Статті в журналах з теми "Lexicographie, grammaire, verbe"

This paper gives a brief introduction to the question of verbal complementation, within the framework of Verbal Valency theories. Verb complements are analyzed as morpho-syntactic and semantic elements, in which grammatical categories and constructions clearly determine verbal meanings. Complements are entirely different according to the differents verbal types they are assigned to: GIVE verbs, SAY verbs, KNOW verbs, WANT verbs, and so on. Pronouns, rather than lexical nouns, are used in order to check the grammaticality of associations between verbs and complements. A brief survey is given of verbal sub-types behaving like auxiliaries, modal verbs or «support verbs», and having no valency grammar, and thus no complements. An important difference is proposed between understanding the meaning of a verb in a given text and building up the meaning of a verb, as lexicographs usually do, by gathering out its different significations in different contexts.

This paper gives a brief introduction to the question of verbal complementation, within the framework of Verbal Valency theories. Verb complements are analyzed as morpho-syntactic and semantic elements, in which grammatical categories and constructions clearly determine verbal meanings. Complements are entirely different according to the differents verbal types they are assigned to: GIVE verbs, SAY verbs, KNOW verbs, WANT verbs, and so on. Pronouns, rather than lexical nouns, are used in order to check the grammaticality of associations between verbs and complements. A brief survey is given of verbal sub-types behaving like auxiliaries, modal verbs or «support verbs», and having no valency grammar, and thus no complements. An important difference is proposed between understanding the meaning of a verb in a given text and building up the meaning of a verb, as lexicographs usually do, by gathering out its different significations in different contexts.

From the perspective of the theory of lexicographic functions, this paper analyses in a metalexicographic manner the system of processing inflection data on the verbs of the Serbian language in M. Benson?s SerboCroatian-English Dictionary (BENSON 1993). The processing system is perceived through the prism of the needs of users whose native language is not Serbian in three situations: reception, production (which includes translation situations) and the situation in which the dictionary is used for gaining knowledge on verb inflection in the Serbian language. In the analysis of the dictionary, it has been noted that the processing system is made up of four lexicographic methods: 1) inflected forms of the verbs with a suppletive present base form and apophony in that base compared to the infinitive base form were included as headwords of particular dictionary entries with cross-references to the infinitive, but this was not done systematically and consistently; 2) as for the thematic verbs which are included in 36 separate accentual-conjugation types, type marks were provided with the verb, with cross-references to the introductory pages of the dictionary, where those marks were textually interpreted; 3) as for the thematic verbs which are not included in the aforementioned types, as well as all athematic verbs, inflection data were listed in the grammar section immediately after the headword; 4) for a smaller number of verbs, the model verb from which the inflection data should be analogically derived is listed in the dictionary entry itself. However, if a sound change in the present tense appears in verbs to which the third and fourth lexicographic method was applied, then a partial paradigm of the present tense in its full or shortened form was provided before the cross-reference to the typical verb in the form of a mark or a specific verb. The analysis showed that the first aforementioned lexicographic method meets the reception-related needs of the users of Benson?s dictionary. However, considering that it was not consistently applied, it does not satisfy those needs in all cases. The remaining three methods completely meet production-related needs, but it remains uncertain whether the applied methods are clear to the average user and, if so, to what extent. Therefore, the paper also offers a simplified version of Benson?s system of processing verb inflection, which would be more harmonized with the users? needs. However, Benson?s dictionary cannot serve as a handbook for gaining knowledge on verb inflection in the Serbian language, because the introductory pages and the grammatical appendix neither offer the rules on the formation of verb forms nor include complete paradigms of basic inflection types. The results of the analysis in the conclusion are applied to the draft of a new, proposed, French-Serbian dictionary, which additionally points to the advantages and shortcomings of applied lexicographic methods.

Bohorič’s Contribution to Slovene Lexicography Lexicography was one of Bohorič’s central activities devoted to the 16th-century Slovene literary language. He is believed to be the author of three types of dictionaries: (1) a lost trilingual glossary with Latin as the source language, compiled for pedagogical use (Nomenclatura trium linguarum, ca. 1580); (2) the index in DB 1584 (perhaps also the shorter one in DB 1578), which contains also dialectal synonyms as well as equivalents from Croatian dialects and thus enables understanding of the central-Slovene lexicon; (3) six Slovene-Latin-German glossaries included in the grammar Arcticae horulae ſucciſivae (1584): the first three described nomina (nouns and adjectives) of all three genders, while the other three described verbs of the main three conjugation types (-am, -em, -im). In terms of their informativity, the glossaries included in the grammar are of several different types. In addition to grammatical information contributing to a better knowledge of the 16th-century Slovene literary language, they also provide lexicological information closely related to the modes of lexicographic presentation. Both features are an important contribution to the beginnings and further development of Slovene lexicography. Slovene headwords are semantically defined by their foreign-language equivalents. In addition, their semantic structure is outlined by one-word or phraseological subentries (with attested meanings, sub-meanings, and terms for specific types, such as štala ‘barn’—volovska štala ‘oxen barn’, ovčja štala ‘sheep barn’, kozja štala ‘goat barn’; set phrases with established use). Entries with subentries and the order of entries itself also bring into focus various types of semantic relations between lexical items, including synonymy, where pairs of loan and native synonyms stand out in particular (e.g. punt—zaveza ‘bond’, gmerati—množiti ‘to multiply’); antonymy (e.g. čast ‘honor’—nečast ‘disgrace’); the semantic difference between the source word and its derivative (e.g. kamen ‘stone’—kamčič ‘little stone’). Verbal entries with added subentries demonstrate various types of formation of aspectual pairs, e.g. sejati—obsejati ‘to sow’, nagniti—nagibati ‘to lean’. In cases where members of the pair differ by the type of action (e.g. gibati se—ganiti se ‘to move’), the semantic difference is added to the aspectual one. A re-comparison of Bohorič’s glossaries and Megiser’s dictionaries—his quadrilingual dictionary with German as the source language (MD 1592) and multilingual dictionary with Latin as the source (MTh 1603)—that included data on how widely the usage of this lexicon was spread, confirmed the hypothesis that the glossaries were one of Megiser’s main lexicographic sources of Slovene equivalents. (This data is one of the results of the complete excerption of the Slovene texts in book publications in the period of 1550–1603). Megiser’s consideration of Bohorič’s glossaries is most clearly evident in approximately 90 words that cannot be found in other works. In addition, the glossaries proved to be a useful reference work for citing widespread and commonly used lexicon. A typological difference between the compared lexicographic works is reflected in differences in their informativity as well as in the number of foreign-language equivalents and included Slovene equivalents. The increased number of Slovene synonyms in Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries was the result of Megiser’s inclusion of the Register (1584) and his ever-improving knowledge of the Slovene literary language and some Slovene dialects (e.g., Carinthian). Keywords: Adam Bohorič, lexicography, glossaries in Bohorič’s grammar, dictionary informativity, Megiser’s multilingual dictionaries

The main aim of the article is to analyse which types of syntactic information should be included in bilingual dictionaries where Lithuanian is the target language. The article discusses specific features of bidirectional dictionaries and differences between the syntactic information given in bilingual and monolingual dictionaries. Also discussed are principles for selecting syntactic information on Lithuanian as a target language, general syntactic features which are relevant in lexicography, ways of presenting government and valency and the importance of contrastive analysis for bilingual lexicography. Although syntactic information on lemmas and their equivalents is not a new subject in lexicographic theory and practice, syntactic information on Lithuanian as a target language has not yet been investigated, as no dictionaries for foreign users of Lithuanian have been compiled and published. The investigation is mostly based on experience and empirical data from the “Norwegian-Lithuanian dictionary”.The analysis leads to the conclusion that the most important information to provide about Lithuanian equivalents in bilingual dictionaries is verb government and valency. The most valuable information for the users of bilingual dictionaries illustrates the syntactic differences between the source and the target language, and this information can be identified by applying a contrastive method. The relevant syntactic information can be given next to the equivalents or in the examples. Case marking, obligatory use with prepositions as well as subordination of infinitive constructions can be shown next to the equivalents. As a minimum, the syntactic information on Lithuanian verbs should state if the verb takes another object case than the accusative. It is necessary to provide equivalents with the obligatory components of valency, while facultative components might be shown in the examples. Syntactic information should be provided for phrases as well as for single-word equivalents. In the examples one can show the variety of the syntactic features of the Lithuanian equivalents and highlight the differences between the syntactic features of the Norwegian lemmas and their Lithuanian equivalents. Examples can also be used to show specific syntactic constructions which do not exist in Lithuanian and provide information on congruous syntactic features of both languages.It is hardly possible to present the syntactic features of both languages equally detailed in bilingual bidirectional dictionaries. As lemma lists and examples are usually compiled on the basis of the source language, it usually turns out that the target language is provided with less information, and it is complicated to analyse and highlight the grammar of all the equivalents of the source language.

The aim of this paper is to present a pilot study which applies the framework of Corpus Pattern Analysis (CPA, Hanks 2004) to analyse some Lithuanian verbs which form part of the basic vocabulary. CPA draws on the insights of the corpus-driven language analysis and contextual and functional theory of meaning: a meaning of a word is associated with a specific lexical and grammatical environment, e.g. corpus patterns which represent an interconnection of lexical and grammatical elements. The CPA procedure is one of the several corpus-driven methods differing from the pattern grammar (Hunston, Francis 2000) in the way that CPA not only uses typical grammatical categories (e.g. word classes) but also introduces semantic values (e.g. semantic types) to distinguish different senses of a word. Semantic types are often the main separator of meanings, especially when two verb senses are associated with the same grammatical pattern. Concerning learners’ dictionaries, CPA could provide learners with more detailed usage data, and this could lead to a better understanding of meaning differences, important both for language reception and language production. After introducing the CPA methodology, we present the CPA analysis of two Lithuanian verbs, namely, the inductive procedure followed to observe and define meaning-related patterning. We also discuss the problematic issues related to the application of CPA as identified in this study and mentioned by other CPA practitioners. First, observing and defining corpus patterns is a challenging task for lexicographers, especially because of the pattern / meaning division and generalizations related to semantic types. The second problematic aspect is automatization in the process of pattern recognition. The third issue relates to foreign language learners as a target group: meaning-related patterning observed in the data has to be presented in a learner dictionary in a user-friendly way.

This article studies functional and semantic Tense/Aspect complexes in Russian and English, focusing on their similarities and differences. In Russian, Tense-Aspect meanings of the verb forms correlate with the semantic components of Aktionsart, while in English both Imperfective and Perfective aspects of the verb semantics are realized by the constituent category of Tense/Aspect. The inner asymmetry of the verb forms and meanings is acknowledged for each of the contrastive languages, especially for the two languages compared. The material of the study is retrieved from grammar books and manuals and from literary text samples, principally concerns the use of Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb and the forms of the English Perfect. The novelty impact of the study is determined by focusing on the irregularity of the aspectual meanings of English Perfect forms and Tense/Aspect forms of the Russian verb, whereas they are mostly due to lexical meanings of the verbs influenced by intralinguistic specificities of the semantics of lexical indicators as well as mechanisms of communication on the whole. Aspectual meanings both for the Perfective and Imperfective Aspect in languages under comparison used to make up lexical and grammatical aspectual categorical complexes. In terms of Aspect and Tense, peculiarities are found as functional and semantic ones, highly dependent on the situation and context of communication, thus involving extralinguistic factors which also concern the extralinguistic environment of Tense/Aspect verbal forms in use. The comparison of functions and the semantics of Aspect and Aktionsart in the Russian language with those of English Perfect asymmetry is proved to emerge, being caused by cross-linguistic structural and typological differences, particularly, the existence or not the similar forms, their varying semantic load, analytical or synthetic tendencies and others. The asymmetry is especially vividly seen translation and lexicographic field to compose varying kinds of bilingual dictionaries.

‘The meaning of texts is dealt with by a dispersal of analysis at mutually congruent series of levels, beginning with contexts of situation and proceeding throughcollocation, syntax (includingcolligation) to phonology and phonetics⃜ Stylistics with some notice of phonaesthetic features, lexicography and the place and use of translation are to be included to complete the spectrum’ (Firth, 1957: 30).

Introduction. This article is a development of an earlier study on the grammatical categories of the verb in Hungarian in comparison with Russian. The subject of study in this work is the grammatical category of voice, one of the most common verbal categories, typical for Russian verbs and absent in the Hungarian language, as well as the ways of its transmission when translated into Hungarian. The purpose of this work is to analyze the grammatical forms of the Hungarian and Russian verbs expressing voice relations and to establish the corresponding equivalents of the category of voice in Russian in the Hungarian language. Materials and Methods. The research material is verbal vocabulary selected from lexicographic works (dictionaries of the Hungarian and Russian languages), linguistic and journalistic sources, grammars of the Hungarian language. The article considers both the written form of the modern Hungarian language and examples from live colloquial speech. The methodological framework of this study is based on researches on general linguistics, the theory of morphology, contributing to the formulation of the problem, determining the degree of its development in the research literature, as well as familiarizing with the conceptual approaches to the voice as an ambiguously interpreted grammatical category of the verb. The methods used in the study are comparative-typological, synchronous-descriptive and functional-semantic methods. Results and Discussion. In the course of study it revealed how inflectional and derivational means helping to express the grammatical semantics of the category of voice in Russian can adequately convey the categorical meaning in the Hungarian language, in which the category of voice is absent. The comparative study of two languages helps to identify the features inherent in each of them, which generally contributes to solving the problems associated with the practice of their teaching. The results of the work based on the data of the ongoing research may be useful in the analysis of other grammatical categories on the material of various languages. Conclusion. Despite the fact that verbs in the Hungarian language do not have a passive voice, the means and forms of its expression are represented in it by a developed and diverse system. The study allows making a step forward in understanding the typological specifics of the voice category and make a certain contribution to the general theory of this phenomenon, since it was the first study of the verb forms of two heterogeneous, genetically unrelated languages based on a comparative analysis in grammatical, semantic and functional aspects.

Based on primary sources and relevant literature, the authors in this paper present the commentary that Atfi Ahmed Bosnevi, an Ottoman author of Bosnian extraction from the first half of the XVIII century, composed upon the celebrated Persian-Ottoman dictionary in verse Tuḥfe-i Shāhidī by Ibrahim-dede Shāhidī. The original work subject to commentary is briefly introduced and analyzed as a significant work in the evolution of Persian lexicography in the Ottoman Empire. However, Atfi's commentary upon Tuḥfe remains in the primary focus of the authors in all relevant aspects: his commentary approach and relation to the original text, his method of commenting as well as the contents of his work revolving around Persian grammar and its tripartite structure according to the traditional Oriental and Arabic linguistic heritage: verbs, nouns, and particle. Although a later addition to the tradition of Tuḥfe commentaries, Atfi’s work ranks among more comprehensive and successful commentaries in which the author strives to preserve the original text from repeated distortions caused to extensive copying, often by non-well-qualified individuals. After furnishing all the necessary information on Ottoman and Persian prosody at the opening of each chapter, Atfi analyzes the Persian lemmata with precious instructions concerning their orthography and pronunciation and their meaning by way of Turkish and Arabic equivalents. The authors conclude that Atfi subjected the original text of Tuhfa to rigorous and thorough philological treatment. Nonetheless, his commentary sometimes feels a bit restrained as Atfi is not particularly keen on widening his commentary out of the contours of the original work even if an occasion calls for it. As a result, his treatment of specific grammatical questions in Persian is selective. His commentary does not function as a combined dictionary and grammar of Persian, and that was not the author’s purpose and motivation for writing his commentary.

The works that best reflect the vocabulary of the language are undoubtedly dictionaries. Lexicography, which is accepted as a branch of science, is a branch of science that aims to reveal the vocabulary of a language or various languages comparatively in the form of a dictionary, and shows the ways of application by putting methods for this purpose. Today, a wide variety of dictionaries are prepared for different purposes. While some of these dictionaries, such as "reverse syntax dictionaries", are more recent to be prepared, the history of encyclopedic dictionaries such as "Divanu Lugati't-Türk" dates back to older times. Verse grammar books and dictionaries have been found since the eleventh century. The first examples of verse dictionaries in the Anatolian field are Arabic-Persian and were written in the 14th century. Due to many reasons, especially political and demographic factors, Greek was undoubtedly the language in which the most written material was produced after Arabic and Persian as a foreign language in the Ottoman state. There are plenty of examples from all kinds of written products: newspapers, magazines, textbooks, dictionaries, etc. These are Tuhfe-i Rumi, Tuhfetu'l-Uşşak, Tuhfe-i Vehbi, Lugat-i Nuriye and Hafız İbrahim Lugati. In this study, we will give information about the Turkish-Greek verse dictionary called Tuhfe-i Rumî, of which we have identified three copies so far, and we will reveal the text publication by examining the features of the work.

Rusanivskyi’s scientific works on grammar, lexicology, lexicography, spelling, history of Ukrainian literary language, sociolinguistics, as well as philosophy of language, theoretical and practical issues of Slavic studies represent the level of development of Ukrainian linguistics of the second half of XX – early XXI century. The overarching idea of the author’s research is the search for new aspects of language cognition due to the ontological and epistemological nature of this object. The first studies are devoted to the history of the Ukrainian language, namely the study of grammatical categories of type and time in the Ukrainian language of the XVI – XVII centuries. In the landmark work “Structure of the Ukrainian verb” on a large factual material, the researcher traced the structural changes (variance of the morpheme composition) of verbs in different time sections of the Ukrainian language. The most expressive among the constants of the linguist’s scientific style is attention and constant reference to lexical semantics, to the meaning of a word in a dictionary and in specific texts. The author traces and theoretically substantiates the tendencies of movement in the immanent semantic structure of the vocabulary of each natural language. It is this tendency that explains V.M. Rusanivskyi’s constant appeal to the structural-semantic analysis of T. Shevchenko’s dictionary of language, to the disclosure of the semantic depth of the word in his texts. Without claiming a comprehensive analysis of the constants of Rusanivskyi’s scientific style, we emphasize the heuristic value of the following authorial concepts: a) representation of grammatical categories of verbs as the unity of form and meaning of a language unit; b) the interaction of lexical and grammatical semantics at all levels of language structure; c) constructive interaction of functional and expressive styles in the history of literary language; d) the history of the formation of the literary norm of the Ukrainian language; e) development of the Ukrainian literary language in the context of system-structural, functional-communicative and extralingual factors.

This paper describes the grammatical patterning of two parts of speech – nouns and adjectives – included in the corpus-driven “Lexical Database of Lithuanian” as a foreign language. The lexical database is a lexicographic application of the Lithuanian Pedagogic Corpus (approx. 620.000 tokens) which was used to develop headword lists and to collect word usage information in the form of corpus patterns. In this project, we adopted a partially automated inductive procedure of Corpus Pattern Analysis for 207 verbs, 386 nouns, 87 adjectives, and 41 adverbs. The detected corpus patterns reflect different meanings of the headword. Each pattern presents information on grammatical, semantic, and lexical levels. Manually selected examples illustrate all pattern components. In this paper, 673 patterns with nouns and 99 patterns with adjectives will be analysed discussing their syntactic behaviour in detail and providing some comments on lexis-grammar interface. The majority of patterns with nouns and adjectives are minimal patterns which include only the closest syntactical partners. This result is influenced by different procedures used to describe patterns with nouns, adjectives, and adverbs and patterns with verbs. Due to rich grammatical information, there are several similar patterns with one main (usually the most frequent) type and its variants. Pattern variants show that the grammatical characteristics of a specific word usage are rather individual.

The paper provides a comparative study of the collocational and associative structures in Estonian with respect to the role of parts of speech. The lists of collocations and associations of an equal set of nouns, verbs and adjectives, originating from the respective dictionaries, is analysed to find both the range of coincidences and differences. The results show a moderate overlap, among which the biggest overlap occurs in the range of the adjectival associates and collocates. There is an overall prevalence for nouns appearing among the associated and collocated items. The coincidental sets of relations are tentatively explained by the influence of grammatical relations i.e. the patterns of local grammar binding together the collocations and motivating the associations. The results are discussed with respect to the possible reasons causing the associations-collocations mismatch and in relation to the application of these findings in the fields of lexicography and second language acquisition.

Arabic vocabulary consists of nouns, verbs and particle words. This vocabulary belongs to standalone language group, a symbol to a certain meaning and comes from a single morpheme. The particles in linguistic field is one of the words in Arabic other than nouns and verbs. The noun and verb have their own meanings and can stand alone in a sentence. However, the particles cannot function at all if they are not joined with noun or verb in the sentence. The particles also give a variety of functions and meanings, depending on the meaning of the word. This study reveals the meaning, function, type, language form and translation method through qualitative methods with document analysis on Kamus Idris Al-Marbawi (KIAM) dan Kamus Besar Arab Melayu Dewan (KBAMD). The findings revealed that there are differences between translation of KIAM and KBAMD, that there are some particles that are not translated by KBAMD and there are also differences in terms of the number of meanings of each particle generated by both dictionaries. Thus, it is hoped that this study will contribute to the new findings on lexicography studies in Arabic language and particles in particular. This study would also have a positive impact on linguistic study of Arabic in terms of grammar, translation, and even other studies related to Malay writers' thoughts and cultures. ABSTRAK Perkataan dalam bahasa Arab terdiri daripada kata nama, kata kerja dan kata partikel. Perkataan ini adalah daripada kumpulan bahasa yang boleh berdiri dengan sendiri, simbol kepada makna tertentu dan berasal daripada morfem tunggal. Kata partikel dalam ilmu linguistik merupakan salah satu jenis perkataan dalam bahasa Arab selain daripada kata nama dan kata kerja. Kata nama dan kata kerja mempunyai makna tersendiri dan boleh berdiri dengan sendiri dalam sesuatu ayat. Walaubagaimanapun, kata partikel tidak berfungsi sama sekali jika diletak bersendirian dalam ayat. Kata partikel juga memberi fungsi dan makna yang pelbagai, bergantung kepada makna yang ingin disampaikan. Kajian ini mendedahkan setiap makna, fungsi, jenis, laras bahasa dan gaya terjemahan kata partikel melalui kaedah kualitatif dengan analisis dokumen terhadap Kamus Idris Al-Marbawi (KIAM) dan Kamus Besar Arab Melayu Dewan (KBAMD). Dapatan menemui terdapat perbezaan antara laras bahasa KIAM dan KBAMD, ada kata partikel yang tidak diterjemah oleh KBAMD serta wujud perbezaan antara bilangan makna setiap kata partikel yang dihasilkan oleh kedua-dua kamus ini. Demikian, ia diharap dapat menyumbang kepada hasil dapatan baharu terhadap kajian leksikografi dalam dunia bahasa Arab amnya dan kata partikel khususnya. Ia juga dilihat akan dapat memberi impak positif dalam kajian linguistik bahasa Arab terhadap aspek fungsi sesuatu kaedah nahu, terjemahan, bahkan kajian lain berkaitan pemikiran dan budaya penulis Melayu.

Abstract Novel formats of construction-based description hold great potential for phenomena that fall through the cracks in traditional kinds of linguistic reference works. On the example of German verb argument structure constructions with a prepositional object, we demonstrate that a construction-based description of such phenomena is superior to existing lexicographic and grammaticographic treatments, but that it also poses a number of new problems. The most fundamental of these relates to the fact that construction-based analyses can be proposed on different levels of abstraction. We illustrate pertinent problems relating to the precise identification of constructional form and meaning and suggest a multi-layered descriptive format for web-based electronic reference constructica that can accommodate these challenges. Semantically, the proposed solution integrates both lumping and splitting perspectives on constructional grain size and permits users to flexibly zoom in and out on individual elements in the resource. Formally, it can capture variation in the number and marking of realised arguments as found in e.g. passives and transitivity alternations. Aspects of the theoretical controversy between Construction Grammar and Valency Theory are addressed where relevant, but our focus is on questions of description and the practical implementation of construction-based analyses in a suitable type of linguistic reference work.

Introduction: the article is devoted to the lexical and grammatical features of the verbal vocabulary functioning in the songs of Bears Games, based on the material of the book «The Songs of the Kazym River in The Collection of the Okrug House of Folk Art». The book presents field material recorded by employees of the Okrug House of Folk Art in 1988–1992s in the Yuilsk settlement of Beloyarsky District and in the Kyshik settlement of Khanty-Mansiysky District. In the course of the study, the archaic vocabulary, existing in this sphere, and word-formation means, attached to the root of the verb and modifying its meaning, are revealed. Objective: to identify the archaic verbal vocabulary presented in the texts of Bear’s songs; to give the most complete lexicographic description; to consider the word-formation system of verbal units. Research materials: the collection «Songs of the Kazym River in The Collection of the Okrug House of Folk Art» (2019), bilingual dictionaries on the Khanty language. Results and novelty of the research: in the paper, for the first time the verbal vocabulary of the texts of Bear’s songs is analyzed; archaic lexemes that are not represented in modern dictionaries of the Kazym dialect, but find separate parallels in the eastern and southern dialects, are identified; 18 verbal word-formation morphemes are identified, among them suffixes that are not represented in modern grammars. The most commonly used suffixes are the multiplicity and duration suffixes =iλә=, =ijәλ=/=ĭjәλ=, =әt’λ’ә= / =λ’ә=.

From the perspective of lexicography, this paper presents an analysis of participles ending in -ci, -vsi and -m(i), which in contemporary Serbian language fall within two categories: 1) the category of contemporary participial continuants, whose action is attributed to the noun as a temporary, current feature at a definite point in time, and 2) the category of adjectives that semantically correspond to past participles or to adjectives proper. As regards the descriptive dictionaries of the contemporary Serbian language, the participles ending in -ci, -vsi and -m(i) are lexicographically treated primarily in the Dictionary of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (the SASA Dictionary). Comparing the example sentences excerpted from various texts belonging to the contemporary standard Serbian language, on the one hand, with those excerpted from the SASA Dictionary, on the other, it can be noted that the SASA Dictionary does not contain examples of participle forms with the reflexive morpheme -se, while they can be said to be confirmed in other sources. This can be explained as resulting from the impact of the Serbian language norm, according to which participles do not belong to the contemporary standard Serbian language. This is especially true of forms containing the reflexive morpheme -se, which are not to be found in any modern grammar of the standard Serbian language. It is concluded in the paper that the SASA Dictionary treats the participle forms of both aforementioned categories and of three separate participle forms according to the verb tense (past and present) and voice (active and passive). As for the sources confirming the use of these forms, they can be found not only in those dating from the first half of the 19th century, when participles were commonplace in the literary language of Serbs, but also in the works of the 20th-century authors using the contemporary standard Serbian language. In accordance with that, the conclusion to be drawn is that participles should be treated and included in dictionaries, both in those whose compilation is ongoing (i.e. the SASA Dictionary) and in the future dictionaries of the contemporary Serbian language. The excerpted material shows that participles are used by prominent authors in Serbian science, religion and culture. As for the issue of which label to use for the indicated types of participles in the descriptive dictionary of the contemporary Serbian language, it is argued in this paper that in order to resolve it one should take into consideration at least two sets of facts related to the presented material. One refers to the examples of the formation of participles that in fact originate from the older layers of our literary language and which have been preserved in identical or similar form to this day (e.g. odsedsi, usopsi), while the other concerns participles created in a contemporary synchronic process involving contemporary verbs in current use and their meanings (dogorevajuca sveca, plac radjajucih stvorenja, etc.). The former set of examples is marked with standard labels, such as ?zast.? (?obsolete?), ?arh.? (?archaic?), ?rsl.? (?Russian Church Slavonic?), ?csl.? (?New Church Slavonic?), ?ssl.? (?Serbian Church Slavonic?), ?stknj. arh.? (?from earlier literary sources, old-fashioned?), used in the lexicographic description of participles in the SASA Dictionary, which can also be used in other descriptive dictionaries of the contemporary Serbian language to indicate the literary epoch in which a particular form of participle originated, or its pragmatic value. Concerning the latter set of participles, if they were to be introduced into a descriptive dictionary of the Serbian language, they would require different labels, since these are the words formed according to the participle-building pattern of the present-day synchronic lexical-grammatical process.

It is not unusual for a language to have one or several prepositions of originally perlative meaning that in certain pragmatic and syntactic contexts can designate location of some object (the trajector) on the other side of another, typically topographical, object (the landmark). In English such prepositions are across, through and over. In Lithuanian their sole counterpart is the preposition per. In Cognitive Grammar the cases when motion verbs or prepositions that presuppose motion are applied to designate static spatial relations between two objects are accounted for by using the notion of ‘subjective motion’ which, in its turn, is based on the notion of ‘subjectification’ (Langacker 2000, 2002, 2006). In other words, the subjective motion is defined as a cognitive operation in the course of which the conceptualizer mentally scans through the route that is presupposed by applying a motion verb or a perlative preposition. Thus the use of the lexemes of originally dynamic meaning is motivated for the designation of static spatial situations. The cases of the semantic extension mentioned above until now pose no problems for Lithuanian linguists, either lexicographers or grammarians. Thus the phenomenon of ‘locative’ use of the perlative preposition per in Lithuanian remains unidentified in dictionaries, and undescribed in grammars. No surprise, such uses of the preposition per are unattested in the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian, though in spoken everyday language and in the internet sources they are well attested. One may adduce structural and semantic arguments that the locative meaning ‘on the other side of’ of the perlative preposition under discussion is represented in the mental lexicon of the Lithuanian speaker and, thus, must be discerned as separate sense in dictionaries. To say more, without this sense unbridged semantic gap remains between the primary sense ‘through’ of the preposition per, representing ‘proto-scene’, and its derived senses of ‘distance’, ‘span of the time’, ‘more than’ and others − the fact of most relevance for the one who attempts to reconstruct the motivated semantic network (Tyler & Evans 2003) of this preposition. The main concern of the article, though, is not lexicography, but similarities and differences between locative usage of originally perlative construction [per + NPacc] and inherently locative constructions [kitapus + NPgen] and [anapus + NPgen]. On the first look these constructions seem synonymous: they have the same meaning ‘on the other side of’ and are mainly used in locative vs. existential sentences. But the deeper insight into the data collected from the internet sources shows that what distinguishes the first construction from the other two is the additional functional component of the ‘trajector control’ in its meaning: the construction [per + NPacc] is predominantly selected in the situations when it is relevant to the speaker not only to say that the object pointed at is on the other side of some topographical object and exactly in front of the viewer but it is within potential reach of this viewer as well. On the other hand, the construction [kitapus + NPgen] and [anapus + NPgen] is selected in the situations when the proximity of the dislocated object is not relevant to the speaker. Thus, in terms of distribution, the construction [per + NPacc], in its locative usage, with respect to its inherently locative counterparts represents the (functionally) marked case in Lithuanian.

Abstract This article examines, from the perspective of the History of Linguistics, the specifications and the genesis of two distinct lists of four sets of words which are often found in the ancient shastric corpus of the Tamil-speaking South. One of those lists, which is found inside the “pure grammar” component of that technical literature, enumerates ‘nouns’ (peyarc col), ‘verbs’ (viṉaic col), ‘particles’ (iṭaic col), and uric col (lit. ‘appropriate words’), whereas the other list, which reflects the fact that one of the main aims of “grammar” was to describe literature, enumerates ‘simple words’ (iyaṟcol), tiricol (lit. ‘mutant words’ or ‘twisted words’), ‘regional words’ (ticaic col), and ‘Northern words’ (vaṭacol). In both lists, there is an item for which it is difficult to find a simple translation, namely uriccol for the first list and tiricol for the second list. T he difficulty in identifying and explaining the intention of those who coined those terms seems to be in part due to the fact that the texts which the Tamil tradition has transmitted to us are an assemblage of various parts that were once fragments of a “work in progress”, now fossilized, which was partly abandoned, either because another śāstra (that of lexicography) took over part of the descriptive effort, and/or because the ambition to compile a dhātu-pāṭha (the Sanskrit term for a list of verbal roots) for the Tamil language was abandoned, if such a project ever existed. The fact that discontinuities in the transmission of Tamil śāstric literature do exist is attested to, for instance, by the hesitation of traditional commentators, while explaining sūtra TP 385i (alias TP 392p), which is a characterization of marapu (approx. ‘usage’), said to be dependent on the power of ‘the four words’. The commentators are cautious in deciding which of the two lists of ‘four words’ is meant, possibly hoping to suggest that the sūtra might refer to both, because they believe in the “beauty of compromise”.

It is my pleasure to introduce this thematic issue dedicated to the lexicography of Japanese as a second or foreign language, the first thematic issue in Acta Linguistica Asiatica since its inception.Japanese has an outstandingly long and rich lexicographical tradition, but there have been relatively few dictionaries of Japanese targeted at learners of Japanese as a foreign or second language until the end of the twentieth century. With the growth of Japanese language teaching and learning around the world, the rapid development of very large scale linguistic resources and language processing technologies for Japanese, a new generation of aggregated, collectively developed or crowd-sourced resources evolving in the context of the social web, a shift from static paper to constantly developing electronic resources, the spread of internet access on hand-held devices, and new approaches to the use of language reference resources stemming from these developments, dictionaries and other reference resources for learners, teachers and users of Japanese as a foreign/second language are being developed and used in new ways in different user communities. However, information about such developments often does not reach researchers, lexicographers, dictionary users and language teachers in other user communities or research spheres. This special issues wishes to contribute to the spread of such information by presenting some recent developments in this growing field.Having received a very lively response to our call for papers, not all papers selected for publishing could fit into this issue, and part of them will be included in the December issue of ALA, which is also going to be dedicated to Japanese lexicography.The first round of papers included in this issue presents a varied cross-section of current JFL lexicographical work and research. All papers in this issue point out the relative scarcity of appropriate reference works for learners of Japanese as a foreign language, especially when compared to lexicographical resources for Japanese native speakers, and each of the endeavours presented here confronts this lack with its own original approach. Reflecting the paradigm shift in Japanese language research, where corpus research is again playing a central role, most papers presented here take advantage of the bounty of newly available corpora and web data, most prominent among which is the Balanced Corpus of Contemporary Written Japanese developed by the National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics in Tokyo, and which is used by Mogi, Pardeshi et al. and Sunakawa et al. in their lexicographical research and projects, while Blin taps data for his research from the web, another increasingly important linguistic resource.The first two papers offer two perspectives on existing Japanese dictionaries. Tom Gally in his paper Kokugo Dictionaries as Tools for Learners: Problems and Potential points out the drawbacks of currently available Japanese dictionaries from the perspective of learners of Japanese as a foreign language, but at the same time offers a very detailed and convincing explanation of the merits of monolingual Japanese dictionaries for native speakers (kokugo dictionaries), such as their comprehensiveness, detailedness and quantity of contextual information, when compared to bilingual dictionaries, which make them a potentially useful resource even for an audience they are not targeting - foreign language learners. His detailed explanation of possible uses and potential hurdles and pitfalls learners may encounter in using them, is not only accurate and informative, but also of immediate practical value for language teachers and lexicographers.Toshinobu Mogi, in his paper Towards the Lexicographic Description of the Grammatical Behaviour of Japanese Loanwords: A Case Study, investigates the lexicographic description of loanwords in Japanese reference works and notes how information offered by currently available dictionaries, especially regarding the grammatical aspects of loanword use, is not sufficient for learners of Japanese as a foreign language. After pointing our the deficiencies of current dictionary descriptions and noting how dictionaries sense divisions do not reflect the frequency of different senses in actual use, as reflected in a large-scale representative general corpus of Japanese, he uses a fascinatingly detailed analysis of the behaviour of a Japanese loanword verb to describe a corpus-based method of lexical description, based on the correspondence between usage forms and senses, which could be used for the compilation of Japanese learners' dictionaries meant for the reception and production of Japanese.The second part of this special issue is composed of four reports on particular aspects of ongoing lexicographical work targeted at learners of Japanese as a foreign language.Prashant Pardeshi, Shingo Imai, Kazuyuki Kiryu, Sangmok Lee, Shiro Akasegawa and Yasunari Imamura in their paper Compilation of Japanese Basic Verb Usage Handbook for JFL Learners: A Project Report, after pointing out - as other authors in this issue - the lack of a detailed and pedagogically sound lexicographical description of Japanese basic vocabulary for foreign learners, propose a corpus-based on-line system which incorporates insights from cognitive grammar, contrastive studies and second language acquisition research to solve this problem. They present their current implementation of such a system, which includes audio-visual material and translations into Chinese, Korean and Marathi. The system also uses natural language processing techniques to support lexicographers who need to process daunting amounts of corpus data in order to produce detailed lexical descriptions based on actual use.The next article by Marcella Maria Mariotti and Alessandro Mantelli, ITADICT Project and Japanese Language Learning, focus on the learner's perspective. They present a collaborative project in which Italian learners of Japanese compiled an on-line Japanese-Italian dictionary using a purposely developed on-line dictionary editing system, under the supervision of a small group of teachers. One practical and obvious outcome of the project is a Japanese-Italian freely accessible lexical database, but the authors also highlight the pedagogical value of such an approach, which stimulates students' motivation for learning, hones their ICT skills, makes them more aware of the structure and usability of existing lexicographic and language learning resources, and helps them learn to cooperate on a shared task and exchange peer support.The third project report by Raoul Blin, Automatic Addition of Genre Information in a Japanese Dictionary, focuses on the labelling of lexical genre, an aspect of word usage which is not satisfactorily presented in current Japanese dictionaries, despite its importance for foreign language learners when using dictionaries for production tasks. The article describes a procedure for automatic labelling of genre by means of a statistical analysis of internet-derived genre-specific corpora. The automatisation of the process simplifies its later reiteration, thus making it possible to observe lexical genre development over time.The final paper in this issue is a report on The Construction of a Database to Support the Compilation of Japanese Learners’ Dictionaries, by Yuriko Sunakawa, Jae-ho Lee and Mari Takahara. Motivated by the lack of Japanese bilingual learners' dictionaries for speakers of most languages in the world, the authors engaged in the development of a database of detailed corpus-based descriptions of the vocabulary needed by learners of Japanese from beginning to advanced level. By freely offering online the basic data needed for bilingual dictionary compilation, they are building the basis from which editors in under-resourced language areas will be able to compile richer and more up-to-date contents even with limited human and financial resources. This project is certainly going to greatly contribute to the solution of existing problems in Japanese learners' lexicography.

T?be?n and Taba T?be?n strived hard to prevent any kind of debate based on the color and differences of debate, following the path of the Sah?bah (may Allah be pleased with them). This series of tafs?r of the Holy Quran continued with all the changing requirements of the time and the commentary discussions of the Holy Qur'an. The status of Tafs?r also gained a prominent position and the status of permanent knowledge. According to the order of the Holy Qur'an, every verse of the Holy Qur'an began to be interpreted and the publication of Tafsir Ilm-e-Tafs?r started from almost here. The most basic source of Qur'anic commentary is the Holy Qur'an itself. Prophet? was the first commentator of the Qur'an. The character of Muhammad?, his method, Sunnah and habits are all part of the interpretation of the Qur'an. The Prophet? has clearly described the issues facing the people of that time. Similarly, the special thing in Qazi San?ullah's book ‘Tafs?r Mazhar?’ is that in this book he discusses the topics of the sciences of recitation and tajw?d, recitation continuously, Shazah and other recitations in great detail. Also included are important topics such as lexicography and derivation and grammar discussions, commentary on the inter-verses of the verses and verses, and the revelation of glory and the jurisprudential discussions of the verses. It is needed to compare the jurisprudential discourses of the Qur'anic verses between these two commentaries and present their merits together so that the seekers of knowledge can benefit from the merits of both the commentaries. Consequently, in view of this motive, a quick work has been chosen on this regard, because this article cannot be so thick as to give an entire comparative overview of these interpretations. A comparative look at of the jurisprudential injunctions of Surah At-Toubah between Jass?s and Tafs?r Mazhar? might be performed below the identify.

Abstract This article presents an interview with Professor Patrick Hanks, a British lexicographer and corpus linguist, who proposes a new approach – a corpus-driven, phraseological approach – to lexicography. Hanks has developed a procedure called Corpus Pattern Analysis (CPA), which is the foundation of The Pattern Dictionary of English Verbs (in progress). The basic aim of CPA is to explore the relationship between word meaning and patterns of word use. Hanks maintains that the verb is ‘the pivot of the clause’. Verb meanings – or, rather, the meanings of clauses – are mapped onto phraseological patterns, rather than just being listed for words in isolation. Associated with this is the Theory of Norms and Exploitations (TNE), which was discussed in his monograph published by MIT Press in 2013. In this interview, Professor Hanks outlines his vision of a phraseological dictionary of the future (an alternative to WordNet). He discusses meaning and grammar in the light of Corpus Pattern Analysis. Specifically, he explains the procedure of Corpus Pattern Analysis, and the objectives of the Pattern Dictionary of English Verbs (PDEV), including the light that such work can shed on the relationship between language and logic. He discusses the relationship between PDEV and English grammar, his evaluation of generative linguistics, and his views on Noam Chomsky. He also highlights the contributions made by linguists of the past to the understanding of the nature of meaning in language. He goes on to suggest that any new bilingual dictionary with Chinese as a source language should be based on careful analyses of actual language use, both in Chinese and in the various target languages.

Grammar in a dictionary on the example of word valency. This paper analyses complements in general monolingual dictionaries of the Croatian language. The inclusion of complements in a dictionary definition or dictionary articles is discussed, as well as the means of emphasizing the complement. After the part about word valency in linguistics (which finds the complement as one of the most important concepts) and the part about specialized dictionaries that directly or indirectly deal with valency, the work also analyses the lexicographic compilation of verbs of different valency in four general monolingual dictionaries of the Croatian language: Rječnik hrvatskoga jezika (RHJ), Hrvatski jezični portal (HJP), Veliki rječnik hrvatskoga standardnog jezika (VRH) and Mrežnik. The paper also brings a proposal for the lexicographic description of chosen verbs.

Morphologically, the infinitive of the verb لحَنَ يَلْحَنُ the concept of “اللِحْنُ /al-laḥn”, lexicographic tune, composition, melody, harmonious sound that is pleasing to the ear; It has different meanings, such as speaking incorrectly and speaking in a closed and pseudonymous way that no one else can understand. In the Arabic language terminology, the concept in question is described as the opposite of fluent Arabic and in the pronunciation of letters or words; in the meaning and use of words; it means to make mistakes in the formation of the sentence and in the irapta/movements. The phenomenon of laḥn, which can be briefly defined as the incorrect use in the language, is a subject that needs to be examined in many ways. In this study, the subject of Detection of the Laḥn Phenomenon in the Arabic Language Literature and Sources Used in Tasḥîḥ has been examined. It is beyond argument that language, which is one of the hallmarks of human beings, is in a state of constant change as a living entity by nature, depending on both cultural, economic and technological developments. Functionally, language is the most vital part of life, the basic element of literature and national culture, and has an important place in human life. In addition to these, as a means of communication and expression, it has features such as approximator and fuser. Because of these features, peoples have attached importance to its correct development. Arabs, who had a distinguished place in the pre-Islamic period with their fluency and eloquence, clearly put language and literature above everything else and considered this a source of pride. With the disposition they inherited from their ancestors, they could easily understand which word signified which meaning. They did not need any grammatical rules to correct or strengthen the selica. Along with Islam - especially with the people's influx of people entering Islam in groups as a result of the conquests - the contact of Arabs with many foreign cultures, and the widespread use of laḥn in the Arabic language began to appear in almost every part of the society and in many different fields. It is known that this situation played a leading role in laying the foundation of the Arabic grammar and starting the dictionary studies in the eyes of the scholars of the period. But II/VII. Since the middle of the century, studies such as lexicon and grammar were not sufficient and the phenomenon of laḥn continued to become widespread, and the "Laḥnu'l-âmme, Laḥnu'l-hâṣṣe, Mâ telhânü fîhi'l-ʿamme, Laḥnu'l-avâm" aimed at detecting and correcting erroneous uses. and laḥnu'l-havâṣ”, many works have been written. Ali b. Hamza al-Kisâî's (d. 189/805) Mâ telḥanü fîhi'l-ʿavâm, and Ibn al-Sikkît's (d. 244/858) Iṣlâḥu'l-manṭık; Mufaddal b. Mâ telḥanü fîhi'l-ʿamme of Salama (d. 290/903); Kitâbü'l-Faṣîḥ by Abu'l-Abbas Sa'leb (d. 291/904); Leyse fî kalami'l-ʿArab of Ibn Halaveyh al-Hamedani (d. 370/980); Abu Bakr al-Zubaidi's (d. 379/989) Laḥnü'l-ʿavâm; The Tes̱ḳīfü'l-lisân of Ibn Makkî (d. 501/1108); Abu Muhammad al-Harîrî's (d. 516/1122) Dürretü'l-Şavvâṣ fî evhâmi'l-ḫavâṣ; Ebû Mansûr al-Cevâlîkî's (d. 540/1145) Tekmileti îṣlâḥ mâ taġleṭu fîhi'l-ʿâmme; Ibn Hisham al-Lahmi's (d. 577/1181) al-Medḫal to taḳvîmi'l-lisân; Ibn Berrî al-Maqdisî's (d. 582/1187) Ġalaṭü'ḍ-ḍuʿafâʾ mine'l-fuḳahâʾ; Works such as İbnü'l-Cevzî's (d. 597/1201) Calendarü'l-lisân and Ebü's-Safâ es-Safedî's (d. 764/1363) Taṣḥîḥü't-taṣḥîf are some of the works written in this field. are important works. Recently, some works have been written on the detection and correction of the phenomenon of laḥn in the Arabic language. Tehẕîbü'l-elfâẓi'l-'âmmiyye by Muhammad Ali ed-Dusûkî; Teẕkiretü'l-kâtib of Es'ad Halîl Dâğir, Aḫtâunâ fi's- ṣuḥûf ve'd-devâvîn of Salâhuddîn ez-Ze'balâvî; Abdulkadir al-Mağribî's Asarâtü'l-lisân fi'l-luga; Works such as Muhammad al-Adnânî's Mu'cemü'l-ağlâṭi'l-lükeviyya al-muâṣıra and Şevkî Dayf's Taḥrifâtü'l-'âmmiyye li'l-füṣḥâ are some important works that stand out in this context. are studies. The authors in question tried to prove the authentic format based on some sources, not randomly, while detecting and correcting the errors they observed. Although the quantity and quality vary from person to person, these sources are generally Arabic poetry, the Qur'an, recitations, hadiths, fluent Arabic prose, the lexical meaning of the relevant word or phrase, and Arabic grammar.

06–652Angelova, Maria (Cleveland State U, USA), Delmi Gunawardena & Dinah Volk, Peer teaching and learning: co-constructing language in a dual language first grade. Language and Education (Mutilingual Matters) 20.2 (2006), 173–190.06–653Asada, Hirofumi (Fukuoka Jogakuin U, Japan), Longitudinal effects of informal language in formal L2 instruction. JALT Journal (Japan Association for Language Teaching) 28.1 (2006), 39–56.06–654Birdsong, David (U Texas, USA), Nativelikeness and non-nativelikeness in L2A research. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching (Walter de Gruyter) 43.4 (2005), 319–328.06–655Bruen, Jennifer (Dublin City U, Ireland), Educating Europeans? Language planning and policy in higher education institutions in Ireland. Language and International Communication (Multilingual Matters) 5.3&4 (2005), 237–248.06–656Carpenter, Helen (Georgetown U, USA; carpenth@georgetown.edu), K. 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