil, and potentially create habitable environments. Although Martian brines would exist in contact with regolith, few studies have investigated how regolith alters the formation and stability of brines at Mars-relevant conditions. To fill this gap, we studied magnesium perchlorate brine in a Martian regolith simulant at salt concentrations up to 5.8 wt.%. We measured the water mass fraction and water activity between 3 and 98% relative humidity at 25 °C using the isopiestic method, and monitored salt and ice crystallization between −150 °C and 20 °C with differential scanning calorimetry. Results show that regolith inhibits salt and ice crystallization, allowing water to form and persist at much colder and drier conditions than pure brine. Remarkably, in several samples, neither salt nor ice crystallized at any conditions. These results suggest that brines could exist in regolith for longer periods of the Martian year than previously thought, and could persist indefinitely under certain conditions. By retaining water, inhibiting salt and ice crystallization, and maintaining habitable water activity, briny regolith may be a more favorable environment for life than pure brine alone. These findings indicate the critical importance of brine–regolith interactions for understanding the properties, evolution, and potential habitability of Mars’s surface.

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6

Sakon, John J., and Robert L. Burnap. "An analysis of potential photosynthetic life on Mars." International Journal of Astrobiology 5, no. 2 (2006): 171–80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550406003144.

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This project researched the possibility of photosynthetic life on Mars. Cyanobacteria were used as potential analogs and were subjected to various Martian-simulated conditions. Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 was exposed to low pressure, ultraviolet radiation and Martian-simulated atmospheric composition, and proved resistant to the combination of these stresses. However, this organism could neither grow within Martian Regolith Simulant, owing to the lack of soluble nitrogen, nor could it grow in cold temperatures. As a result, later research focused on psychrotolerant cyanobacteria capable of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen. These Antarctic nitrogen-fixing strains were able to grow in Martian Regolith Simulant at temperatures as low as 4 °C. In addition, they proved resistant to salinity, ultraviolet radiation and freeze/thaw conditions. These results suggest that Antarctic nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria are good analogs for potential Martian life and should be considered in future exploratory missions for life on the red planet.

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7

Simonsen, L. C., J. E. Nealy, L. W. Townsend, and J. W. Wilson. "Martian regolith as space radiation shielding." Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 28, no. 1 (1991): 7–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.2514/3.26201.

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8

Seiferlin, Karsten, Pascale Ehrenfreund, James Garry, et al. "Simulating Martian regolith in the laboratory." Planetary and Space Science 56, no. 15 (2008): 2009–25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2008.09.017.

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9

Jackiewicz, E., M. Lukasiak, M. Kopcewicz, K. Szpila, and N. Bakun-Czubarow. "Mössbauer study of Martian regolith analogues." Hyperfine Interactions 70, no. 1-4 (1992): 993–96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02397495.

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10

Rahim, Abdur, Umair Majeed, Muhammad Irfan Zubair, and Muhammad Shahzad. "WNMS: A New Basaltic Simulant of Mars Regolith." Sustainability 15, no. 18 (2023): 13372. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/su151813372.

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The use of planetary regolith can be explored via the utilization of simulants. The existing Martian simulants have differences due to varying source materials and design parameters. Additional simulants are needed because the few available simulants do not replicate the compositional diversity of Martian regolith. This study discusses the development of a low-cost construction simulant of Mars. The area of Winder Nai in Pakistan was selected for field sampling of basalt because of local availability and easy access. The dust was produced from rock samples through mechanical crushing and grinding. The physical properties, composition, mineralogy, and surface morphology were evaluated via geotechnical tests, Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), respectively. The designed simulant has a well-graded particle size distribution with a particle density and bulk density of 2.58 g/cm3 and 1.16 g/cm3, respectively. The elemental composition of Winder Nai Mars Simulant (WNMS) is within ±5 wt% of the Rocknest and the average Martian regolith composition except for SO3. For SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3, WNMS has a good match with the Martian regolith. The content of CaO and TiO2 in WNMS is higher than, and content of MgO is lower than, the average Martian values. The rock can be classified as basalt based on the Total Alkali Silica (TAS) diagram. XRD spectrum indicates the occurrence of plagioclase and pyroxene as the main signature minerals of basalt. The particle morphology of WNMS is angular to subangular, and the simulant indicates the presence of 3.8 wt% highly paramagnetic particles. The volatile loss is 0.25 wt% at 100 °C, 1.73 wt% at 500 °C, and 3.05 wt% at 950 °C. The composition of WNMS, basaltic mineralogy, morphology, magnetic properties, and volatile content are comparable with MMS-2 and a few other simulants.

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11

Kasiviswanathan, Pooja, Elizabeth D. Swanner, Larry J. Halverson, and Paramasivan Vijayapalani. "Farming on Mars: Treatment of basaltic regolith soil and briny water simulants sustains plant growth." PLOS ONE 17, no. 8 (2022): e0272209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0272209.

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A fundamental challenge in human missions to Mars is producing consumable foods efficiently with the in situ resources such as soil, water, nutrients and solar radiation available on Mars. The low nutrient content of martian soil and high salinity of water render them unfit for direct use for propagating food crops on Mars. It is therefore essential to develop strategies to enhance nutrient content in Mars soil and to desalinate briny water for long-term missions on Mars. We report simple and efficient strategies for treating basaltic regolith simulant soil and briny water simulant for suitable resources for growing plants. We show that alfalfa plants grow well in a nutrient-limited basaltic regolith simulant soil and that the alfalfa biomass can be used as a biofertilizer to sustain growth and production of turnip, radish and lettuce in the basaltic regolith simulant soil. Moreover, we show that marine cyanobacterium Synechococcus sp. PCC 7002 effectively desalinates the briny water simulant, and that desalination can be further enhanced by filtration through basalt-type volcanic rocks. Our findings indicate that it is possible to grow food crops with alfalfa treated basaltic regolith martian soil as a substratum watered with biodesalinated water.

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12

Fackrell, Laura E., Paul A. Schroeder, Aaron Thompson, Karen Stockstill-Cahill, and Charles A. Hibbitts. "Development of martian regolith and bedrock simulants: Potential and limitations of martian regolith as an in-situ resource." Icarus 354 (January 2021): 114055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114055.

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13

Hedayati, Reza, and Victoria Stulova. "3D Printing of Habitats on Mars: Effects of Low Temperature and Pressure." Materials 16, no. 14 (2023): 5175. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ma16145175.

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Due to payload weight limitations and human vulnerability to harsh space conditions, it is preferable that the potential landing location for humans has an already constructed habitat preferably made from in situ materials. Therefore, the prospect of utilizing a readily available Martian material, such as regolith, in an easily programmable manufacturing method, such as 3D printing, is very lucrative. The goal of this research is to explore a mixture containing Martian regolith for the purposes of 3D printing in unfavorable conditions. A binder consisting of water and sodium silicate is used. Martian conditions are less favorable for the curing of such a mixture because of low temperature and pressure on the surface of the planet. In order to evaluate mechanical properties of the mixture, molding and 3D printing were conducted at various curing conditions and the mechanical and physical characteristics were compared. Due to the combination of low reaction speed at low temperature (2 °C) and rapid water evaporation at low pressure (0.1–0.01 bar), curing of the specimens in Martian conditions yielded unsatisfactory results. The reaction medium (water) evaporated before the curing reaction could progress enough to form a proper geopolymer. The specimens cured at high temperatures (60 °C) showed satisfactory results, with flexural strength up to 9 MPa when cured at a temperature of 60 °C and pressure of 1 bar. The specimens manufactured by 3D printing showed ultimate flexural strength that was 20% lower than that of equivalent molded specimens. Exploring potential mixture modifications and performing improved tests using the basis laid in this research can lead to an effective and realistic way of utilizing Martian regolith for unmanned 3D-printing purposes with minimal investment.

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14

Wamelink, G. W. W., J. Y. Frissel, W. H. J. Krijnen, and M. R. Verwoert. "Crop growth and viability of seeds on Mars and Moon soil simulants." Open Agriculture 4, no. 1 (2019): 509–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/opag-2019-0051.

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AbstractIf humans are going to establish a base on the Moon or on Mars they will have to grow their own crops. An option is to use Lunar and Martian regolith. These regoliths are not available for plant growth experiments, therefore NASA has developed regolith simulants. The major goal of this project was to cultivate and harvest crops on these Mars and Moon simulants. The simulants were mixed with organic matter to mimic the addition of residues from earlier harvests. Ten different crops, garden cress, rocket, tomato, radish, rye, quinoa, spinach, chives, pea and leek were sown in random lines in trays. Nine of the ten species grew well with the exception of spinach. It was possible to harvest edible parts for nine out of ten crops. The total biomass production per tray was highest for the Earth control and Mars soil simulant and differed significantly from Moon soil simulant. The seeds produced by three species were tested for germination (radish, rye and cress). The germination on Moon soil simulant was significantly lower in radish than for the Earth control soil.

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15

Martikainen, Julia, Olga Muñoz, Teresa Jardiel, et al. "Optical Constants of Martian Dust Analogs at UV–Visible–Near-infrared Wavelengths." Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series 268, no. 2 (2023): 47. http://dx.doi.org/10.3847/1538-4365/acf0be.

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Abstract We present an advanced light-scattering model to retrieve the optical constants of three Martian dust analogs: Johnson Space Center regolith simulant, Enhanced Mojave Mars Simulant, and Mars Global Simulant. The samples are prepared to have narrow particle-size distributions within the geometric-optics domain. We carry out laboratory measurements to obtain the particle-size distributions, shapes, and diffuse reflectance spectra of the Martian analogs deposited on a surface. Our model framework includes a ray-optics code to compute scattering properties for individual particles, and a radiative-transfer treatment to simulate the surface. The irregular shapes of the dust particles are taken into account in the model. We compare our derived imaginary parts of the refractive indices with those in the literature and find that they are much smaller than the ones that are commonly used for Martian dust. A sensitivity study shows that the retrieved optical constants are sensitive to the particle shape, which needs to be accounted for in applications that use different shapes. Finally, the derived values are validated by using them to reproduce the reflectance spectrum of the Martian surface regolith as observed by the Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery instrument on board the ExoMars mission.

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16

Pacelli, Claudia, Alessia Cassaro, Lorenzo Aureli, Ralf Moeller, Akira Fujimori, and Silvano Onofri. "The Responses of the Black Fungus Cryomyces Antarcticus to High Doses of Accelerated Helium Ions Radiation within Martian Regolith Simulants and Their Relevance for Mars." Life 10, no. 8 (2020): 130. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life10080130.

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One of the primary current astrobiological goals is to understand the limits of microbial resistance to extraterrestrial conditions. Much attention is paid to ionizing radiation, since it can prevent the preservation and spread of life outside the Earth. The aim of this research was to study the impact of accelerated He ions (150 MeV/n, up to 1 kGy) as a component of the galactic cosmic rays on the black fungus C. antarcticus when mixed with Antarctic sandstones—the substratum of its natural habitat—and two Martian regolith simulants, which mimics two different evolutionary stages of Mars. The high dose of 1 kGy was used to assess the effect of dose accumulation in dormant cells within minerals, under long-term irradiation estimated on a geological time scale. The data obtained suggests that viable Earth-like microorganisms can be preserved in the dormant state in the near-surface scenario for approximately 322.000 and 110.000 Earth years within Martian regolith that mimic early and present Mars environmental conditions, respectively. In addition, the results of the study indicate the possibility of maintaining traces within regolith, as demonstrated by the identification of melanin pigments through UltraViolet-visible (UV-vis) spectrophotometric approach.

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17

Fabian, A., C. Krauss, A. Sickafoose, M. Horanyi, and S. Robertson. "Measurements of electrical discharges in Martian regolith simulant." IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science 29, no. 2 (2001): 288–91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/27.923710.

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18

Ramkissoon, Nisha K., Victoria K. Pearson, Susanne P. Schwenzer, et al. "New simulants for martian regolith: Controlling iron variability." Planetary and Space Science 179 (December 2019): 104722. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2019.104722.

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19

Eichler, A., N. Hadland, D. Pickett, et al. "Challenging the agricultural viability of martian regolith simulants." Icarus 354 (January 2021): 114022. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2020.114022.

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20

Vakkada Ramachandran, Abhilash, María-Paz Zorzano, and Javier Martín-Torres. "Experimental Investigation of the Atmosphere-Regolith Water Cycle on Present-Day Mars." Sensors 21, no. 21 (2021): 7421. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/s21217421.

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The water content of the upper layers of the surface of Mars is not yet quantified. Laboratory simulations are the only feasible way to investigate this in a controlled way on Earth, and then compare it with remote and in situ observations of spacecrafts on Mars. Describing the processes that may induce changes in the water content of the surface is critical to determine the present-day habitability of the Martian surface, to understand the atmospheric water cycle, and to estimate the efficiency of future water extraction procedures from the regolith for In Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU). This paper illustrates the application of the SpaceQ facility to simulate the near-surface water cycle under Martian conditions. Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) observations at Gale crater show a non-equilibrium situation in the atmospheric H2O volume mixing ratio (VMR) at night-time, and there is a decrease in the atmospheric water content by up to 15 g/m2 within a few hours. This reduction suggests that the ground may act at night as a cold sink scavenging atmospheric water. Here, we use an experimental approach to investigate the thermodynamic and kinetics of water exchange between the atmosphere, a non-porous surface (LN2-chilled metal), various salts, Martian regolith simulant, and mixtures of salts and simulant within an environment which is close to saturation. We have conducted three experiments: the stability of pure liquid water around the vicinity of the triple point is studied in experiment 1, as well as observing the interchange of water between the atmosphere and the salts when the surface is saturated; in experiment 2, the salts were mixed with Mojave Martian Simulant (MMS) to observe changes in the texture of the regolith caused by the interaction with hydrates and liquid brines, and to quantify the potential of the Martian regolith to absorb and retain water; and experiment 3 investigates the evaporation of pure liquid water away from the triple point temperature when both the air and ground are at the same temperature and the relative humidity is near saturation. We show experimentally that frost can form spontaneously on a surface when saturation is reached and that, when the temperature is above 273.15 K (0 °C), this frost can transform into liquid water, which can persist for up to 3.5 to 4.5 h at Martian surface conditions. For comparison, we study the behavior of certain deliquescent salts that exist on the Martian surface, which can increase their mass between 32% and 85% by absorption of atmospheric water within a few hours. A mixture of these salts in a 10% concentration with simulant produces an aggregated granular structure with a water gain of approximately 18- to 50-wt%. Up to 53% of the atmospheric water was captured by the simulated ground, as pure liquid water, hydrate, or brine.

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21

Raúl G, Cuero. "Martian soil as a potential source of nanoparticles: Study using martian regolith simulant." Frontiers in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology 2, no. 2 (2016): 91–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.15761/fnn.1000115.

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22

Boxe, C. S., K. P. Hand, K. H. Nealson, Y. L. Yung, A. S. Yen, and A. Saiz-Lopez. "Adsorbed water and thin liquid films on Mars." International Journal of Astrobiology 11, no. 3 (2012): 169–75. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550412000080.

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AbstractAt present, bulk liquid water on the surface and near-subsurface of Mars does not exist due to the scarcity of condensed- and gas-phase water, pressure and temperature constraints. Given that the nuclei of soil and ice, that is, the soil solid and ice lattice, respectively, are coated with adsorbed and/or thin liquid films of water well below 273 K and the availability of water limits biological activity, we quantify lower and upper limits for the thickness of such adsorbed/water films on the surface of the Martian regolith and for subsurface ice. These limits were calculated based on experimental and theoretical data for pure water ice and water ice containing impurities, where water ice containing impurities exhibit thin liquid film enhancements, ranging from 3 to 90. Close to the cold limit of water stability (i.e. 273 K), thin liquid film thicknesses at the surface of the Martian regolith is 0.06 nm (pure water ice) and ranges from 0.2 to 5 nm (water ice with impurities). An adsorbed water layer of 0.06 nm implies a dessicated surface as the thickness of one monolayer of water is 0.3 nm but represents 0.001–0.02% of the Martian atmospheric water vapour inventory. Taking into account the specific surface area (SSA) of surface-soil (i.e. top 1 mm of regolith and 0.06 nm adsorbed water layer), shows Martian surface-soil may contain interfacial water that represents 6–66% of the upper- and lower-limit atmospheric water vapour inventory and almost four times and 33%, the lower- and upper-limit Martian atmospheric water vapour inventory. Similarly, taking the SSA of Martian soil, the top 1 mm or regolith at 5 nm thin liquid water thickness, yields 1.10×1013and 6.50×1013litres of waters, respectively, 55–325 times larger than Mars’ atmospheric water vapour inventory. Film thicknesses of 0.2 and 5 nm represent 2.3×104–1.5×106litres of water, which is 6.0×10−7–4.0×10−4%, respectively, of a 10 prμm water vapour column, and 3.0×10−6–4.0×10−4% and 6.0×10−6–8.0×10−4%, respectively, of the Martian atmospheric water vapour inventory. Thin liquid film thicknesses on/in subsurface ice were investigated via two scenarios: (i) under the idealistic case where it is assumed that the diurnal thermal wave is equal to the temperature of ice tens of centimetres below the surface, allowing for such ice to experience temperatures close to 273 K and (ii) under the, likely, realistic scenario where the diurnal thermal wave allows for the maximum subsurface ice temperature of 235 K at 1 m depth between 30°N and 30°S. Scenario 1 yields thin liquid film thicknesses ranging from 11 to 90 nm; these amounts represent 4×106–3.0×107litres of water. For pure water ice, Scenario 2 reveals that the thickness of thin liquid films contained on/within Martian subsurface is less than 1.2 nm, several molecular layers thick. Conversely, via the effect of impurities at 235 K allows for a thin liquid film thickness on/within subsurface ice of 0.5 nm, corresponding to 6.0×104litres of water. The existence of thin films on Mars is supported by data from the Mars Exploration Rovers (MERs) Spirit and Opportunity's Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer instrumentation, which have detected increased levels of bromine beneath the immediate surface, suggestive of the mobilization of soluble salts by thin films of liquid water towards local cold traps. These findings show that biological activity on the Martian surface and subsurface is not limited by nanometre dimensions of available water.

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23

Menlyadiev, Marlen, Bryana L. Henderson, Fang Zhong, Ying Lin, and Isik Kanik. "Extraction of amino acids using supercritical carbon dioxide forin situastrobiological applications." International Journal of Astrobiology 18, no. 2 (2018): 102–11. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s147355041800006x.

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AbstractThe detection of organic molecules that are indicative of past or present biological activity within the Solar System bodies and beyond is a key research area in astrobiology. Mars is of particular interest in this regard because of evidence of a (perhaps transient) warm and wet climate in its past. To date, space missions to Mars have primarily used pyrolysis technique to extract organic compounds from the Martian regolith, but it has not enabled a clear detection of unaltered native Martian organics. The elevated temperatures required for pyrolysis extraction can cause native Martian organics to react with perchlorate salts in the regolith, possibly resulting in the chlorohydrocarbons that have been detected by mass spectrometry, a commonly usedin situtechnique for space applications. Supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO2) extraction technique is a powerful alternative to pyrolysis that may be capable of extracting and delivering unaltered native organic species to an analyser. In this study, we report the SCCO2extraction of unaltered amino acids (AAs) with simple laboratory analyses of extracts by capillary electrophoresis laser-induced fluorescence (CE/LIF) and liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (LC/MS) techniques. The extraction efficiencies of several representative AAs using SCCO2with small amounts of pure water (~1–5%) as a co-solvent were determined. Glass beads were used as a model substrate to examine the effects of several experimental parameters and Johnson Space Center (JSC) Mars-1A Martian regolith simulant was used to study the effect of complex matrix on extraction efficiencies. With optimized experimental conditions (75C and 5% of water), extraction efficiencies from doped JSC Mars-1A were found to be ~40% for glycine, alanine and serine and ~10% for lysine. Extraction of native organics from undoped JSC Mars-1A suggests that SCCO2/water solvent system can extract both organics extractable with pure SCCO2and those extractable with pure water. Additionally, species not extracted by either pure SCCO2or pure water were extracted with SCCO2/water solvent. Despite the preliminary nature of this work, it paves the path for more comprehensive extraction studies of astrobiologically relevant samples with thorough analyses of resulting extracts.

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24

Barkatt, Aaron, and Masataka Okutsu. "Obtaining elemental sulfur for Martian sulfur concrete." Journal of Chemical Research 46, no. 2 (2022): 174751982210807. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/17475198221080729.

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A potential candidate material for the construction of Mars habitats is concrete made from the Martian regolith and sulfur extracted from the regolith itself. Sulfur concrete, which has excellent mechanical properties, can be prepared at a low temperature (<150 °) and without water (unlike Portland-cement concrete). The surface of Mars has a much higher concentration of sulfur than those of the Earth, the Moon, or the asteroids. Sulfur on Mars, however, exists not as elemental sulfur—which is needed in concrete production—but as sulfates (usually hydrated) and sulfides. This paper surveys thermochemical and electrochemical methods that might be used to produce elemental sulfur from its compounds contained in the minerals on Mars. Possible methods include chemical or electrochemical oxidation or decomposition of sulfides, which include sulfides that exist naturally on Mars as well as sulfides that are produced via chemical or electrochemical reduction of sulfates. Some of the methods to obtain elemental sulfur—such as chemical or electrochemical oxidation or decomposition of metal sulfides or hydrogen sulfide—have already been demonstrated. The methods of producing elemental sulfur from sulfur-containing minerals on Mars will have the added benefit of generating byproducts (e.g. water, hydrogen, oxygen, and metals) that are useful for explorations of the Red Planet. In the future, chemical processes for the production of elemental sulfur may also have important industrial applications on Earth.

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25

Noe Dobrea, E. Z., J. F. Bell, M. J. Wolff, and K. D. Gordon. "H2O- and OH-bearing minerals in the martian regolith:." Icarus 166, no. 1 (2003): 1–20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0019-1035(03)00208-2.

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26

Gori, Fabio, and Sandra Corasaniti. "Detection of a dry–frozen boundary inside Martian regolith." Planetary and Space Science 56, no. 8 (2008): 1093–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2008.02.003.

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27

Audouard, Joachim, François Poulet, Mathieu Vincendon, et al. "Water in the Martian regolith from OMEGA/Mars Express." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 119, no. 8 (2014): 1969–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014je004649.

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28

Maurel, Alexis, Ana Cristina Martinez, Pedro Cortes, et al. "3D Printing of Batteries from Lunar and Martian Regolith." ECS Meeting Abstracts MA2023-01, no. 56 (2023): 2724. http://dx.doi.org/10.1149/ma2023-01562724mtgabs.

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To maximize the sustainability of future space missions, the utilization of local resources available on the Moon or Mars, also known as in-situ resource utilization (ISRU), is crucial to develop infrastructures such as habitation modules, power generation, and energy storage facilities.1–3 This work presents a perspective aiming to introduce the future of batteries manufacturing on the lunar and martian environment from ISRU materials. Based on the composition of the lunar and martian soil,4–7 the choice of the battery technology and materials for the different battery components (electrodes, electrolyte, current collectors and packaging) are examined. The motivations for selecting additive manufacturing technologies as a unique approach to support human operations in space, on the surface of the Moon or Mars, and any other locations where cargo resupply is not as readily available, as well as the need for high resolution multi-material printing methods, are discussed. Additive manufacturing paves the way to three-dimensional rechargeable battery architectures with enhanced specific surface area, three-dimensional ion diffusion, and improved power performances, while also allowing the development of shape-conformable batteries to maximize the energy storage within the final application.8–15 The in-space additive manufacturing process of shape-conformable batteries using in-situ resources is in direct alignment with the NASA’s objectives to demonstrate in-space autonomous manufacturing and assembly of complete systems by 2030, and to enable Humans survival, explore deep space, and visit planetary surfaces by 2040.16 Such initiatives also contribute to reducing power-related payload weight and volume in future missions, thus reducing the risk for long term Moon or even Mars missions where rapid resupply will be logistically infeasible. In this context, this presentation will provide a perspective of what is required to 3D print batteries on lunar and martian surfaces,17 an overview of our ongoing project dedicated to AM of sodium-ion batteries from resources available on the Moon and Mars and our recent work on 3D printing of TiO2 negative electrode material by means of the vat photopolymerization process.18 (1) Anand, M. et al. A Brief Review of Chemical and Mineralogical Resources on the Moon and Likely Initial in Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) Applications. Planet. Space Sci. 2012, 74 (1), 42–48. (2) Edmunson. Building a Sustainable Human Presence on the Moon and Mars. New Horizons Summit. (3) McMillon-Brown, L. et al. What Would It Take to Manufacture Perovskite Solar Cells in Space? ACS Energy Lett. 2022, 7 (3), 1040–1042. (4) Heiken, G. et al. Lunar Sourcebook: A User’s Guide to the Moon; CUP Archive, 1991. (5) Dreibus, G. et al. Lithium and Halogens in Lunar Samples. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A 1977, 285 (1327), 49–54. (6) Taylor, G. J. The Bulk Composition of Mars. Geochem. Explor. Environ. Analy. 2013, 73 (4), 401–420. (7) Yoshizaki, T. et al. The Composition of Mars. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2020, 273, 137–162. (8) Maurel, A. et al. Highly Loaded Graphite-Polylactic Acid Composite-Based Filaments for Lithium-Ion Battery Three-Dimensional Printing. Chem. Mater. 2018, 30 (21), 7484–7493. (9) Maurel, A. et al. Considering Lithium-Ion Battery 3D-Printing via Thermoplastic Material Extrusion and Polymer Powder Bed Fusion. Additive Manufacturing 2020, 101651. (10) Martinez, A. C. et al. Additive Manufacturing of LiNi1/3Mn1/3Co1/3O2 Battery Electrode Material via Vat Photopolymerization Precursor Approach. Sci. Rep. 2022, 12 (1), 1–13. (11) Maurel, A. et al. Overview on Lithium-Ion Battery 3D-Printing By Means of Material Extrusion. ECS Trans. 2020, 98 (13), 3–21. (12) Maurel, A. et al. Toward High Resolution 3D Printing of Shape-Conformable Batteries via Vat Photopolymerization: Review and Perspective. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 140654–140666. (13) Maurel, A. et al. Ag-Coated Cu/Polylactic Acid Composite Filament for Lithium and Sodium-Ion Battery Current Collector Three-Dimensional Printing via Thermoplastic Material Extrusion. Frontiers in Energy Research 2021, 9 (70). https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2021.651041. (14) Ragones, H. et al. Towards Smart Free Form-Factor 3D Printable Batteries. Sustainable Energy & Fuels 2018, 2 (7), 1542–1549. (15) Egorov, V. et al. Evolution of 3D Printing Methods and Materials for Electrochemical Energy Storage. Adv. Mater. 2020, 32 (29). https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202000556. (16) Murphy, P. STMD’s New Strategic Framework Update, 2017. https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/336429-508-to5_nac_dec_2017_strategicplanningintegration_tagged.pdf. (17) Maurel, A. et al. What Would Battery Manufacturing on the Moon and Mars Look Like? (submitted). (18) Maurel, A. et al. 3D Printed TiO2 Negative Electrodes for Sodium-Ion and Lithium-Ion Batteries Using Vat Photopolymerization (submitted).

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Rao, M. "Neutron Capture Isotopes in the Martian Regolith and Implications for Martian Atmospheric Noble Gases." Icarus 156, no. 2 (2002): 352–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/icar.2001.6809.

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30

Yin, Kexin, Jiangxin Liu, Jiaxing Lin, Andreea-Roxana Vasilescu, Khaoula Othmani, and Eugenia Di Filippo. "Interface Direct Shear Tests on JEZ-1 Mars Regolith Simulant." Applied Sciences 11, no. 15 (2021): 7052. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app11157052.

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The mechanical behaviors of Martian regolith-structure interfaces are of great significance for the design of rover, development of excavation tools, and construction of infrastructure in Mars exploration. This paper presents an experimental investigation on the properties of a Martian regolith simulant (JEZ-1) through one-dimensional oedometer test, direct shear test, and interface direct shear tests between JEZ-1 and steel plates with different roughness. Oedometer result reveals that the compression and swelling indexes of the JEZ-1 are quite low, thus it is a less compressible and lower swelling soil. The cohesion and adhesion of JEZ-1 are lower than 5 kPa. The values of the internal friction angle range from 39.7° to 40.6°, and the interface friction angles are 16.7° to 36.2° for the smooth and rough interface. Furthermore, the direct shear and interface direct shear results indicate that the interface friction angles are lower than the internal friction angles of JEZ-1 and increase close to the internal friction angles with increasing interface roughness.

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31

Nénon, Q., A. R. Poppe, A. Rahmati, and J. P. McFadden. "Implantation of Martian atmospheric ions within the regolith of Phobos." Nature Geoscience 14, no. 2 (2021): 61–66. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41561-020-00682-0.

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32

Jach, K., J. Leliwa-Kopystyński, A. Morka, et al. "Modifications of Martian ice-saturated regolith due to meteoroid impact." Advances in Space Research 23, no. 11 (1999): 1933–37. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0273-1177(99)00275-6.

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33

Garry, James R. C., Inge Loes ten Kate, Zita Martins, Per Nørnberg, and Pascale Ehrenfreund. "Analysis and survival of amino acids in Martian regolith analogs." Meteoritics & Planetary Science 41, no. 3 (2006): 391–405. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1945-5100.2006.tb00470.x.

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34

Pavlov, A. K., V. N. Shelegedin, M. A. Vdovina, and A. A. Pavlov. "Growth of microorganisms in Martian-like shallow subsurface conditions: laboratory modelling." International Journal of Astrobiology 9, no. 1 (2009): 51–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550409990371.

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AbstractLow atmospheric pressures on Mars and the lack of substantial amounts of liquid water were suggested to be among the major limiting factors for the potential Martian biosphere. However, large amounts of ice were detected in the relatively shallow subsurface layers of Mars by the Odyssey Mission and when ice sublimates the water vapour can diffuse through the porous surface layer of the soil. Here we studied the possibility for the active growth of microorganisms in such a vapour diffusion layer. Our results showed the possibility of metabolism and the reproduction of non-extremophile terrestrial microorganisms (Vibrio sp.) under very low (0.01–0.1 mbar) atmospheric pressures in a Martian-like shallow subsurface regolith.

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35

Patel, M. R., A. Bérces, C. Kolb, et al. "Seasonal and diurnal variations in Martian surface ultraviolet irradiation: biological and chemical implications for the Martian regolith." International Journal of Astrobiology 2, no. 1 (2003): 21–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s1473550402001180.

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The issue of the variation of the surface ultraviolet (UV) environment on Mars was investigated with particular emphasis being placed on the interpretation of data in a biological context. A UV model has been developed to yield the surface UV irradiance at any time and place over the Martian year. Seasonal and diurnal variations were calculated and dose rates evaluated. Biological interpretation of UV doses is performed through the calculation of DNA damage effects upon phage T7 and Uracil, used as examples for biological dosimeters. A solar UV ‘hotspot’ was revealed towards perihelion in the southern hemisphere, with a significant damaging effect upon these species. Diurnal profiles of UV irradiance are also seen to vary markedly between aphelion and perihelion. The effect of UV dose is also discussed in terms of the chemical environment of the Martian regolith, since UV irradiance can reach high enough levels so as to have a significant effect upon the soil chemistry. We show, by assuming that H2O is the main source of hydrogen in the Martian atmosphere, that the stoichiometrically desirable ratio of 2:1 for atmospheric H and O loss rates to space are not maintained and at present the ratio is about 20:1. A large planetary oxygen surface sink is therefore necessary, in contrast with escape to space. This surface oxygen sink has important implications for the oxidation potential and the toxicology of the Martian soil. UV-induced adsorption of {\rm O}_{2}^{-} super-radicals plays an important role in the oxidative environment of the Martian surface, and the biologically damaging areas found in this study are also shown to be regions of high subsurface oxidation. Furthermore, we briefly cover the astrobiological implications for landing sites that are planned for future Mars missions.

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36

Gleaton, Jason, Zhengshou Lai, Rui Xiao, Ke Zhang, Qiushi Chen, and Yi Zheng. "Optimization of mechanical strength of biocemented Martian regolith simulant soil columns." Construction and Building Materials 315 (January 2022): 125741. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125741.

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37

Dikshit, Rashmi, Nitin Gupta, Arjun Dey, Koushik Viswanathan, and Aloke Kumar. "Microbial induced calcite precipitation can consolidate martian and lunar regolith simulants." PLOS ONE 17, no. 4 (2022): e0266415. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0266415.

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We demonstrate that Microbial Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP) can be utilized for creation of consolidates of Martian Simulant Soil (MSS) and Lunar Simulant Soil (LSS) in the form of a ‘brick’. A urease producer bacterium, Sporosarcina pasteurii, was used to induce the MICP process for the both simulant soils. An admixture of guar gum as an organic polymer and NiCl2, as bio- catalyst to enhance urease activity, was introduced to increase the compressive strength of the biologically grown bricks. A casting method was utilized for a slurry consisting of the appropriate simulant soil and microbe; the slurry over a few days consolidated in the form of a ‘brick’ of the desired shape. In case of MSS, maximum strength of 3.3 MPa was obtained with 10mM NiCl2 and 1% guar gum supplementation whereas in case of LSS maximum strength of 5.65 Mpa was obtained with 1% guar gum supplementation and 10mM NiCl2. MICP mediated consolidation of the simulant soil was confirmed with field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and thermogravimetry (TG). Our work demonstrates a biological approach with an explicit casting method towards manufacturing of consolidated structures using extra-terrestrial regolith simulant; this is a promising route for in situ development of structural elements on the extra-terrestrial habitats.

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38

Zent, Aaron P. "On the thickness of the oxidized layer of the Martian regolith." Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets 103, E13 (1998): 31491–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/98je01895.

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39

Wittmann, Axel, Randy L. Korotev, Bradley L. Jolliff, et al. "Petrography and composition of Martian regolith breccia meteorite Northwest Africa 7475." Meteoritics & Planetary Science 50, no. 2 (2015): 326–52. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/maps.12425.

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40

Zent, Aaron P., Fraser P. Fanale, and Susan E. Postawko. "Carbon dioxide: Adsorption on palagonite and partitioning in the Martian regolith." Icarus 71, no. 2 (1987): 241–49. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0019-1035(87)90149-7.

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41

Marshall, Jason P., Troy L. Hudson, and José E. Andrade. "Experimental Investigation of InSight HP3 Mole Interaction with Martian Regolith Simulant." Space Science Reviews 211, no. 1-4 (2017): 239–58. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11214-016-0329-1.

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42

Gunderson, Kurt, Benjamin Lüthi, Patrick Russell, and Nicolas Thomas. "Visible/NIR photometric signatures of liquid water in Martian regolith simulant." Planetary and Space Science 55, no. 10 (2007): 1272–82. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pss.2007.03.004.

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43

Shiwei, Ng, Stylianos Dritsas, and Javier G. Fernandez. "Martian biolith: A bioinspired regolith composite for closed-loop extraterrestrial manufacturing." PLOS ONE 15, no. 9 (2020): e0238606. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238606.

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44

Fanale, Fraser P., and James R. Salvail. "Quasi-periodic Atmosphere-Regolith-Cap CO2 Redistribution in the Martian Past." Icarus 111, no. 2 (1994): 305–16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/icar.1994.1147.

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45

Böttger, H. M., S. R. Lewis, P. L. Read, and F. Forget. "The effects of the martian regolith on GCM water cycle simulations." Icarus 177, no. 1 (2005): 174–89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2005.02.024.

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46

Dotson, B., D. Sanchez Valencia, C. Millwater, et al. "Cohesion and shear strength of compacted lunar and Martian regolith simulants." Icarus 411 (March 2024): 115943. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.icarus.2024.115943.

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47

Pajares, Arturo, Pablo Guardia, Vladimir Galvita, Melchiorre Conti, Jasper Lefevere, and Bart Michielsen. "CO2 conversion over Martian and Lunar regolith simulants for extraterrestrial applications." Journal of CO2 Utilization 81 (March 2024): 102729. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcou.2024.102729.

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48

Corrias, Gianluca, Roberta Licheri, Roberto Orrù, and Giacomo Cao. "Self-Propagating High-Temperature Synthesis Reactions for ISRU and ISFR Applications." Eurasian Chemico-Technological Journal 13, no. 3-4 (2010): 137. http://dx.doi.org/10.18321/ectj77.

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<p>In the framework of ISRU (In-Situ Resource Utilization) and ISFR (In-Situ Fabrication and Repair) applications, a novel recently patented process based on the occurrence of Self-propagating High temperature Synthesis (SHS) reactions potentially exploitable for the in-situ fabrication of construction materials in Lunar and Martian environments is described in this work. Specifically, the SHS process involves thermite reactions type between Lunar or Martian regolith simulants and aluminum as reducing agent. To overcome the fact that the original content of ilmenite (FeTiO<sub>3</sub>) and ferric oxide (Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>) on Moon and Mars soils, respectively, is not enough to make the SHS process possible, suitable amounts of these species have to be added to the starting mixtures. The dependence of the most important processing parameters, particularly the composition of the starting mixture, evacuation level, and gravity conditions, on SHS process behaviour and product characteristics is specifically examined for the case of Lunar regolith. All the obtained findings allows us to conclude that the optimized results obtained under terrestrial conditions are valid for in-situ applications in Lunar environment. In particular, parabolic flight experiments evidenced that neither SHS process dynamics nor product characteristics are significantly influenced in both Lunar and Martian systems when passing from Earth to low gravity conditions. Finally, the complete scheme involving all stages required for the fabrication of physical assets to be used as protection against solar rays, solar wind and meteoroids, etc., is reported.</p>

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49

Oliver, James A. W., Matthew Kelbrick, Nisha K. Ramkissoon, et al. "Sulfur Cycling as a Viable Metabolism under Simulated Noachian/Hesperian Chemistries." Life 12, no. 4 (2022): 523. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/life12040523.

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Water present on the surface of early Mars (>3.0 Ga) may have been habitable. Characterising analogue environments and investigating the aspects of their microbiome best suited for growth under simulated martian chemical conditions is key to understanding potential habitability. Experiments were conducted to investigate the viability of microbes from a Mars analogue environment, Colour Peak Springs (Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian High Arctic), under simulated martian chemistries. The fluid was designed to emulate waters thought to be typical of the late Noachian, in combination with regolith simulant material based on two distinct martian geologies. These experiments were performed with a microbial community from Colour Peak Springs sediment. The impact on the microbes was assessed by cell counting and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing. Changes in fluid chemistries were tested using ICP-OES. Both chemistries were shown to be habitable, with growth in both chemistries. Microbial communities exhibited distinct growth dynamics and taxonomic composition, comprised of sulfur-cycling bacteria, represented by either sulfate-reducing or sulfur-oxidising bacteria, and additional heterotrophic halophiles. Our data support the identification of Colour Peak Springs as an analogue for former martian environments, with a specific subsection of the biota able to survive under more accurate proxies for martian chemistries.

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50

Vezzola, Michele, Solveig Tosi, Enrico Doria, Mattia Bonazzi, Matteo Alvaro, and Alessio Sanfilippo. "Interaction between a Martian Regolith Simulant and Fungal Organic Acids in the Biomining Perspective." Journal of Fungi 9, no. 10 (2023): 976. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/jof9100976.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of Aspergillus tubingensis in extracting metals from rocks simulating Martian regolith through biomining. The results indicated that the fungal strain produced organic acids, particularly oxalic acid, in the first five days, leading to a rapid reduction in the pH of the culture medium. This acidic medium is ideal for bioleaching, a process that employs acidolysis and complexolysis to extract metals from rocks. Additionally, the strain synthesized siderophores, molecules capable of mobilizing metals from solid matrices, as verified by the blue CAS colorimetric test. The secretion of siderophores in the culture medium proved advantageous for biomining. The siderophores facilitated the leaching of metal ions, such as manganese, from the rock matrix into the acidified water solution. In addition, the susceptibility of the Martian regolith simulant to the biomining process was assessed by determining the particle size distribution, acid composition after treatment, and geochemical composition of the rock. Although the preliminary results demonstrate successful manganese extraction, further research is required to optimize the extraction technique. To conclude, the A. tubingensis strain exhibits promising abilities in extracting metals from rocks through biomining. Its use could prove useful in future in situ mining operations and environmental remediation efforts. Further research is required to optimize the process and evaluate its feasibility on a larger scale.

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